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Composition
and Origin of
Hawaiian Lavas
GORDON A . MACDONALD
Hawaii Institute of Geophysics, University of Hawaii, Honolulu
ABSTRACT
New chemical analyses for major elements in 76 Hawaiian rocks are pre-
sented and bring the total number of such modern analyses to about 470.
Many determinations of minor elements also are becoming available. Hawaiian
petrology is discussed against this total background. The three major rock
suites, tholeiitic, alkalic, and nephelinic, are chemically intergradational. The
main mass of the volcanoes is tholeiitic, followed by a relatively small volume
(generally less than 1 percent) of alkalic lavas; the two types of lavas are
interbedded in a thin transitional zone. The nephelinic lavas are separated
from the others by a long time interval that is marked by a profound erosional
unconformity.
Variations within the rock suites are largely the result of crystal differen-
tiation. All three rock suites probably are derived from a single type of parent
magma, which varies slightly from one volcanic center to another, of olivine
tholeiite composition. Crystallization of this magma in shallow magma cham-
bers leads to eruptible magmas of tholeiitic composition. In the last stages of
volcanism, consolidation of the upper part of the magma body leads to crys-
tallization at deeper levels under higher pressure and to production of alkalic
magmas. Finally, crystallization at depths of several tens of kilometers pro-
duces nephelinic magmas that are erupted after a long period of volcanic
quiescence.
477
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CONTENTS
Introduction -478
Hawaiian petrographic suites 479
Ultramafic inclusions 483
The chemical analyses 486
Discussion of chemical data 497
Origin and diversification of Hawaiian magmas 509
The parent magma 509
Origin of the alkalic and nephelinic suites 512
Diversification within suites 516
Conclusions 518
Acknowledgments ... 519
References cited .519
Figure
1. Alkali: silica diagram of Hawaiian rocks 481
2. Abundance of titania in relation to soda in Hawaiian rocks 504
3. Abundance of P 2 O s in relation to N a 2 0 in Hawaiian rocks 504
4. AFM diagram of all Hawaiian volcanic rocks 506
5. Von Wolff diagram of all Hawaiian volcanic rocks 507
6. Von Wolff diagram showing trend lines of the Hawaiian rock suites 508
7. Alkali: silica diagram showing variational trends of Hawaiian rock suites
and fractionation trends found in the laboratory 514
Table
1. Lavas of the upper member of the Waianae volcano, Oahu 488
2. Lavas of West Maui and Molokai 490
3. Lavas of Mauna Kea and Kohala 493
4. Lavas of Hualalai volcano 495
5. Lavas of the Honolulu volcanic series, Oahu, and the Kiekie volcanic
series, Niihau 496
6. Miscellaneous tholeiitic lavas 498
7. Rocks of the Koloa volcanic series, Kauai 500
8. Average compositions of Hawaiian lavas 502
9. Derivation of other alkalic rock types from alkalic olivine basalt 517
INTRODUCTION
It is fitting that this paper should appear in a volume dedicated to Prof.
Howel Williams. My interest in volcanoes and their products was first aroused
33 years ago in Prof. Williams' fascinating seminars on volcanology, and my
work on Hawaiian volcanoes and rocks over the past 29 years is a direct
outgrowth of that interest.
In the William Smith Lecture before the Geological Society of London,
in 1952, Prof. Williams pointed out that the science of volcanology is under-
going a change from an early descriptive stage to an interpretive stage (Wil-
liams, 1954). This is conspicuously true of Hawaiian volcanology. When the
systematic and continuous studies of the active volcanoes were begun by
T. A. Jaggar and his associates in 1911, a voluminous record of activity
already existed, but it was purely descriptive. Nothing was known of the
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internal structure and mechanism of the volcanoes. Since then, the geophysi-
cal and geochemical observations of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory staff,
the geologic study and mapping of the islands by H. T. Stearns and his asso-
ciates of the U.S. Geological Survey, the petrographic studies of H . A. Powers,
Horace Winchell, and others, and recently the geophysical work of the Vol-
cano Observatory and the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics, have brought us
to the stage where we are beginning to understand the internal working of
the volcanoes. Geophysical evidence is emerging on the depth of origin of
the magma and on its accumulation in a shallow reservoir, until it is finally
released at the surface (Eaton and Murata, 1960). Knowledge of the chem-
istry of the lavas has increased to the point where we can begin to use it
statistically, with confidence that serious gaps in it are very unlikely. Further-
more, as is absolutely essential to the study of petrogenesis, the petrography
can be closely related to the structure and history of the volcanoes. We still
have a long way to go to a complete understanding of Hawaiian volcanoes,
but the progress is gratifying!
