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A
Frequency-Domain Method of
Response Analysis

PREVIEW

Presented in this appendix is the frequency-domain method for analysis of response of lin-
ear systems to excitations varying arbitrarily with time—an alternative to the time-domain
method symbolized by Duhamel’s integral (Section 4.2). We start by defining the complex
frequency-response function, which is shown to contain the steady-state responses to si-
nusoidal and cosine forces derived in Section 3.2 by classical methods. This function in
conjunction with the complex form of the Fourier series provides an alternative approach—
relative to Section 3.13—to determine the response to periodic excitation. When the ex-
citation is not periodic, it is represented by the Fourier integral that involves the Fourier
transform of the excitation. The product of this transform and the complex frequency
response function gives the direct Fourier transform of the response; the inverse Fourier
transform then gives the response as a function of time. This is known as the frequency-
domain method for analysis of dynamic response.
The direct and inverse Fourier transforms must be evaluated numerically for practi-
cal problems involving excitations varying arbitrarily with time. This numerical approach
leads to the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) method, which is the subject of the rest
of the appendix. After defining the direct and inverse discrete Fourier transforms, a
general method is developed for numerical evaluation of response, a method that became
a practical reality only with the publication of the Cooley–Tukey algorithm for the fast
Fourier transform in 1965. The errors in the DFT solution—which represents the steady-
state response to a periodic extension of the arbitrary excitation—are then examined with
the objective of understanding the requirements for the solution to be accurate. Finally, an

783
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784 Frequency-Domain Method of Response Analysis App. A

improved DFT solution is developed to determine the “exact” response from the steady-
state response by the superposition of a corrective solution.

A.1 COMPLEX FREQUENCY-RESPONSE FUNCTION

A.1.1 SDF System with Viscous Damping

Consider a viscously damped SDF system subjected to external force p(t). The equation
of motion for the system is
m ü + cu̇ + ku = p(t) (A.1.1)
The particular solution of this differential equation for harmonic force was presented in
Eqs. (3.2.3), (3.2.4), and (3.2.26). Known as the steady-state response, this solution is
repeated here for convenience. The displacement (or deformation) u(t) due to external
force p(t) = po sin ωt is
 
po 1 − (ω/ωn )2 sin ωt − [2ζ (ω/ωn )] cos ωt
u(t) =  2 (A.1.2)
k 1 − (ω/ωn )2 + [2ζ (ω/ωn )]2
and that due to p(t) = po cos ωt is
 
po 1 − (ω/ωn )2 cos ωt + [2ζ (ω/ωn )] sin ωt
u(t) =  2 (A.1.3)
k 1 − (ω/ωn )2 + [2ζ (ω/ωn )]2
Now consider the external force:
p(t) = 1eiωt or p(t) = 1(cos ωt + i sin ωt) (A.1.4)
√
where i = −1. Equation (A.1.4) is a compact representation of sinusoidal and cosine
forces, together. The steady-state response of the system will be harmonic motion at the
forcing frequency, ω, which can be expressed as
u(t) = Hu (ω)eiωt (A.1.5)
where Hu (ω) remains to be determined. To do so, we differentiate Eq. (A.1.5) to obtain
u̇(t) = iωHu (ω)eiωt ü(t) = −ω2 Hu (ω)eiωt (A.1.6)
and substitute Eqs. (A.1.5) and (A.1.6) in Eq. (A.1.1):
Hu (ω)eiωt (−ω2 m + iωc + k) = eiωt
Canceling the eiωt term from both sides of this equation gives
1
Hu (ω) =
−ω2 m + iωc + k
which can be expressed as
1 1
Hu (ω) =   (A.1.7)
k 1 − (ω/ωn ) + i [2ζ (ω/ωn )]
2
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Sec. A.1 Complex Frequency-Response Function 785

√
where ωn = k/m and ζ = c/2mωn . Recall from Chapter 2 that ωn is the natural
frequency of vibration and ζ the damping ratio of the system.
Equation (A.1.7) contains the steady-state responses to both harmonic forces p(t) =
po sin ωt and p(t) = po cos ωt defined by Eqs. (A.1.2) and (A.1.3). To demonstrate this
fact, Eq. (A.1.7) is substituted in Eq. (A.1.5), which is then manipulated to obtain (see
Derivation A.1)
u(t) = u C (t) + iu S (t) (A.1.8)
where
 
1 1 − (ω/ωn )2 cos ωt + [2ζ (ω/ωn )] sin ωt
u C (t) =  2 (A.1.9)
k 1 − (ω/ωn )2 + [2ζ (ω/ωn )]2

 
1 1 − (ω/ωn )2 sin ωt − [2ζ (ω/ωn )] cos ωt
u S (t) =  2 (A.1.10)
k 1 − (ω/ωn )2 + [2ζ (ω/ωn )]2

Observe that Eqs. (A.1.9) and (A.1.10) are identical to Eqs. (A.1.3) and (A.1.2), respec-
tively, specialized for po = 1. This implies that (1) the real part of Eq. (A.1.5) is the
response to p(t) = 1 cos ωt, the real part of the force p(t) = 1eiωt ; and (2) the imagi-
nary part of Eq. (A.1.5) is the response to p(t) = 1 sin ωt, the imaginary part of the force
p(t) = 1eiωt . This proves the assertion at the beginning of this paragraph.
Observe that Eqs. (A.1.5) and (A.1.7) are a more compact presentation of the re-
sponse to harmonic excitation, relative to Eqs. (A.1.2) and (A.1.3). Also note that the
derivation of Eq. (A.1.7) presented later in this section is simpler than that for Eqs. (A.1.2)
and (A.1.3), presented in Section 3.2. However, complex algebra is necessary to derive the
complex frequency response function, whereas classical methods provided the particular
solutions [Eqs. (A.1.2) and (A.1.3)] of the differential equation (A.1.1).
The function Hu (ω) is known as the complex frequency-response function. It de-
scribes the steady-state response of the system to the force defined by Eq. (A.1.4a), a
harmonic force of unit amplitude (i.e., po = 1). Defined by Eq. (A.1.7), Hu (ω) is a
complex-valued function of the forcing frequency and system parameters k, ωn , and ζ .
The absolute value of this complex-valued function is

