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Abstract. Chile is one of the OECD countries with higher complicates drawing conclusions, because students of equal
levels of socioeconomic segregation in its educational system. socioeconomic status travel very different distances. The
This may be explained by the incidence of institutional characteristics of the territories where schools are located
factors (fees and school selection processes), sociocultural shed some light on the cause of these differences. From these
factors (families’ appraisals and behaviors towards school results, we propose re-discussing the use of the residential
choice) and contextual factors, among which residential segregation concept for explaining phenomena like school
segregation would stand as the most relevant. segregation, due to the complex interrelations between both
This article analyzes the relation between school loca- territorial fragmentation and urban mobility.
tion, students’ socioeconomic status and student’s place of
origin (mobility). The data used was gathered from 1613 Key words: school segregation, residential segregation,
surveys responded by primary students’ families. The results daily mobility.
evidence that residential segregation only partially influences
educational socioeconomic segregation, since the capacity of Resumen. Chile es uno de los países OCDE que exhibe
mobility is a key factor to “break” the association between mayor grado de segregación socioeconómica en su sistema
both phenomena. Therefore, residential segregation would escolar. Esto se explicaría por la incidencia de tres factores:
affect to a greater extent low socioeconomic status students institucionales (como los cobros y procesos de selección
who attend schools near their homes and travel distances de estudiantes por parte de las escuelas), socioculturales
shorter than children from higher socioeconomic status, (valoraciones y comportamientos de las familias frente a la
who tend to cover longer distances between home and elección de escuela) y de contexto, entre los que la segrega-
school. Nevertheless, the comparative analysis of the cases ción residencial aparece como el más relevante.
* Departamento de Educación, Facultad de Humanidades, Universidad de Santiago, Avda. Libertador General Bernardo
O’Higgins 3677, Estación Central, Santiago, Chile. E-mail: claudia.cordoba.c@usach.cl
** Escuela de Historia, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales e Historia, Universidad Diego Portales, Avda. Ejército 333, Santiago,
Chile. E-mail: massimiliano.farris@mail.udp.cl
*** Departamento de Estadística e Investigación Operativa, Facultad de Ciencias Matemáticas, Universidad Complutense
de Madrid, Plaza de las Ciencias 3, 28040, Madrid, España. E-mail: krpatuelli@mat.ucm.es
C. Córdoba C., M. Farris and K. Rojas P. Discussing school socioeconomic segregation in territorial terms:…
Este trabajo analiza la relación entre localización de las entre casa y escuela. Sin embargo, el análisis comparativo
escuelas, composición socioeconómica del alumnado y pro- de los casos complejiza esa conclusión, porque estudiantes
cedencia (movilidad) del mismo. La información utilizada del mismo nivel socioeconómico pueden recorrer diferentes
proviene de 1 631 encuestas a familias de alumnos de ense- distancias. Las características de los territorios donde se loca-
ñanza primaria. Los resultados evidencian que la segregación lizan las escuelas parecen tener relación con tales diferencias.
residencial influye sólo parcialmente sobre la segregación A partir de los resultados del estudio se plantea rediscutir
socioeconómica escolar porque la capacidad de movilización el uso del concepto de segregación residencial para explicar
es un factor determinante para “romper” la asociación entre fenómenos como la segregación escolar dada la compleji-
ambos fenómenos. La segregación residencial afectaría en dad de las interrelaciones entre procesos de fragmentación
mayor medida a estudiantes de nivel socioeconómico bajo territorial y movilidad cotidiana.
que asisten a escuelas en las inmediaciones de sus hogares,
recorriendo distancias menores que niños de niveles socioe- Palabras clave: segregación escolar, segregación residencial,
conómicos superiores quienes tienden a movilizarse más movilidad cotidiana.