The following pages present additional petrographic data that will con-
tribute to the ultimate understanding. There now exist more than 470 modern
analyses of major chemical elements in Hawaiian lavas. More than 350 of
these analyses have been made since 1940. An earlier study (Macdonald and
Katsura, 1964) was concentrated on the early-stage tholeiitic lavas. The
present work focuses instead on the late-stage lavas, though some additional
analyses of tholeiitic rocks also are given. The work has been financed by
grant number GP-1958, from the National Science Foundation to the Hawaii
Institute of Geophysics. In Tokyo, 98 new chemical analyses were made at
the Japan Analytical Chemistry Research Institute. For comparison, eight of
the same powdered samples were analyzed also in U.S. Geological Survey
Laboratory in Denver. The results are described elsewhere (Macdonald and
Powers, in prep.), but it may be said here that the two sets of analyses are
in reasonably good agreement. Analyses of late lavas of Haleakala will be
given elsewhere (Macdonald and Powers, in press), and are not included here.
The nature of the suites of rocks that are recognized in the Hawaiian
Islands and their stratigraphic and structural relationships have been discussed
elsewhere (Macdonald and Katsura, 1964) and will be only briefly re-
viewed here. The additional work reported in the present paper has merely
strengthened the former conclusions.
The geologic mapping of the islands has led to the recognition of a suc-
cession of stages in Hawaiian volcanism (Stearns, 1940a; 1946, p. 1 7 - 2 2 ) .
Some uncertainty still exists about the subsea history, and deep drilling is
badly needed to explore the composition and structure of the lower portions
of the volcanoes. Above sea level, however, the stages are as follows:
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% S¡0 2
Figure 1. Alkali ¡silica diagram of Hawaiian rocks. Solid circles, tholeiitic rocks; open
circles, rocks of the alkalic suite; crosses, posterosional rocks of the nephelinic suite;
G, granophyre associated with the Palolo quartz diabase; open triangles, low-K tholeiites
of the deep Pacific basin (Engel and others, 1965); K, weighted average of first phase of
1959 eruption of Kilauea (Murata and Richter, 1966); P, pyrolite (Green and Ringwood,
1963); E, "eclogite" inclusions from Salt Lake tuff (Yoder and Tilley, 1962, p. 482;
Macdonald and Katsura, 1964, p. 123). The pairs of points connected by lines represent
analyses of the same rock powder by two different laboratories.
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elinic suite are markedly undersaturated with silica and contain several percent
of nepheline in the norm, although none is detectable in the mode. These
rocks may be referred to as basanitoids, or as linosaites (Winchell, 1947,
p. 28).
The caps of alkalic rocks constitute only a very small proportion of the
total volume of the volcanoes. Estimated proportions for the different vol-
canoes range from 0.1 to 3 percent, and average about 1 percent (Macdonald,
1963a). The proportion of rocks of the nephelinic suite is even smaller and
ranges from a mere trace, or none at all, to a fraction of 1 percent.
ULTRAMAFIC INCLUSIONS
Nodules of peridotite and related rocks are common in lavas of the alkalic
and nephelinic suites in Hawaii, but, as elsewhere in the world, they are rare
in the tholeiitic lavas (Forbes and Kuno, 1965). A detailed study of the
inclusions and their host rocks has recently been completed by R. W. White,
of the University of California, and another study by E. D. Jackson, of the
U.S. Geological Survey, is in progress. White (1966) finds a close correlation
between the types of inclusions and the types of host rocks that indicates a
genetic relationship between the two. For the most part, they cannot be
chance xenoliths that were picked up by unrelated rising magma. For details
on the texture and mineralogy of the inclusions the reader is referred to the
paper by White (1966) and forthcoming reports by Jackson. Only a few
features, of importance in relation to the discussion of genesis of the magma
types, are summarized here.
The inclusions in tholeiitic rocks are dunite, which commonly contains a
little feldspar. They have been found in both historic and prehistoric lavas
of both Mauna Loa and Kilauea, but they are conspicuously unusual. Chrome
diopside has been reported by Ross, Foster, and Myers (1954) in inclusions
that were collected by me from the 1950 lava flow of Mauna Loa, but subse-
quent search by both White and me has failed to discover any clinopyroxene-
bearing inclusions in that flow. The textures of the dunites suggest that they
are formed by the accumulation of olivine crystals that were sinking from
overlying magma. There is no evidence of disequilibrium between the inclu-
sions and the surrounding magma. The dunites are commonly associated with
much more widespread inclusions of fine-grained olivine gabbro that are
characterized by a very open texture that resembles the diktytaxitic texture
of some basaltic lava flows. Similar texture is found in small gabbro intrusions
that were emplaced at high levels in the older, dissected Hawaiian volcanoes
(Macdonald, 1942, p. 328-331). It suggests that the gabbro inclusions, and
presumably also the associated dunite inclusions, were derived from tholeiitic
masses that crystallized at shallow depths within the volcano.