|Hu (ω)| 1
=  2  2 (A.1.11)
(u st )o
1 − (ω/ωn )2 + 2ζ (ω/ωn )2

where (u st )o ≡ po /k = 1/k. Equation (A.1.11) is equivalent to Eq. (3.2.11) for the

amplitude of the steady-state response of the system to harmonic excitation, which was
plotted in Fig. 3.2.6. The real and imaginary parts of Hu (ω), denoted by Re( ) and Im( ),
respectively, are related as follows:
−Im[Hu (ω)] 2ζ (ω/ωn )
= (A.1.12)
Re[Hu (ω)] 1 − (ω/ωn )2
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786 Frequency-Domain Method of Response Analysis App. A

This equation is equivalent to Eq. (3.2.12) for the phase angle or phase lag of the response,
plotted in Fig. 3.2.6. Thus, it is clear that the complex frequency response function defines
the amplitude and phase angle of the response.
The subscript u in Hu (ω), defined by Eq. (A.1.7), denotes that this function describes
the displacement u; complex frequency-response functions can be similarly derived for
other response quantities—velocity u̇, acceleration ü, elastic resisting force f S = ku, etc.
Later, the subscript u will be dropped for convenience in notation.
Derivation A.1
Substituting Eq. (A.1.7) in Eq. (A.1.5) gives

1 1
u(t) =   eiωt (a)
k 1 − (ω/ωn )2 + i [2ζ (ω/ωn )]
 
Multiplying the numerator and denominator by 1 − (ω/ωn )2 − i [2ζ (ω/ωn )], the complex
conjugate of the denominator, and using Eq. (A.1.4) gives
 
1 1 − (ω/ωn ) − i [2ζ (ω/ωn )]
2
u(t) =  (cos ωt + i sin ωt)
k 1 − (ω/ω )2 2 + [2ζ (ω/ω )]2
(b)
n n

Multiplying the two parts of the numerator and collecting real and imaginary terms separately
leads to Eqs. (A.1.8)–(A.1.10).

A.1.2 SDF System with Rate-Independent Damping

The equation governing harmonic motion (at frequency ω) of an SDF system with rate-
independent linear damping, first presented as Eq. (3.10.3), is
ηk
m ü +
u̇ + ku = p(t) (A.1.13)
ω
The steady-state response of the system to harmonic forcing function p(t) = 1eiωt is also
given by Eq. (A.1.5). Substituting Eqs. (A.1.5) and (A.1.6a) in Eq. (A.1.13) leads to
m ü + k(1 + iη)u = p(t) (A.1.14)
The complex term k(1 + iη)u represents the elastic and damping forces together; k(1 + iη)
is often referred to as the complex stiffness of the system.
Substituting Eqs. (A.1.5) and (A.1.6b) in Eq. (A.1.14) gives
 
Hu (ω)eiωt −ω2 m + k(1 + iη) = eiωt
Canceling the eiωt term from both sides of this equation gives
1
Hu (ω) =
−ω2 m + k(1 + iη)
which can be expressed as
1 1
Hu (ω) =   (A.1.15)
k 1 − (ω/ωn )2 + iη
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Sec. A.2 Response to Periodic Excitation 787

A.2 RESPONSE TO PERIODIC EXCITATION

In Chapter 3 a procedure was developed to determine the steady-state response of an SDF

system to a periodic force. The excitation was separated into its harmonic (sine and co-
sine) components using the Fourier series (Section 3.12). Then the response to each force
component was written by adapting Eqs. (A.1.2) and (A.1.3). Finally, these responses to
individual terms in the Fourier series were combined to determine the response of a linear
system to periodic excitation (Section 3.13). The complex frequency-response function
provides an alternative approach to determine the response to periodic excitation. To de-
velop this method we first develop an alternative form for the Fourier series.

A.2.1 Complex Fourier Series

An excitation p(t) that is periodic with period T0 can be separated into its harmonic com-
ponents using the complex Fourier series:

∞
p(t) = Pj ei( jω0 t) (A.2.1)
j=−∞

where the fundamental or first harmonic in the excitation has the frequency
2π
ω0 = (A.2.2)
T0
and ω j ≡ jω0 is the circular frequency of the jth harmonic. The Fourier coefficients Pj
can be expressed in terms of p(t) because the exponential functions are orthogonal (see
Derivation A.2):
 T0
1
Pj = p(t)e−i( jω0 t) dt j = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . (A.2.3)
T0 0
The complex-valued coefficient Pj defines the amplitude and phase of the jth harmonic.
Observe that the complex Fourier series, Eqs. (A.2.1) and (A.2.3), is compact compared to
the traditional form of the Fourier series, Eqs. (3.12.1)–(3.12.5). Also note that the time
function is denoted by a lowercase letter, and the Fourier coefficients for the function by
the same letter in uppercase.
Equation (A.2.3) indicates that
P− j = Pj∗ (A.2.4)
where the superscript asterisk denotes the complex conjugate, and
 T0
1
P0 = p(t) dt (A.2.5)
T0 0
In other words, P0 is the average value of p(t).
Although the applied force p(t) is real valued, each term on the right side of
Eq. (A.2.1) is a product of a complex-valued coefficient and a complex-valued exponential
function. However, it can be shown that (1) the sum of each pair of jth and − jth terms
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788 Frequency-Domain Method of Response Analysis App. A

