GLASS TUBE ROTAMETERS

1) The basic rotameter is the glass tube indicating-type. The tube is precision formed of borosilicate
glass, and the float is precisely machined from metal, glass or plastic. The metal float is usually
made of stainless steel to provide corrosion resistance. The float has a sharp metering edge where
the reading is observed by means of a scale mounted alongside the tube. End fittings and
connections of various materials and styles are available. The important elements are the tube and
float, often called the tube-and-float combination, because it is this portion of the rotameter which
provides the measurement. In fact, similar glass tube and stainless steel float combinations are
generally available, regardless of the type of case or end fittings the application can demand.. The
scale of the rotameter can be calibrated for direct reading of air or water, or it may have a scale to
read a percent of range or an arbitrary scale to be used with conversion equations or charts. Safety-
shielded glass tube rotameters are in general use throughout industry for measuring both liquids
and gases. They provide flow capacities to about 60 GPM, and are manufactured with end fittings
of metal or plastic to meet the chemical characteristics of the fluid being metered. The only fluids
for which these meters are not suited are those which attack glass metering tubes, such as water
over 90°C (194°F), with its high pH which softens glass; wet steam, which has the same effect;
caustic soda, which dissolves glass; and hydrofluoric acid, which etches glass. The primary
limitations of general purpose rotameters are the pressure and temperature limits of the glass
metering tube. Small, 6 mm (1/4") tubes are suitable for working pressures up to 500 psig, but the
operating pressure for a large 51 mm (2") tube may be as low as 100 psig. The practical temperature
limit for glass rotameters is 204°C (400°F), although operation at such high temperatures
substantially reduces the operating pressure of the meter. In general, there is a linear relationship
between the operating temperature and pressure.

2) Glass Tube Rotameter are intended for general in line and By-Pass metering applications (i.e. for
Gas & Liquid) where operating conditions are with the limitations of Glass metering tubes. These
are the principle of Variable Area. The float moves freely up and down tapered borosilicate glass
with fluid flow from bottom to top. The float takes up a position where buoyancy forces and the
float weight are balanced in proportion to flow rate. The Vertical position of the float as indicated
by scale is the measure of the instantaneous flow rate.

3) Glass Tube Rotameters. With a tapered metering tube made of borosilicate glass, this was the
original rotameter. Introduced in the mid-1940s, it is referred to as a "general-purpose" rotameter.
 Because the float is normally visible in the tube, the meter shows flow rate readings directly on
scale graduations on the glass surface.

4) Glass tube rotameters are typically used for simple but reliable indication of flow rate with a high
level of repeatability. Alarm contacts can be easily added to provide high-, and/or low-flow signals,
in which the contact is activated as the flow rate either drops below or rises above the set point.
Linear scale graduations can be an arbitrary 0%–100% for the meter range. Calibration can be direct
reading in terms of a specific gas or liquid, or a graph that plots meter readings vs. flow rates in
terms of the fluid being measured. Such graphs make it easy to adapt a meter to handle fluids other
than those for which it was bought; changeover is simply a matter of having a different conversion
chart designed for the new fluid. The meter assembly's metal body is rigidly constructed to maintain
tube alignment. The various types of end fittings provide process pipe connections, either threaded
female or flanged. O-rings or packing glands at either end of the tube seal it to the end fittings.
Some designs provide for easy removal of the glass tube for cleaning or range change without
pulling the meter from the pipeline. Linear scale graduations can be an arbitrary 0%–100% for the
meter range. Calibration can be direct reading in terms of a specific gas or liquid, or a graph that
plots meter readings vs. flow rates in terms of the fluid being measured. Such graphs make it easy
to adapt a meter to handle fluids other than those for which it was bought; changeover is simply a
matter of having a different conversion chart designed for the new fluid. The meter assembly's
metal body is rigidly constructed to maintain tube alignment. The various types of end fittings
provide process pipe connections, either threaded female or flanged. O-rings or packing glands at
either end of the tube seal it to the end fittings. Some designs provide for easy removal of the glass
tube for cleaning or range change without pulling the meter from the pipeline.

METAL TUBE ROTAMETER

1) Metal Tube Rotameters. These devices, also known as armored meters, are designed for
applications where the temperature or pressure exceeds the limits of glass tubes. Flow rate is
indicated by a pointer on an indicating scale by means of a magnet inside the float, magnetically
linked to the pointer. Designed for indication only, metal tube meters require no external source of
electric power. They may also be specified in applications requiring remote transmission of the
measured flow rate, a feature not generally available with glass tube meters.
2) Metal tube rotameters are generally made of corrosion-resistant type 316 stainless steel. They are
well suited to measuring steam flow where conditions or regulations prevent the use of glass, and
useful as well where the nature of the fluid would preclude reading a float position.

3) For higher pressures and temperatures beyond the practical range of glass tubes, metal tubes are
used. These are usually manufactured in aluminim, brass or stainless steel. The position of the
piston is determined by magnetic or mechanical followers that can be read from the outside of the
metal metering tube. Similar to glass tube rotameters, the spring-and-piston combination
determines the flowrate, and the fittings and materials of construction must be chosen so as to
satisfy the demands of the applications. These meters are used for services where high operating
pressure or temperature, water hammer, or other forces would damage glass metering tubes. Spring
and piston flowmeters can be used for most fluids, including corrosive liquids and gases. They are
particularly well suited for steam applications, where glass tubes are unacceptable.