The inclusions in the rocks of the alkalic suite are found by White (1966,
p. 261) to be mostly dunite, wehrlite, and gabbro. The same types had pre-
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viously been recognized in the 1801 flow of Hualalai volcano by Cross (1915,
p. 34-35), Macdonald (1949b, p. 76), and Richter and Murata (1961, p.
217). The 1801 lava is a typical alkalic olivine basalt, an analysis of which
is given in Table 4 of the present paper. Untold thousands of ultrabasic inclu-
sions, up to at least 27 inches in diameter, are present in the flow (Richter
and Murata, 1961). Except for their large size and tremendous number, the
inclusions in it are typical of those in rocks of the alkalic suite in general.
They show a complete gradation from dunite and wehrlite to gabbro, and
rarely to anorthosite. Some are quite massive, but others show a distinct,
or even a marked, layering that resembles layering found in many big gabbroic
intrusions, such as the Skaergaard and Stillwater intrusions (Jackson, 1961;
Hess, 1960; Wager and Deer, 1939). It appears probable that the inclusions
in the 1801 lava, and by implication the inclusions of other rocks of the
alkalic suite, were derived from intrusive bodies at depth. Studies by Roedder
(1963) have shown the presence of tiny inclusions of carbon dioxide in the
olivine crystals of the dunite in the 1801 lava. The gas bubbles are under a
pressure which indicates to Roedder that the enclosing olivine was formed
at a depth from 8 to 16 km below the surface. Presumably the intrusive bodies
from which the inclusions were derived, lie at depths in that range, and the
alkalic basalt magma which carried the inclusions to the surface must have
come from at least that depth. Furthermore, the magma must have risen from
that depth with great rapidity in order to overcome the sinking tendency of
the large, heavy inclusions. Oxburgh (1964, p. 16) indicates that the rate
of rise of basalt magma with a viscosity of 3000 poises must have exceeded
22 m/hour to carry upward a 6-inch xenolith 0.7 gm/cc denser than itself.
The viscosity of tholeiitic magma reaching the surface in Hawaii is on the
order of 3000 poises (Macdonald, 1963b), and the evidence suggests that the
alkalic basalts, such as the lava of 1801, are less viscous than the tholeiitic
basalts.
Both Richter and Murata (1961) and White (1966, p. 306) find some
indication of disequilibrium and resulting reaction between the inclusions and
the surrounding magma, but it was not extreme. Possibly the time available
from the beginning of rise of the magma from the level of origin of the inclu-
sions to its final consolidation on the surface was insufficient to allow much
reaction, but the indicated depth of formation of the inclusions is not actually
very great and the physical environment there is not greatly different from
that at the surface, so that disequilibrium due to change of physical condi-
tions probably was small.
The inclusions in rocks of the nephelinic suite are predominantly lherzolite
with more orthopyroxene than clinopyroxene that grades into dunite (White,
1966, p. 258, 303). The lherzolite generally is completely massive with
no evidence of layering. The textures suggest metamorphic recrystallization
(White, 1966, p. 263). The high content of alumina in the orthopyroxenes,
which ranges from 1.0 to 5.4 percent and averages 3.0 percent (White, 1966,
p. 278-281) suggests formation of the minerals under moderately high pres-
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sure (Forbes and Kuno, 1965, p. 176), possibly at depths in the range from
30 to 60 km (Boyd and England, 1963). White finds abundant evidence of
reaction between the inclusions and the enclosing magma that includes reduc-
tion of the jadeite component of diopside and that indicates adjustment to a
changed physical environment. The lherzolite inclusions suggest that the
nephelinic rocks originate at a greater depth than do those of the alkalic suite.
The rare inclusions of wehrlite in nephelinic rocks may have been picked up
at shallow depths, where the magma came in contact with consolidated intru-
sive masses that were genetically unrelated to it.
Some of the nodules of lherzolite in the nephelinic rocks are as much as
8 inches in diameter, and again the magma that contains them must have
risen rapidly from the depths at which they were picked up.
Some of the inclusions in both the alkalic and the nephelinic rocks show
marked crushing, undulatory extinction, deformation lamellae, and kink band-
ing in the olivine and pyroxene, but these features do not necessarily indicate
more than minor shearing due to movements of a few feet or tens of feet in
the volcanic hearth.
Inclusions of garnet peridotite and garnet pyroxenite ("eclogite") are
abundant in nephelinite lava and tuff at Salt Lake Crater and the adjacent
Aliamanu and Makalapa Craters on Oahu and are associated with abundant
websterite and lherzolite (Winchell, 1947, p. 13, 26; White, 1966, p. 250).