is real valued because of Eq. (A.2.4); and (2) the j = 0 term simplifies to P0 , which is
real valued [Eq. (A.2.5)]. Thus, the sum of all terms is real valued, as it should be for
real-valued p(t).
Alternatively, Eqs. (A.2.1) and (A.2.3) can be derived starting from the conventional
form of the Fourier series, as represented by Eqs. (3.12.1)–(3.12.5). This is achieved by
using De Moivre’s theorem, which relates the sine and cosine functions to exponential
functions with complex exponent:
1 ix 1 ix
sin x = (e − e−i x ) cos x = (e + e−i x ) (A.2.6)
2i 2
where x ≡ jω0 t. Substituting Eq. (A.2.6) into the jth term of the sine series and the jth
term of the cosine series in Eq. (3.12.1), the sum of the two terms can be expressed as
Pj ei( jω0 t) + P− j e−i( jω0 t) . These are two terms in the series of Eq. (A.2.1), indicating that it
is equivalent to Eq. (3.12.1).

A.2.2 Steady-State Response

The response of a linear sytem to a periodic force can be determined by combining the
responses to individual excitation terms in the Fourier series of Eq. (A.2.1). To deter-
mine these individual responses, we recall that the response to p(t) = 1eiωt is given by
Eq. (A.1.5), where Hu (ω) is defined by Eq. (A.1.7). Therefore, the response u j (t) of the
system to an applied force equal to the jth term in the Fourier series— p j (t) = Pj ei( jω0 t) —
is obtained by replacing ω by jω0 in Eqs. (A.1.5) and (A.1.7) and multiplying Eq. (A.1.5)
by Pj , leading to
u j (t) = U j ei( jω0 t) (A.2.7)
where
U j = H ( jω0 )Pj (A.2.8)
Adding such responses due to all excitation terms in Eq. (A.2.1) gives the total response:

∞
u(t) = H ( jω0 )Pj ei( jω0 t) (A.2.9)
j=−∞

where the Fourier coefficients Pj are defined by Eq. (A.2.3) and the complex frequency-
response function by Eq. (A.1.7) or (A.1.15). Observe that Eq. (A.2.9) is a more com-
pact presentation of the response to periodic excitation compared to the traditional form,
Eq. (3.13.6).
The procedure symbolized by Eq. (A.2.9) is known as the frequency-domain method
for analysis of structural response to periodic excitation; it is shown schematically in
Fig. A.2.1. The excitation p(t) is transformed from the time domain to the frequency
domain, where it is described by the Fourier coefficients Pj [Eq. (A.2.3)]. The response to
the jth harmonic is defined by Eq. (A.2.8) in the frequency domain. Adding the responses
to all harmonic excitations gives response u(t) in the time domain [Eq. (A.2.9)].
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Sec. A.2 Response to Periodic Excitation 789

Time Frequency
Domain Domain
Eq. (A.2.3)
p(t) Pj (ω)
Eq. (A.2.8)

Eq. (A.2.9)
u(t) Uj (ω)

Figure A.2.1 Solution of response to periodic excitation by transformation to frequency

domain.

Derivation A.2
Multiplying both sides of Eq. (A.2.1) by e−i(nω0 t) and integrating over a period, 0 to T0 gives
 T0 
∞  T0
−i(nω0 t)
p(t)e dt = Pj e−i(nω0 t) ei( jω0 t) dt (a)
0 j=−∞ 0

To evaluate Pj we note that

 T0 
0 j = n
e−i(nω0 t) ei( jω0 t) dt = (b)
0
T0 j =n
Thus all terms on the right side of Eq. (a) are equal to zero except the nth term, leading to
 T0
1
Pn = p(t)e−i(nω0 t) dt (c)
T0 0
which is identical to Eq. (A.2.3) except for a different index—n instead of j.

Example A.1
Solve Example 3.8 by the frequency-domain method.
Solution a. Determine Fourier coefficients.
 T0
1
Pj = p(t)e−i( jω0 t) dt
T0 0
  T0 /2  T0
1
= po e−i( jω0 t) dt + (− po ) e−i( jω0 t) dt
T0 0 T0 /2
− po
−i( jω0 t) T0 /2  
−i( jω0 t) T0
= e 0
− e T0 /2
(a)
i jω0 T0
To evaluate the exponential terms, we note that ω0 T0 = 2π from Eq. (A.2.2). Therefore,

+1 j even
e−i( jω0 T0 /2) = e−i( jπ ) = (b)
−1 j odd

e−i jω0 T0 = e−i(2 jπ ) = 1 (c)

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790 Frequency-Domain Method of Response Analysis App. A

Using Eqs. (b) and (c), Eq. (a) becomes

i po  −i( jπ ) 
Pj = 2e − 1 − e−i(2 jπ )
2π j
or

0 j even
Pj = −
2 po i
j odd (d)
jπ
b. Determine response.
U j = H ( jω0 )Pj (e)
where Pj is given by Eq. (d) and H ( jω0 ) for an undamped system is given by Eq. (A.1.7),
specialized for ζ = 0 and ω = jω0 :
1 1
H ( jω0 ) = (f)
k 1 − β j2

where β j = jω0 /ωn . Substituting Eqs. (d) and (f) in Eq. (e) gives
2 po i 1 1
Uj = − (g)
πk j 1 − β j2

for odd values of j; U j = 0 for even values of j. Substituting Eq. (g) in Eq. (A.2.7) gives the
response in the time domain:

∞
2 1 1
u(t) = (u st )o −i ei( jω0 t) (h)
π j=−∞ j 1 − β j2
j odd

It is of interest to compare this solution with that obtained earlier by the classical Fourier
series. Specializing Eq. (f) of Example 3.8 for undamped systems gives

4  1 1
∞
u(t) = (u st )o sin jω0 t (i)
π j 1 − β j2
j=1,3,5

We note that the complex-valued coefficients in Eq. (h) have an amplitude that is half of the
real-valued coefficients in Eq. (i). The contribution of the − j terms in the complex Fourier
series accounts for the difference.