4) Metal tubes – typically made of aluminum, brass or stainless steel – can be used for higher
temperatures and pressures. Since they are not transparent, mechanical or magnetic followers on
the outside of the tube are used to determine the float position; here, the spring-and-piston
combination determines the flowrate. End-fittings and other materials are chosen dependent on the
application to avoid corrosion or damage. Typically they can be used for corrosive liquids that
attack glass tubes, in cases where water hammer due to flows that suddenly start or stop is
important, or under higher temperatures or pressures such as those associated with steam, which
can destroy glass rotameters. Examples of fluids for which metal-tube rotameters are ideal include
hot and strong alkalis, fluorine, hydrofluoric acid, hot water, steam, slurries, sour gas, additives,
and molten metals. They can operate at pressures up to 750 psig, temperatures to 540 °C (1,000
°F), and can measure flows up to 4,000 gpm of water or 1,300 scfm of air. Metal-tube rotameters
can be used as flow transmitters, with analog or digital controls; they can detect the float position
through magnetic coupling. This then moves a pointer in a magnetic helix to give an external
indication of the float position. Transmitters often use microprocessors to provide alarms and pulse
outputs for measuring and transmitting the fluid flow.

5) Variable Area Flowmeter measures volumetric flow rate of liquid and gases that operates on the
float principle. It features a tapered metal tube, in which a float is allowed to move freely up and
down. The float reaches a stable position when the upward force exerting by the flowing liquid
equals the weight of the float. The float position is transmitted by a magnetic coupling system to
 the scale. The rotational movement of the follower magnet system transmitted to the indicator is
linearised and the flow rate is indicated directly on the scale.

PLASTIC TUBE ROTAMETER

1) Plastic Tube Rotameters. Plastic tube rotameters can be an entirely suitable, very cost-effective
alternative to glass or metal meters for a wide variety of fluid measurements. One popular model
is made of a single piece of clear acrylic that is practically unbreakable in most industrial process
applications. Often used as a purgemeter, this type is a low-cost, reliable solution for many OEM
applications.

2) Plastic tubes are also used in some rotameter designs due to their lower cost and high impact
strength. They are typically constructed of polycarbonate, with either metal or plastic end fittings.
With plastic end fittings, care must be taken in installation, not to distort the threads. Rotameters
with all plastic construction are available for applications where metal wetted parts cannot be
tolerated, such as with deionized water or corrosives.

DEFINITION OF OPERATING PRESSURE FOR VARIABLE AREA FLOWMETERS

1) The term ”Operating Pressure” is defined as the pressure which exists in the meter tube of the
flowmeter. This pressure is usually identical to the pressure immediately downstream of the
flowmeter. The pressure drop through the flowmeter can be ignored.

2) An operating pressure is the amount of internal force applied to the walls of some type of
pressure vessel during normal conditions. When a system is at its operating pressure, it
is generally running at optimum performance. Failure to maintain operating pressure could
result in failure of the entire pressurized system.

3) Operating pressure is typically defined as a range for most pressurized systems. Depending on the
how critical the application is, the pressure range could be very small. Generally speaking, it is
detrimental to the system if its pressure is above or below the operating pressure range. If the
pressure of a system is below its operating pressure range, it will most likely not operate at all
because it lacks the energy to perform its intended function. If the pressure of a system is above its
operating pressure range it can end in system failure. Safety equipment is often installed for when
 a system falls out of its operating pressure range. Examples include pressure sensors that alert
personnel when the pressure has shifted and pressure relief valves that open when the pressure
becomes too great so that complete system failure does not occur. These valves will typically be
set just above the maximum allowable operating pressure.

4) Maximum allowable operating pressure or MAOP refers to the wall strength of a pressurized
cylinder such as a pipeline or storage tank and how much pressure the walls may safely hold in
normal operation. The MAOP is less than the MAWP (maximum allowable working pressure).
MAWP being the maximum pressure based on the design codes that the weakest component of a
pressure vessel can handle. Commonly standard wall thickness components are used in fabricating
pressurized equipment, and hence are able to withstand pressures above their design pressure.
Design pressure is the maximum pressure a pressurized item can be exposed to. Due to the
availability of standard wall thickness materials, many components will have a MAWP higher than
the required design pressure. Relief valves are set at the design pressure of the pressurized item and
sized to prevent the item under pressure from being over-pressurized.
NEEDLE VALVE

1)

2) A needle valve is a type of valve having a small port and a threaded, needle-shaped plunger. It
allows precise regulation of flow, although it is generally only capable of relatively low flow rates.

3) An instrument needle valve uses a tapered pin to gradually open a space for fine control of flow.
The flow can be controlled and regulated with the use of a spindle. A needle valve has a relatively
small orifice with a long, tapered seat, and a needle-shaped plunger on the end of a screw, which
exactly fits the seat.
As the screw is turned and the plunger retracted, flow between the seat and the plunger is possible;
however, until the plunger is completely retracted, the fluid flow is significantly impeded. Since it
 takes many turns of the fine-threaded screw to retract the plunger, precise regulation of the flow
rate is possible.
The virtue of the needle valve is from the vernier effect of the ratio between the needle's length and
its diameter, or the difference in diameter between needle and seat. A long travel axially (the control
input) makes for a very small and precise change radially (affecting the resultant flow). Needle
valves may also be used in vacuum systems, when a precise control of gas flow is required, at low
pressure, such as when filling gas-filled vacuum tubes, gas lasers and similar devices.

4) https://www.cpvmfg.com/news/how-does-a-needle-valve-work/

5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needle_valve