They have been found nowhere else in Hawaii. The inclusions are dominantly
of two types, though all gradations occur between them. One type consists
of about 75 percent clinopyroxene, 15 percent garnet, and 10 percent olivine;
the other type consists of about 75 percent olivine, 15 percent orthopyroxene,
and 10 percent clinopyroxene (Jackson, 1966). Although, as Jackson points
out, many of the inclusions cannot be chemically equivalent to Hawaiian lavas,
two published analyses of the garnet pyroxenite (Yoder and Tilley, 1962,
p. 482; Macdonald and Katsura, 1964, p. 123) correspond quite closely to
olivine tholeiite approaching oceanite. Both contain abundant normative
hypersthene, and chemically they belong to the tholeiitic suite (Fig. 1). They
are low in potassium. Their modal mineral facies indicates formation at a
pressure above that of the basalt-eclogite transformation, although recent
work (Kushiro and Yoder, 1965, p. 94) suggests that this may not repre-
sent any great depth in the oceanic mantle — certainly not necessarily more
than the 60-kilometer depth that is indicated for the origin of tholeiitic magma
by earthquakes at Kilauea (Eaton and Murata, 1960).
The garnet pyroxenites demonstrate that material with the chemical com-
position of olivine tholeiite is available at depths as great as those from which
came the inclusions in the nephelinic magmas. It appears quite possible that
they represent the composition of the liquid fraction that was produced by
partial melting of the mantle under the pressure and temperature conditions
in the zone of magma generation beneath the Hawaiian volcanoes, and that
the associated lherzolitic fragments represent the portion of the mantle that
remains unmelted.
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the lavas. Specimen C-223 (column 6) is from the lower vent of the eruption
of 1801 (Stearns and Macdonald, 1946, p. 148). The analysis is consider-
ably higher in alumina than the analysis of the flow from the upper vent made
by H. S. Washington (1923, p. 102), but it is very close to a large number
of analyses of the upper flow made recently by the U.S. Geological Survey
in connection with the studies of inclusions in the-flow by E. D, Jackson.
It appears probable that Washington's value for alumina is too low.
Tlie analyses in Table 5 are all of posterosional lavas. Column 1 is of an
alkalic olivine basalt from one of the vents of the Koko fissure that crosses
the extreme eastern end of the island of Oahu. Like the flow from the south-
ern end of the same fissure, close to Hanauma Bay (Winchell, 1947, p. 30),
it contains normative nepheline, but there is none in the mode, Winchell
(1947, p. 28) referred to these rocks as linosaites, but they may also be
termed basanitoids. Column 2 is of a basanite from the Pali lava flow (Stearns
and Vaksvik, 1935, p. 116). The rock contains a little nepheline, but more
abundant plagioclase in both the norm and the mode. The dike of nephelinite
exposed nearby in the Pali (cliff), analyzed by J. H. Scoon (Yoder and Tilley,
1962, p. 362), is clearly not the feeder of this flow. The material analyzed
in columns 3 and 6 is primarily black glass. The higher water content, un-
doubtedly, is the result of hydration of the glass, which, however, appears
perfectly fresh.
Specimen C-168 (Table 5, column 7) is of an alkalic olivine basalt that is
very rich in phenocrysts of olivine, up to about 5 mm in diameter. It comes
closer to being an oceanite than any other Hawaiian alkalic basalt thus far
studied. Similar rocks are common in American Samoa.
Columns 1, 2, and 3 in Table 6 are analyses of tholeiites from the caldera-
filling member of the Koolau volcano (Kailua volcanic series of Stearns and
Vaksvik, 1935). The rocks have been altered, apparently by gases rising
through the caldera fill; the pyroxene is partly changed to chlorite with libera-
tion of silica, which has been redeposited as secondary chalcedony and quartz.
Zeolites also are present in places. The analyses indicate that, except for an
increase in water content, there has been little change in the bulk composition
of the rocks. All of the caldera-filling rocks of the Koolau volcano appear
to be tholeiitic basalts, which are chloritized to varying degrees. The "amphi-
bolitic dike rock" reported by Manghnani and WooHard (1965) is actually
a portion of a melilite nephelinite lava flow (the Training School flow) that
belongs to the posterosional Honolulu volcanic series. An "eclogite" described
by the same writers apparently came from Salt Lake Crater, a Honolulu series
vent on the western flank of the Koolau volcano, not from the area of the
Koolau caldera.
Column 4, Table 6, represents a tholeiite flow beneath the Salt Lake Tuff.
It apparently is part of an eroded ridge of the older Koolau rocks that are
buried by the tuff. The rock in column 5 is exposed at the base of Puu Kapu-
wai, one of the late cones of the Waianae volcano. It was mapped (Macdonald,
1940, PI. 6) as part of the upper member of the Waianae volcanic series.