A.3 RESPONSE TO ARBITRARY EXCITATION

A.3.1 Fourier Integral

In the preceding section we have seen that a periodic excitation can be represented by a
Fourier series as in Eqs. (3.12.1) and (A.2.1). When the excitation p(t) is not periodic, it
can be represented by the Fourier integral:
 ∞
1
p(t) = P(ω)eiωt dω (A.3.1)
2π −∞
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Sec. A.4 Relationship between Complex Frequency and Unit Impulse Responses 791

where
 ∞
P(ω) = p(t)e−iωt dt (A.3.2)
−∞
Equation (A.3.2) represents the Fourier transform (also known as the direct Fourier trans-
form) of the time function p(t), and Eq. (A.3.1) is the inverse Fourier transform of the
frequency function P(ω). The two equations together are called a Fourer transform pair.
Note that the time function is denoted by a lowercase letter, and the Fourier transform of
the function by the same letter in uppercase.
In Eq. (A.3.1) p(t) has been expressed as the superposition of harmonic functions
[P(ω)/2π]eiωt , where the complex-valued coefficient P(ω) for a given p(t) is to be deter-
mined from Eq. (A.3.2). Included in the superposition is an infinite number of harmonic
functions with their frequencies varying continuously. In contrast, a periodic function was
represented as the superposition of an infinite number of harmonic functions with discrete
frequencies jω0 , j = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . . Equations (A.3.1) and (A.3.2) can be derived
starting from the Fourier series equations (A.2.1) and (A.2.3) and letting the period T0
approach infinity.

A.3.2 Response to Arbitrary Excitation

The response of a linear system to excitation p(t) can be determined by combining the re-
sponses to individual harmonic excitation terms in the Fourier integral of Eq. (A.3.1). The
response of the system to the excitation P(ω)eiωt is given by H (ω)P(ω)eiωt . Superposing
the responses to all harmonic terms in Eq. (A.3.1) gives the total response:
 ∞
1
u(t) = U (ω)eiωt dω (A.3.3)
2π −∞
where
U (ω) = H (ω)P(ω) (A.3.4)
This is known as the frequency-domain method for analysis of structural response to arbi-
trary excitation. Equation (A.3.3) is the inverse Fourier transform of U (ω), the product of
the complex frequency-response function and the Fourier transform of the excitation.
From Eq. (A.3.2) it is clear that straightforward integration is adequate to determine
the direct Fourier transform. In contrast, contour integration in the complex plane is nec-
essary to evaluate the inverse Fourier transform of Eq. (A.3.3). This integration procedure
is not described here because rarely is it feasible analytically for structural dynamics prob-
lems arising in engineering practice.

A.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMPLEX FREQUENCY RESPONSE

AND UNIT IMPULSE RESPONSE

We digress briefly to develop the relationship between the complex frequency-response

function H (ω), introduced in the preceding sections, and the unit impulse-response func-
tion h(t), defined in Chapter 4. H (ω) describes the system response in the frequency
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792 Frequency-Domain Method of Response Analysis App. A

domain to unit harmonic excitation. h(t) describes the system response in the time domain
to a unit impulse excitation, p(t) = δ(t). For example, for a viscously damped SDF system
H (ω) is given by Eq. (A.1.7) and h(t) by Eq. (4.1.7), which is specialized for τ = 0 and
repeated here for convenience:
1 −ζ ωn t
h(t) = e sin ω D t (A.4.1)
mω D
We will demonstrate that H (ω) and h(t) are a Fourier transform pair. For this pur-
pose we will use the frequency-domain analysis procedure (Section A.3) to determine the
response to a unit impulse excitation p(t) = δ(t). Substituting this p(t) in Eq. (A.3.2)
gives the Fourier transform of the unit impulse:
 ∞
P(ω) = δ(t)e−iωt dt = 1 (A.4.2)
−∞

Substituting P(ω) = 1 in Eqs. (A.3.4) and (A.3.3) gives

 ∞
1
h(t) = H (ω)eiωt dω (A.4.3)
2π −∞

Comparing this result with the definitions of Fourier transform, Eq. (A.3.2), and inverse
Fourier transform, Eq. (A.3.1), it is clear that h(t) is the inverse Fourier transform of H (ω)
and that H (ω) is the Fourier transform of h(t):
 ∞
H (ω) = h(t)e−iωt dt (A.4.4)
−∞

Observe that the choice of symbol h to represent the unit impulse response and H to denote
the complex frequency response conforms to our selected notations for a Fourier transform
pair.

A.5 DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM METHODS

The frequency-domain analysis of the dynamic response of structures developed in Sec-

tion A.3 requires that the Fourier transform of p(t), Eq. (A.3.2), and the inverse Fourier
transform of U (ω), Eq. (A.3.3), both be determined. Analytical evaluation of these direct
and inverse Fourier transforms is not possible except for excitations described by simple
functions applied to simple structural systems. These integrals must be evaluated numeri-
cally for excitations varying arbitrarily with time, complex vibratory systems, or situations
where the complex frequency response (or unit impulse response) is described numerically.
Numerical evaluation requires truncating these integrals over infinite range to a finite range,
and becomes equivalent to approximating the arbitrarily time-varying excitation p(t) by a
periodic function. We develop these ideas next.
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Sec. A.5 Discrete Fourier Transform Methods 793

A.5.1 Discretization of Excitation

The system is excited by a force p(t) of duration td , as shown in Fig. A.5.1. Our objective
is to determine the resulting displacement u(t) of the system, which is presumed to be ini-
tially at rest. Since the peak (or absolute maximum) response of the system may be attained
after the excitation has ended, the analysis should be carried out over a time duration T0
that is longer than td . If the peak occurs after the excitation has ended, it will be attained
in the first half-cycle of free vibration because the motion will decay in subsequent cycles
due to damping. Therefore, we should choose
Tn
T0 ≥ td + (A.5.1)
2

t
0 1 2 n
N–1

tn = n ∆t
td
T0 = N ∆t
Figure A.5.1 Excitation p(t) and its
discretized version.