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C. Córdoba C., M. Farris and K. Rojas P. Discussing school socioeconomic segregation in territorial terms:…
have a particular spatial projection, which influen- the Metropolitan Area of Santiago (MAS) since
ces the territory where these processes occur and, the mid-seventies, pointing out that “what already
in turn, is influenced by them. Therefore, to reach existed continues to exist” (De Mattos, 1999). The
a deep understanding of educational systems, it is author emphasized that the new elements that
necessary to study them from a territorial approach, characterized urban expansion since the return of
in which the territory is conceived as a constant democracy should be considered a “reproduction”
process of social construction (Raffestin & Baram- (updated by economic globalization processes) of
pama, 1998; Santos, 2000; among others). the same territorial logics instituted after the po-
This study is oriented towards that path, as it litical and economic reforms of the civil-military
studies whether and how spatial segregation in- dictatorship. Likewise, De Mattos highlighted
fluences school segregation in the Chilean school that this renovation of urban morphology was
system and, with respect to these phenomena, to described by three factors: formation of a region-
what extent students’ capacity/ possibility of com- metropolis, suburbanized, polycentric and with a
muting influences them. The work is divided into vast peri-urban/semi-rural territory; cities with less
four sections. The first section reviews antecedents poverty and indigence but extremely fragmented;
concerning residential segregation, city morpholo- and consolidation of a set of “new urban artifacts”
gy and daily mobility in the Chilean case, referring (big shopping malls, gated condominiums, decen-
to studies that address these concepts from the tralized business centers, etc.) as articulators of the
education field. Subsequently, the methodology metropolitan space.
and results of this research are presented in sections Studies from the past 25 years on Santiago’s
2 and 3, respectively. Finally, conclusions that put urban territory renovation have substantially delved
in evidence coincidences with previous studies as into the idea posited by De Mattos, emphasizing
well as novel contributions to the field are provided. the social, political and cultural implications of this
model of territorial growth. The influence of land
Residential segregation in Santiago prices on the formation of some communes is a
de Chile? Scale of analysis, urban mobility common element in these studies. Some of them
and city morphology: elements for a still underline the role of real estate agencies, favored by
open discussion the neoliberal ideology governing the State, in the
Since school segregation would be related to resi- transformation of the urban morphology and social
dential segregation, it is necessary to clarify what fabric, which has yielded gentrification phenomena
is understood by residential segregation in the (López, 2013), and, in turn, a counter-hegemonic
case of Chile. response from social movements (Casgrain &
The concept of residential segregation arouses Janoschka, 2013). Other studies have focused on
from studies on the racial segregation of Afro- how the expansion of the metropolitan area has
American and new immigrant groups in the absorbed peri-urban and rural zones, particularly
United States (Ruíz-Tagle, 2013). Subsequently, thanks to the spread of a gated communities re-
this concept was reinterpreted in order to describe sidential model, directed to groups from different
certain processes of Latin-American metropolises. socioeconomic status, which are also differentiated
In this context, the term has been related to the by their connectivity to the center (or centers) of
urban transformation experienced during the the city (Salazar & Cox, 2014).
last 30 years (Janochska, 2002), placing especial This leads some authors to propose that
emphasis on the spatial distances that separate the Santiago evolves towards a polycentric structure,
different socioeconomic groups that inhabit cities with places concentrating commercial activity
(Sabatini et al., 2001). being more prominent (Truffello & Hidalgo,
As for the Chilean case, at the end of the last 2015). This differentiation or fragmentation of
century, De Mattos drew an analysis of the trans- space in commercial terms would be closely related
formation and growth processes experienced in to residential segregation processes (Ducci, 2000).