Downloaded from memoirs.gsapubs.org on July 14, 2015
1 2 3 4 5 6
Spec. no. C-218 C-219 C-220 C-221 C-222 C-223
Si0 2 46.78 45.63 46.50 46.88 46.54 46.12
AI 2 0 3 14.38 13.86 15.33 15.41 13.95 14.13
Fe 2 0 : I 4.55 3.25 3.12 3.85 3.16 3.00
FeO 8.13 10.18 10.27 9.29 9.97 10.12
MgO 8.53 10.01 8.05 7.15 9.40 9.34
CaO 11.51 10.39 9.64 11.00 10.74 10.77
Na 2 0 2.44 2.71 3.22 2.84 2.69 2.68
K2O 0.85 1.00 1.09 0.93 0.87 0.97
H 2 O+ 0.62 0.68 0.18 0.32 0.41 0.31
H 2 O- 0.22 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.24 0.16
Ti0 2 2.13 2.41 2.57 2.33 2.25 2.35
P2O5 0.24 0.31 0.35 0.31 0.29 0.29
MnO 0.16 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.17
Total 100.54 100.73 100.61 100.59 100.67 100.41
NORMS (CIPW)
or 5.00 6.12 6.67 5.56 5.56 5.56
ab 20.44 16.24 20.96 22.01 18.86 18.34
an 25.85 22.52 23.91 26.41 23.07 23.63
ne — 3.69 3.41 1.14 2.27 2.27
( wo 12.18 11.37 9.16 10.90 11.83 11.60
di en 8.20 7.20 5.40 6.60 7.30 7.10
( fs 3.04 3.43 3.30 3.70 3.83 3.83
en 1.90 — — — — —
hy j fs 0.66 — — — — —
TABLE 5 . LAVAS OF THE HONOLULU VOLCANIC SERIES, OAHU, AND THE KIEKIE VOLCANIC
SERIES, NIIHAU
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Spec. no. C-164 C-163 C-196 C-195 C-165 C-197 C-168
Si0 2 44.85 41.68 41.42 38.92 39.55 36.00 44.67
AI2O3 13.26 11.24 13.47 12.25 11.01 10.67 15.17
FE2OS 2.36 5.94 3.89 5.33 4.79 6.43 1.98
FeO 10.60 8.38 8.63 7.88 9.19 9.57 10.39
MgO 10.82 12.84 8.25 12.95 13.60 11.73 11.65
CaO 10.91 11.30 13.64 13.21 13.07 12.78 11.10
Na 2 0 3.00 3.30 2.78 3.92 3.69 5.62 2.27
K2O 0.80 0.82 0.76 1.26 1.02 1.84 0.27
H20+ 0.75 0.34 0.91 0.33 0.56 1.15 1.30
H2O- 0.25 0.75 1.22 0.38 0.44 0.48 0.43
Ti0 2 2.13 2.57 2.14 2.62 2.50 2.70 1.01
PA 0.53 0.80 0.40 1.11 1.00 1.41 0.16
MnO 0.18 0.19 0.17 0.20 0.20 0.23 0.18
Total 100.44 100.15 99.93* 100.36 100.62 100.61 100.58
NORMS (CIPW)
or 5.00 5.00 4.45 — — 1.67
ab 13.10 10.48 3.14 — — — 13.10
an 20.29 13.34 21.96 11.95 10.29 — 30.58
ne 6.53 9.37 11.08 17.89 17.04 24.42 3.12
1c — — — 6.10 4.80 8.28 —
However, its relationships to other rocks are obscure, and it may belong to
the lower member. This interpretation is supported by the fact that its stron-
tium content, as determined by N. J. Hubbard, is lower than that of any other
analyzed rock of the middle and upper members. Columns 6 through 11 are
analyses of historic lavas and one very late prehistoric lava of Kilauea and
Mauna Loa volcanoes.
Table 7 lists new analyses of lavas of the nephelinic suite from the island
of Kauai. Most of them resemble earlier analyses of rocks of the same types
(Macdonald, Davis, and Cox, 1960, p. 110). Specimen 192, column 3, is
a coarse-grained intrusive rock corresponding in mineral composition most
closely to an ijolite. The rock appears to vary into an oligoclase gabbro
(kauaiite). It contains many inclusions of lherzolite, dunite, and a few of
orthopyroxenite (Macdonald and others, 1960, p. 74; White, 1966, p. 251,
locality 181). Sample 183 (column 10) is noteworthy because it represents
a type hitherto undescribed in the nephelinic series. Under the microscope
the rock is leucocratic, with a marked predominance of feldspar over pyroxene
and olivine. Although the norm contains more than 10 percent nepheline,
staining by Shand's (1939) method has revealed no nepheline in the mode.
Chemically, the rock most closely resembles a trachyandesite.
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they are not richer in alkalies. The presence of nepheline in the norm is due
to factors other than an increase of alkalies.