The forcing function p(t) over the time duration T0 is sampled at N equally spaced
time instants, numbered from 0 to N − 1 (Fig. A.5.1). The sampling interval is denoted by
t; thus

T0 = N t (A.5.2)

The forcing function p(t) is then defined by a set of discrete values pn ≡ p(tn ) ≡ p(n t),
shown as the series of dots in Fig. A.5.1.
The sampling interval t should be short enough compared both to the periods of
significant harmonics in the excitation and to the natural period Tn of the system. The first
requirement ensures accurate representation of the excitation and of the forced vibrational
component of the response, and the second requirement ensures accurate representation
of the free vibrational response component. The latter requirement also ensures accurate
representation of the response of lightly damped SDF systems to broad frequency-band
excitations such as most ground motions recorded during earthquakes; recall that the dom-
inant period of such response is Tn (Fig. 6.4.1).
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794 Frequency-Domain Method of Response Analysis App. A

A.5.2 Fourier Series Representation of Excitation

Consider a periodic extension of the excitation, with its period defined as T0 [Eq. (A.5.1)],
shown schematically in Fig. A.5.2. Starting with the complex Fourier series equations
(Section A.2), the array pn describing the discretized forcing function can be expressed
(see Derivation A.3) as a superposition of N harmonic functions:

N −1 
N −1
pn = Pj ei( jω0 tn ) = Pj ei(2π n j/N ) (A.5.3)
j=0 j=0

in which ω0 = 2π/T0 , the frequency of the fundamental or first harmonic in the periodic
extension of p(t); jω0 is the circular frequency of the jth harmonic; and Pj is a complex-
valued coefficient that defines the amplitude and phase of the jth harmonic. Pj can be
expressed (see Derivation A.3) as
1 N −1
1 
N −1
Pj = pn e−i( jω0 tn ) t = pn e−i(2π n j/N ) (A.5.4)
T0 n=0 N n=0
Equations (A.5.3) and (A.5.4) define a discrete Fourier transform (DFT) pair; the array
Pj is the DFT of the excitation sequence pn , and the array pn is the inverse DFT of the
sequence Pj .

t
td tf
T0 T0

Figure A.5.2 Periodic extension of p(t).

The continuous and discrete Fourier transforms differ in an important way. Whereas
the continuous transform [Eq. (A.3.1)] is a true representation of the excitation function,
the discrete transform [Eq. (A.5.3)] represents only a periodic version of the function. The
implication of this distinction will be discussed later.
Observe that only positive frequencies are considered in Eqs. (A.5.3); therefore, we
call this a one-sided Fourier expansion. In contrast, the original Eq. (A.2.1) is a two-
sided Fourier expansion containing positive and negative frequencies. Just as the negative
frequencies have no physical significance in the two-sided expansion, the frequencies cor-
responding to N /2 < j ≤ N − 1 have no physical significance; they are the counterparts
of the negative frequencies. If the summation in Eq. (A.2.1) were truncated to go from
j = −N /2 to N /2, ω would extend from −ω N /2 to ω N /2 . Thus, ω N /2 also defines the
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frequency of the highest harmonic included in Eq. (A.5.3). Denoted also by ωmax , this
frequency is known as the Nyquist frequency or folding frequency and is given by
N π
ωmax =
ω0 = (A.5.5)
2 t
where the frequency ω0 of the fundamental or first harmonic is defined in Eq. (A.2.2)
which, together with Eq. (A.5.2), gives the second half of Eq. (A.5.5). The shortest and
longest periods of the harmonics included in the Fourier expansion are determined from
Eqs. (A.5.5) and (A.2.2) to be 2t and T0 , respectively.
Recall that in the two-sided Fourier expansion Pj and P− j were complex conjugates
of each other [Eq. (A.2.4)]. Consequently, in the one-sided expansion the values of Pj on
either side of ω N /2 are complex conjugates of each other:
N
Pj = PN∗ − j < j ≤ N −1 (A.5.6)
2

A.5.3 Complex Frequency Response Function

This function H (ω) is computed from Eq. (A.1.7) or (A.1.15) for each ω = ω j , and this
value is denoted by Hj . A two-sided Fourier expansion includes both positive and nega-
tive frequencies ω j and −ω j [Eq. (A.2.1)] and H− j is the complex conjugate of Hj ; this
assertion can be easily proven starting from Eq. (A.1.7). In a one-sided Fourier expan-
sion only positive frequencies are included [Eq. (A.5.3)]; the frequencies corresponding to
N /2 < j ≤ N − 1 are the counterparts of the negative frequencies. Thus, the values of Hj
on either side of j = N /2 must be complex conjugates of each other. The Hj values may
be determined from Eq. (A.1.7) with the following interpretation of ω j :

jω0 0 ≤ j ≤ N /2
ωj = (A.5.7)
−(N − j)ω0 N /2 < j ≤ N − 1

A.5.4 Computation of Response

In the DFT approach we first compute the response to each harmonic component of the
excitation in the frequency domain. As seen in Eq. (A.2.8), this requires computation of
the products
U j = Hj Pj 0≤ j ≤ N −1 (A.5.8)

Then, the response u n ≡ u(tn ) at discrete time instants tn ≡ n t is computed from a

truncated version of Eq. (A.2.9):