Titanium increases with the alkalies from alkalic olivine basalt to hawaiite,
but then decreases greatly in the mugearites and trachytes (Fig. 2). Its be-
havior is independent of that of silica, as shown by its increase in the neph-
elinic rocks. In all the rock types, except benmoreite (transitional mugearite-
trachyte), trachyte, and rhyodacite, including the tholeiites, titania is nearly
always present in excess of 1.75 percent, and thus conforms with Chayes's
(1964) generalization for basaltic rocks of oceanic regions.
Phosphorous behaves somewhat like titanium and increases from alkalic
olivine basalt to the nephelinic rocks on one hand and the hawaiites and
mugearites on the other, but again decreases in the trachytes. However, it
reaches its peak abundance in the mugearite group, at about 5 percent soda
(Fig. 3), whereas the maximum for titania falls at about 3.7 percent soda.
It will be noted in Figures 2 and 3 that there is a considerable scattering of
the points that represent abundance of both phosphorous and titania, as
related to soda.
Titanium tends to be concentrated in the pyroxenes, and its sparsity in the
felsic rock types may be attributed to removal of pyroxene, in the formation
of the felsic magmas. Crystals of gray to brownish-gray apatite, up to 0.1 mm
thick and 0.5 mm long, commonly are present in the mugearites, and the
6\
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Figure 4. AFM diagram of Hawaiian volcanic rocks. Solid dots, tholeiitic rocks;
large solid circle, average lava of the first phase of the 1959 eruption of Kilauea (Murata
and Richter, 1966); open circles, alkalic rocks; crosses, nephelinic rocks; V, iron-enriched
veinlet in tholeiite, Kilauea (Kuno and others, 1957); G, granophyre associated with
quartz dolerite, Palolo Quarry, Honolulu (Kuno and others, 1957); R, rhyodacite,
Waianae Range, Oahu (Macdonald and Katsura, 1964); T, trachyte; E, "eclogite" of
Salt Lake Crater; O, olivine phenocrysts in tholeiitic lava of the 1959 eruption of Kilauea
(Macdonald and Katsura, 1961). In the AFM diagram, A = N a , 0 + K 2 0, F = total
iron +MnO, and M = MgO.
Downloaded from memoirs.gsapubs.org on July 14, 2015
Figure 5. Von Wolff diagram of all Hawaiian volcanic rocks. Solid dots, tholeiitic
rocks; open circles, alkalic rocks; crosses, nephelinic (posterosional) rocks; G, granophyre
associated with quartz dolerite; P, pegmatoid associated with quartz dolerite (Kuno and
others, 1957); R, rhyodacite; T, trachyte; O, oceanite; N, melilite nephelinite. The large
solid circle represents the weighted average of the first phase of the 1959 eruption. In the
Von Wolff diagram, L = feldspar, Q = quartz, and M = mafic minerals.
Downloaded from memoirs.gsapubs.org on July 14, 2015
Figure 6. Von Wolff diagram showing variational trend lines of the Hawaiian rock
suites, as indicated in Fig. 5. The dashed line encloses the field of the oceanites. K,
weighted average of the first phase of the 1959 eruption of Kilauea (Murata and Richter,
1966); E, "eclogites" from Salt Lake Crater; AP, average peridotite (Nockolds, 1954);
P, pyrolite (Green and Ringwood, 1963); OL, olivine; 1, clinopyroxene from Salt Lake
"eclogite" (Yoder and Tilley, 1962); 2, augite from ankaramite of Haleakala (Washington
and Merwin, 1922); 3, hypersthene from Salt Lake "eclogite" (Yoder and Tilley, 1962);
4, average of four tholeiitic clinopyroxenes; 5, hypersthene from Uwekahuna tholeiitic
gabhro-picrite (Richter and Murata, 1961); 6, arbitrary mixture of olivine and Haleakala
augite. In the Von Wolff diagram, L = feldspar, Q = quartz, and M = mafic minerals.
Downloaded from memoirs.gsapubs.org on July 14, 2015
lower in alumina than the deep-ocean rocks and are somewhat lower in soda
at the same percentage of silica. There appears to be no convincing reason to
consider the low-K deep-ocean tholeiites to be ancestral to the Hawaiian
tholeiites.
There is general agreement that the tholeiitic rocks of Hawaii are derived
from magma generated in the upper mantle, probably at a depth of about
60 km (Eaton and Murata, 1960). Also, it has generally been considered
that the primary tholeiitic magma is essentially saturated in silica, because the
great majority of the rocks exposed above sea level are of that sort (Powers,
1955). Olivine phenocrysts are common in them, but are the result of early
crystallization of olivine, often greatly in excess of its stoichiometric ratio (the
so-called "Bowen-Anderson effect"), which has failed to react with the sur-
rounding liquid and become transformed into pyroxene before the consolida-
tion of the magma. If reaction were carried to completion, most of the visible
tholeiitic rocks of Hawaii would be olivine-free.
However, there is some evidence that suggests that the majority of the
visible tholeiitic lavas may not be representative of the parent tholeiitic magma,
as it originates in the mantle. Recently, there have been recognized masses
of very dense material with high-seismic velocities beneath the summit regions
of most of the Hawaiian volcanoes (Kinoshita, 1965; Kinoshita and Okamura,
1965; Adams and Furumoto, 1965). The nature of these masses is still un-
certain, but the most likely possibility is that they are bodies of cumulate rock
that was formed by the lagging behind of heavy phenocrysts in the rising
magma. In the volcanoes that have not progressed beyond the tholeiitic stage,
such cumulates should consist very largely of olivine. Murata and Richter
(1966, p. 8) have considered that the most olivine-rich lavas of the 1959
eruption of Kilauea resulted from the entrainment of olivine grains that were
eroded by unusually rapid-flowing magma from a cumulate mass within the
magma chamber of the volcano.
The mass of dense rock beneath the Koolau volcano of Oahu is about
6 km across and extends to an unknown depth, possibly all the way to the
mantle. Addition of such a mass of olivine to the lava flows of the Koolau
volcano would very considerably reduce their degree of silica saturation.
Furthermore, other evidence suggests that the olivine-rich rock at depth is not
restricted to these conspicuously dense plugs beneath the summits, but actually
is a good deal more extensive. Zones of high gravity extend along the rift
zones of the volcanoes (Kinoshita, 1965; Strange, Machesky, and Woollard,
1965), and in the Koolau volcano, seismic velocities of 6 km/sec or more
extend to within about 1.5 km of sea level beneath the northeast rift zone,
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as compared with velocities from 4.2 to 4.6 km/sec for most of the mass of
the volcano (Furumoto, Thompson, and Woollard, 1965; Hill, 1966). It
seems a reasonable implication that the tholeiitic magma rising from depth
may contain considerably more olivine, both as suspended phenocrysts and
in solution, than the lavas that reach the surface.
From laboratory studies of melting relationships, Green and Ringwood
(1967, p. 166-168) conclude that the liquid derived from a mantle of gen-
eral peridotite or pyrolite (dunite plus basalt) composition under pressures
from 30 to 40 kb and a high degree of partial melting would be of tholeiitic
composition with 20 percent or more normative olivine in solution. O'Hara
(1965, p. 19-27), who uses a similar approach, also concludes that the pri-
mary magma must be an undersaturated olivine tholeiite, and that the silica-
saturated common tholeiites are the result of fractionation of olivine tholeiite
magma during its rise to the surface.
Both the very high rate of discharge of lava during the 1959 eruption of
Kilauea and the unusually high temperature of the lava reaching the surface —
about 1190° to 1200° C at the highest, or from 70° to 80° higher than the
temperatures measured in most eruptions •— suggests an unusually rapid rise
of magma from depth and, correlatively, a lesser than usual opportunity for
fractionation en route. The 1959 lava in Kilauea Iki Crater can be regarded
as closer than most of the surficial lavas to the composition of the primitive
magma at depth. Macdonald and Katsura (1961) assumed the average of
two analyses of the predominant olivine-rich lava of that eruption as the
probable composition of the parent magma. It was stated to contain about
18 percent normative olivine; but, as pointed out by Green and Ringwood
(1967, p. 110), the average value of alumina was wrongly reported as 12.9
instead of 12.1 percent, and a recalculated value for normative olivine is
16.7 percent. Very similar is a weighted average composition for the lava of
the first phase of the eruption that was published by Murata and Richter
(1966, p. 26). It contains 17 percent normative olivine. Both these averages
have been used by Green and Ringwood (1964, 1967) as the approximate
composition of the parent magma of the Hawaiian province. However, the
magma reaching the surface already contained phenocrysts of olivine, and
it is not unlikely that most of the erupting magma had already lost some
olivine during its rise from depth. The magma that was discharged most
rapidly and at the highest temperature (close to 1200° C) contained the
greatest amount of olivine, which reached from 27 to 30 percent.
The amount of olivine that can be contained in solution in a magma de-
pends, of course, on the temperature of the magma. Completely glassy Pele's
hair of the 1959 eruption contains 6.5 percent of normative olivine (Mac-
donald and Katsura, 1961, p. 362). Drever and Johnston (1958, p. 493,
495) regard rocks that contain up to 21 percent normative olivine as repre-
senting magmas that were once wholly liquid, and other rocks that contain
from 34 and 35 percent norm olivine they regard as probably once wholly
liquid. Richter and Murata (1966, p. 6), in discussing the rocks of the 1959
Downloaded from memoirs.gsapubs.org on July 14, 2015
extraction of the lowest melting components from the mantle wall rocks dur-
ing the slow ascent of the magma at intermediate depths.
alkalic olivine basalt magma, which in turn may yield the related rocks of the
Hawaiian alkalic suite. Finally, under low pressure that corresponds essen-
tially to surface conditions, the undersaturated olivine tholeiite parent pro-
duces silica-saturated tholeiitic basalts.