N −1 
N −1
un = U j ei( jω0 tn ) = U j ei(2π n j/N ) (A.5.9)
j=0 j=0

Equation (A.5.9) corresponds to Eq. (A.5.3), indicating that the sequence u n represents the
inverse DFT of the sequence U j . This will be called the classical DFT solution.
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796 Frequency-Domain Method of Response Analysis App. A

A.5.5 Fast Fourier Transform

The DFT method to determine the dynamic response of a system requires computation of
the direct DFT of the sequence pn [Eq. (A.5.4)] and the inverse DFT of the sequence U j
[Eq. (A.5.9)]. These computations became a practical reality only with the publication of
the Cooley–Tukey algorithm for the fast Fourier transform (FFT) in 1965. This is not a
new type of transform, but is a highly efficient and accurate algorithm for computing the
DFT and the inverse DFT. The original algorithm required that the number of points, N ,
be an integer power of 2, but it has been generalized to permit consideration of an arbitrary
value of N .
It is important to recognize that the computational effort required is drastically re-
duced by use of the FFT algorithm. A measure of the amount of computation involved
in Eq. (A.5.4) or (A.5.9) is the number of products of complex-valued quantities. It is
clear that there are N sums, each of which requires N complex products, or there are N 2
products required for computing all of the Pj ’s or all of the u n ’s. The number of com-
plex products for the original FFT algorithm is given by (N /2) log2 N . For example, if
N = 210 = 1024, the FFT algorithm requires 0.5% of the computational effort necessary
in standard computation.

Derivation A.3
The periodic extension of p(t) with period T0 is represented by the Fourier series of Eq. (A.2.1),
with the Fourier coefficients defined by Eq. (A.2.3). Truncating the series to include only a
finite number of harmonic functions gives


M
p(t) = Pj ei( jω0 t) (a)
j=−M

The frequency of the highest harmonic included in Eq. (a) is Mω0 .

The integral of Eq. (A.2.3) is evaluated numerically by the trapezoidal rule applied to
the values of the integrand at discrete time instants tn = n t, where n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N :
 
t 1 
N −1
1
Pj = p0 e−i( jω0 t0 ) + pn e−i( jω0 tn ) + p N e−i( jω0 t N ) (b)
T0 2 2
n=1

where t0 = 0 t = 0, tn = n t, and t N = N t. The first term reduces to p0 /2 and the last
term to p N /2 because both exponentials can be shown to equal unity. Because the sequence
pn is periodic with period N , p0 = p N , and recognizing that T0 = N t, Eq. (b) can be
rewritten as

1 
N −1
Pj = pn e−i( jω0 tn ) (c)
N
n=0

Now the exponential terms in Eqs. (a) and (c) are rewritten by recognizing that ω0 = 2π/T0 ,
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T0 = N t, and tn = n t; thus

2π 2πn j
jω0 tn = j n t = (d)
N t N
Recall that j is the frequency number of the harmonic and n is the time step number. Substi-
tuting Eq. (d) in Eqs. (a) and (c) gives


M
pn = Pj ei(2π n j/N ) (e)
j=−M

1 
N −1
Pj = pn e−i(2π n j/N ) (f)
N
n=0

Suppose that we select the large positive integers M and N such that 2M + 1 = N (i.e.,
the number of frequencies is equal to the number of time steps). Then the sequence Pj is also
periodic with period N and the summation in Eq. (e) over the range j = −M to j = M
can be rewritten as a summation over the range j = 0 to N − 1, which is presented without
proof:


N −1
pn = Pj ei(2π n j/N ) (g)
j=0

This completes the derivation of Eqs. (A.5.3) and (A.5.4).

A.6 POSSIBLE ERRORS IN CLASSICAL DFT SOLUTION

It should be clear that the classical DFT solution given by Eq. (A.5.9) does not generally
represent the desired response of the system to the excitation shown in Fig. A.5.1. Instead,
it represents the steady-state response of the system to a periodic extension of the excitation
(Fig. A.5.2). In this section we examine the errors in the classical DFT solution, with the
objective of understanding the requirements for the solution to be accurate. The classical
DFT solution will become increasingly accurate as the duration t f of free vibration, shown
in Fig. A.5.2, becomes longer. This assertion should be obvious because longer t f implies
longer period T0 of the periodic extension of the excitation, which is better because an
arbitrary (nonperiodic) excitation can be interpreted as a periodic excitation with infinitely
long period. However, to identify the factors that influence the t f necessary for an accurate
solution, we present numerical results.
It is desired to determine the dynamic response of a viscously damped SDF system,
starting from at-rest conditions, to one full cycle of a sinusoidal force, p(t) = po sin ωt,
shown in Fig. A.6.1. As mentioned in Section A.5.1, the dynamic response of the sys-
tem should be determined over the time duration T0 = td + Tn /2 or longer—thus, the
shortest t f = Tn /2. However, DFT solutions with longer t f will also be presented to
demonstrate the sensitivity of these solutions to the choice of t f . With a selected t f , the
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798 Frequency-Domain Method of Response Analysis App. A

p
po

t
td

−p o
Figure A.6.1

1
p(t)/po

(a) 0

−1 tf
td
T0 T0

1.5
1
0.5
u(t)/(ust)o

(b) 0
−0.5
−1
−1.5 0 5 10
0 5 10 t/td 0
Figure A.6.2 (a) Periodic extension of p(t) with t f = 4.75Tn (i.e., T0 = 10.5td );
(b) response determined by classical DFT method; td /Tn = 0.5; ζ = 5%.