It is interesting to note that the fractionation trend found by Green and
Ringwood (1967, Fig. 8) for olivine tholeiite that contains about 20 percent
olivine (SiOo 46.95 percent, total alkalies 1.81 percent) under pressures of
13 to 18 kb, that correspond approximately to depths of 40 to 60 km, yields
a liquid product containing from 45.7 to 45.9 percent SiO, and 2.1 percent
alkalies. If further fractionation of this product followed the same trend or
one parallel to that of fractionation of the olivine basalt (OB, Fig. 7), it would
yield a liquid that resembles in alkali and silica content the junction area of the
Hawaiian alkalic and nephelinic suites. The fractionation trend of alkalic
olivine basalt found by Green and Ringwood (1967, Fig. 8) under similar
pressures (from 13 to 18 kb) is almost exactly parallel to the variation trend
of the Hawaiian nephelinic rocks, though the starting point is closer to the
silica-rich edge of the diagram (Fig. 7).
TABLE 9 . DERIVATION OF OTHER ALKALIC ROCK TYPES FROM ALKALIC OLIVINE BASALT
1 2 3 4
The same sort of calculations can be made for mugearite and trachyte with
similar results.
In the same table, columns 3 and 4 give the average composition of anka-
ramite compared with that of a rock derived by combining average alkalic oliv-
ine basalt with the same minerals removed in the formation of hawaiite, again
in the proportions indicated. The agreement between the theoretical and actual
compositions is not perfect, but is close enough to indicate that the anka-
ramites probably are essentially simple cumulate rocks. The titania content,
which is somewhat too high in the calculated hawaiite and too low in the cal-
culated ankaramite, suggests that the augite involved in the differentiation is
actually somewhat higher in titania than is indicated by the Haleakala analysis.
I have formerly suggested (Macdonald, 1949a, p. 1579) that the assimilation
of a small amount of limestone was involved in the formation of the ankara-
mites. Such assimilation certainly would make the thoretical derivation of these
rocks easier, but there is absolutely no other evidence to support the sugges-
tion, and it appears very unlikely that sedimentary limestone is available to be
assimilated. The possibility of assimilation of igneous carbonatites at depth
cannot be ruled out, but there is no independent evidence of the existence of
carbonatites in Hawaii. The calculations in Table 9 seem to indicate that
assimilation of any sort of limestone is unnecessary to derive the ankaramites.
Within the nephelinic suite there appear to be two distinct lines of variation
(Figs. 5 and 6). One trend, close to and parallel to that of the main alkalic
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CONCLUSIONS
Current field and laboratory evidence thus appear to indicate that:
(1) The Hawaiian tholeiitic, alkalic, and nephelinic suites all were derived
from a single primitive magma type, olivine-rich tholeiite, that was formed
by partial melting of an ultrabasic mantle, which probably resembled pyrolite
in composition, at a depth of about 60 km.
(2) The primitive magma varied slightly from one volcano to another,
either as a result of minor inhomogeneity in the mantle, or acquisition of
varying small amounts of material from the wall rocks during its rise.
(3) Alkalic olivine basalt magma and nephelinic magma were formed
from olivine-rich tholeiite by fractionation at depths of about 30 and 50 km
respectively.
(4) The trends of differentiation within the individual suites were con-
trolled largely or entirely by fractional crystallization, mostly at depths less
than about 15 km, although the nephelinites probably resulted from frac-
tionation at greater depths.
(5) The silica-saturated tholeiites that predominate at the surface are not
the same as the primitive magma at depth, but have been depleted of olivine
at relatively shallow depths to form the masses of very dense rock shown by
geophysical studies to exist beneath the volcanoes.
(6) Such other processes as volatile transfer and thermal or pressure-
controlled diffusion are not wholly ruled out, however, and they should be
kept in mind until the importance of their effects is more definitely known.
(7) Although field evidence favors derivation of the alkalic suite from
an olivine tholeiitic parent magma, origin of the three suites by partial melting
at different depths in the mantle still remains a possibility from, the physico-
chemical standpoint.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank Gary D. Stice and Floyd W. McCoy, Jr., of the Hawaii
Institute of Geophysics, for aid in collecting the samples of the upper member
of the Waianae volcanic series, Oahu; Howard A. Powers, of the U.S. Geo-
logical Survey, for the use of an unpublished analysis of the 1801 lava of
Hualalai volcano in calculating the average composition of the alkalic olivine
basalt in Table 8 and for arranging for the comparison analyses by the U.S.
Geological Survey; and Norman J. Hubbard, of the Hawaii Institute of Geo-
physics, for the use of unpublished minor-element analyses.
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CONTRIBUTION N O . 1 6 2 , H A W A N INSTITUTE OF GEOPHYSICS.
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Notes