periodic extension of the excitation is sampled over one period at intervals t = td /40,
and the response is evaluated at the same intervals. Thus, the circular frequency of the
highest harmonic in the Fourier series representation of the forcing function [Eq. (A.5.3)]
will be ωmax = 40π/td [from Eq. (A.5.5)] and the associated period is td /20. All
DFTs in these solutions that will be presented were computed by the FFT routines in
MATLAB.
In Figs. A.6.2 and A.6.3 are shown the periodic extension of the excitation and the
displacement response of the system computed by the classical DFT method using two
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Sec. A.6 Possible Errors in Classical DFT Solution 799

1

p(t)/po
(a) 0

−1 tf
td
T0 T0

1.5
1
0.5
u(t)/(ust)o

(b) 0
−0.5
−1
−1.5 0 10 20
0 10 20 t/td 0

Figure A.6.3 (a) Periodic extension of p(t) with t f = 9.75Tn (i.e., T0 = 20.5td );
(b) response determined by classical DFT method; td /Tn = 0.5; ζ = 5%.

different values of t f . The duration td of the force and the natural vibration period Tn of the
system are chosen such that td /Tn = 0.5; the damping ratio ζ of the system is 5%. The time
scale on the response history plots is normalized with respect to td , and the displacement
u(t) is normalized with respect to (u st )o ≡ po /k, the static displacement due to the peak
value of the applied force. The results demonstrate that the DFT solution depends on
the duration t f of free vibration. It is clear from Fig. A.6.2 that t f = 4.75Tn , which
implies T0 = 10.5td , does not provide a large enough number of cycles for free vibration
(during t > td ) of the system to damp out, leaving significant displacement and velocity
at the end of the period T0 , thus violating the at-rest initial conditions. Therefore, the DFT
solution cannot be expected to be accurate. Figure A.6.3 demonstrates that t f = 9.75Tn ,
which implies T0 = 20.5td , provides an adequate number of cycles for free vibration
of the system to damp out to small motion at the end of the period T0 , thus essentially
satisfying the at-rest initial conditions. Therefore, the DFT solution is expected to be
accurate.
These expectations are confirmed by the results presented in Fig. A.6.4, where the
DFT solutions using several different values of t f are compared with the exact solution.
The exact solution was obtained by solving the equation of motion by the methods devel-
oped in Section 4.8. Although the response was determined by the DFT method for the
period of the extended forcing function T0 = td + t f , only its initial part over the desired
duration td + Tn /2 is plotted. The results clearly show that unless t f is quite long, the DFT
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800 Frequency-Domain Method of Response Analysis App. A

5 tf = 0.5Tn 1.5 tf = 1.75Tn

DFT

u(t)/(ust)o
Exact
0 0

−5 −1.5

1.5 tf = 0.75Tn 1.5 tf = 5Tn

u(t)/(ust)o

0 0

−1.5 −1.5

1.5 tf = Tn 1.5 tf = 10Tn

u(t)/(ust)o

0 0

−1.5 −1.5

2.5 tf = 1.5Tn 1.5 tf = 20Tn

u(t)/(ust)o

0 0

−2.5 −1.5
0 1 2 0 1 2
t/t t/t
d d
Figure A.6.4 Comparison of DFT solutions using different values of t f with the exact
response; td /Tn = 0.5; ζ = 5%.

solution may differ significantly from the exact solution. For the example considered with
td /Tn = 0.5 and ζ = 5%, the errors are noticeable in Fig. A.6.4 even for t f = 10Tn , but
become negligible for t f = 20Tn .
The duration t f of free vibration necessary to obtain an accurate DFT solution is
controlled by the number of cycles necessary for free vibration to decay to essentially zero
displacement and velocity. More cycles are necessary for the motion of lightly damped
systems to decay sufficiently (see Fig. 2.2.4). This implies that if t f is chosen as a fixed
multiple of Tn , the error in the DFT solution is expected to be larger for lightly damped
systems. The DFT and exact solutions for systems with ζ = 1% are plotted in Fig. A.6.5
for several different choices of t f . Comparison of Fig. A.6.5 with Fig. A.6.4 demonstrates
that for each t f /Tn value, the DFT solution is less accurate for systems with 1% damping
compared to systems with 5% damping. Thus, to keep the errors in the DFT solution
below some selected tolerance limit, longer t f would be necessary for systems with less
damping.
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Sec. A.7 Improved DFT Solution 801

25 tf = 0.5Tn 1.5 tf = 1.75Tn

DFT

u(t)/(ust)o
Exact
0 0

−25 −1.5

1.5 tf = 0.75Tn 1.5 tf = 5Tn

u(t)/(ust)o

0 0

−1.5 −1.5

1.5 tf = Tn 1.5 tf = 10Tn

u(t)/(ust)o

0 0

−1.5 −1.5

15 tf = 1.5Tn 1.5 tf = 20Tn

u(t)/(ust)o

0 0

−15 −1.5
0 1 2 0 1 2
t/t t/t
d d
Figure A.6.5 Comparison of DFT solutions using different values of t f with the exact
response; td /Tn = 0.5; ζ = 1%.

A.7 IMPROVED DFT SOLUTION

We have demonstrated in Section A.6 that the DFT solution may err significantly unless
the duration t f of free vibration included in the periodic extension of the excitation is
sufficiently long. t f should be selected as a multiple of the natural vibration period Tn of
the system. This multiple depends on the damping ratio of the system and the accuracy
desired in the DFT solution. Thus, the DFT computations have to be implemented for a
periodic extension of the excitation with period T0 longer than the duration td + Tn /2 over
which the response is desired; T0 must be much longer than td + Tn /2 for lightly damped
systems, especially systems with long period of vibration. Consider, for example, a system
with Tn = 10 sec and ζ = 5%, for which t f = 20Tn is necessary to achieve sufficient
accuracy in the classical DFT solution. If the duration of the excitation, td , is 30 sec, the
response should be computed for T0 = td + 20Tn = 30 + 20(10) = 230 sec, whereas
we really need the response only for td + Tn /2 = 35 sec. Improved procedures have been
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802 Frequency-Domain Method of Response Analysis App. A

developed to avoid the additional, seemingly unnecessary computational effort required in

the classical DFT solution.
In the improved method the period of the periodic extension of the excitation is
equal to the duration over which the response of the system is actually desired (i.e., T0 =
td + Tn /2); the steady-state response ũ(t) over this period is computed by the classical DFT
method;† and the “exact” response u(t) is obtained from the steady-state response by the
superposition of a corrective solution υ(t):
u(t) = ũ(t) + υ(t) (A.7.1)
Suppose that the response u(t) to a given forcing function p(t) is to be determined for
a system starting with u(0) = 0 and u̇(0) = 0. However, as shown in Fig. A.6.2, the
classical DFT solution does not satisfy those initial conditions. Since the excitation over
the period T0 for both the DFT and exact responses is the same, the difference in the two
solutions shown in Fig. A.6.3 must stem from differences in the initial states of the two
motions. Therefore, the corrective solution is simply the free vibrational solution, which
ensures that the initial displacement and velocity of the desired motion conforms to the
prescribed initial conditions. If the initial displacement and velocity associated with the
DFT solution are ũ(0) and ũ(0),˙ which are generally nonzero, the corrective solution is
˙
the free vibrational response due to initial displacement −ũ(0) and initial velocity −ũ(0).
This corrective solution for systems with viscous damping is then given by Eq. (2.2.4) with
appropriate changes in notation:
   
˙
−ũ(0) − ζ ωn ũ(0)
−ζ ωn t
υ(t) = e −ũ(0) cos ω D t + sin ω D t (A.7.2)
ωD
where

ω D = ωn 1 − ζ 2 (A.7.3)
This improved procedure is illustrated by applying it to determine the response of
an SDF system with ζ = 5% subjected to the one cycle of sinusoidal force of duration td
considered previously (Fig. A.6.1). The system is presumed to be initially at rest and its
natural period Tn = td /1.4. The response is evaluated for a duration T0 = td + Tn /2 =
1.4Tn + 0.5Tn = 1.9Tn . The sampling interval is chosen as before, t = td /40. Obtained
by the classical DFT procedure, the steady-state displacement ũ(t) is shown in Fig. A.7.1.
The initial value of this displacement is ũ(0) = 2.486(u st )o , and the initial velocity‡ is

† From this point on, the classical DFT solution is denoted by ũ(t) to distinguish it from the “exact” solu-

tion u(t).
‡ The initial velocity is given by

4π 
N /2
ũ˙ = − j Im(U j ) (A.7.4)
T0
j=0

in which Im(U j ) denotes the imaginary part of U j . Equation (A.7.4) is obtained by differentiating Eq. (A.5.9),
making use of the facts that jω 0 = 2πj/T0 and the values of U j for j = N /2 + 1, N /2 + 2, . . . , N − 1 are
the complex conjugates of those for j = N /2 − 1, N /2 − 2, . . . , 1, respectively.
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Sec. A.8 Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 803

4 ~
u(t)/(ust)o υ(t)/(ust)o
3 u(t)/(ust)o
Normalized displacement 2

1
0
−1

−2

−3

−4
0 0.5 1 1.5
t/td
Figure A.7.1 Steady-state response ũ(t), corrective solution υ(t), and “exact” response
u(t); td /Tn = 1.4 (i.e., T0 = 1.9Tn ); and ζ = 5% [adapted from Veletsos and Ventura
(1985)].

˙
ũ(0) ˙
= −1.761ωn (u st )o . Substituting these values of ũ(0) and ũ(0) in Eq. (A.7.2) gives
the corrective solution υ(t) shown in Fig. A.7.1. Determined by combining ũ(t) and υ(t)
according to Eq. (A.7.1), the desired “exact” response is also shown in Fig. A.7.1. It is
essentially identical to the analytical solution obtained by solving the differential equation
of motion by the methods of Section 4.8.

A.8 MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS

The improved DFT procedure can be readily extended to determine the response of MDF
systems for which the classical mode superposition method is applicable. As shown in
Chapters 12 and 13, the equations of motion for classically damped systems can be trans-
formed to a set of uncoupled equations in modal coordinates, as many equations as the
number of DOFs in the system. Each modal equation is of the same form as the equation
governing the motion of an SDF system. Therefore, each modal equation can be solved
by the classical DFT method and combined with the corrective solution described in Sec-
tion A.7 to determine the modal responses accurately. Thus, the frequency-domain method
can be used to determine modal responses (step 3a of Section 12.5), but the remaining steps
in the modal analysis procedure remain unchanged.
Researchers have also developed DFT procedures for analysis of nonclassically
damped systems with either constant or frequency-dependent parameters. The latter situa-
tion arises in dynamic analysis of structures, including effects of soil–structure interaction
or fluid–structure interaction.
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804 Frequency-Domain Method of Response Analysis App. A

FURTHER READING

Bergland, G. D., “A Guided Tour of the Fast Fourier Transform,” IEEE Spectrum, 6, 1969, pp. 41–52.
Blackwell, R., The Fourier Transform and Its Applications, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978, pp. 232–
236.
Brigham, E. O., The Fast Fourier Transform, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1974.
Clough, R. W., and Penzien, J., Dynamics of Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1993, Chapters 4,
6, and 12.
Cooley, J. W., and Tukey, J. W., “An Algorithm for the Machine Calculation of Complex Fourier
Series,” Mathematics of Computation, 19, 1965, pp. 297–301.
Humar, J. L., Dynamics of Structures, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1990, Chapter 9.
Veletsos, A. S., and Ventura, C. E., “Dynamic Analysis of Structures by the DFT Method,” Journal
of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 111, 1985, pp. 2625–2642.