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C. Córdoba C., M. Farris and K. Rojas P. Discussing school socioeconomic segregation in territorial terms:…
Along with the factors abovementioned, the (Bissonnette et al., 2013; Ross et al., 2004; Iturra,
territorial expansion of Santiago has implied an in- 2014; Ruíz-Tagle and López, 2014). The problem
creasing complexity of urban mobility, heightened of the scale, thus, is associated with the morpho-
since 2007 due to the change of the “public” bus logical peculiarities of the city and its process of
transportation system3. Several studies (Delunay social construction.
et al. 2013; Jouffe & Lazo, 2010), using different In line with this view of the city, several studies
methodologies, have revealed that the place of have placed emphasis on the need of considering
residence, socioeconomic status, cultural and daily mobility one of the factors that contribute to
material capital influence mobility strategies, and the social construction of a territory and, thus, to
that these elements may increase social exclusion residential segregation.
and segregation. Jirón et al, based on a review of new approa-
Many authors have interpreted all these trans- ches on mobility4 and on systematic fieldwork,
formations in Santiago as an increasingly profound underline the static view of the space and social
exacerbation of residential segregation. The study exclusion usually assumed in studies on residential
of such a phenomenon has centered on its small segregation, which neither takes into account the
and large-scale effects. Large-scale segregation has different “people’s fields of activity (labor, educa-
been associated with the construction of social tional, recreational fields) nor the way people daily
housing promoted by governmental programs in commute to carry out such activities” (Jirón et al.,
the outskirts of the city. Meanwhile, small-scale 2010: 37). These authors regard daily mobility5
segregation has had different interpretations (Sti- as a factor that overcomes static conceptions of
llerman, 2016) and a number of studies have focu- the urban space, underlining the fact that mobile
sed on evidencing the level of social homogeneity experiences are multiple, fluid, scaled, processual,
in the spatial proximity within cities (Cáceres & and that generate important inequalities, especially
Sabatini, 2004, Hidalgo, 2004; Ortíz & Escolano, those originated from the power of “rich-no time”
2013; among others). versus “poor-plenty of time” users (Jirón et al.,
On the other hand, the socioeconomic residen- 2010: 27).
tial segregation and its applicability to the case of These divisions show that accessibility is distri-
Santiago de Chile has been questioned due to the buted unequally among individuals and in space;
difficulties found in its definition and measurement not all people have the possibility to access, due
(Agostini, 2010). In this sense, Ruiz Tagle & López to economic or cultural reasons, to work, leisure
(2014) propose that studies tend to show flaws in and consumption places, activities and persons,
the form in which socioeconomic status is percei- resources and opportunities; nor all places have
ved and measured. Furthermore, supposing that a the same infrastructural conditions or are benefited
good indicator is finally defined, the problem that by transportation policies. Therefore, mobility is
subsequently arouses is at what scale it should be a crucial element to be considered when studying
applied. Is the commune, the metropolitan area or
the neighborhood the most appropriate dimension? 4 Since Sheller and Urry’s (2006) seminal study, mobility has
If the scale were to be solely considered in terms been addressed in connection with international migrations
of size (Gutiérrez Puebla, 2001), another problem or daily trips in the urban space, as a new paradigm that
would arouse: do administrative limits reflect would provide an explanation for the territorial complexity
of the globalized world (Kwan & Schwanen, 2016).
effectively coherent and heterogeneous territories? Without minimizing the importance of this perspective,
Latin-American studies propose to consider, from a Marxist
perspective, mobility a cultural variant of a renewed
3 Since 2007, a centralized system—Transantiago —has territoriality defined by the current capitalism (Ramírez
been operating. This system is financed by the State and has Velázquez, 2013).
fixed routes, stops and fares. In addition, it is managed by 5 Jirón et al. (2010: 24) define urban daily mobility as “a
large private companies that replaced the small independent social practice of daily movement through urban space and
companies that set fares autonomously in the former system time, which grants access to activities, people and places”.
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C. Córdoba C., M. Farris and K. Rojas P. Discussing school socioeconomic segregation in territorial terms:…
fragmentation and socio-spatial exclusion processes 2011), and segregation would be more intense at
such as school segregation. this level (Valenzuela et al., 2014).
The trends outlined for Santiago are reflected Considering the reflections made on the diffe-
in the distribution of schools across the territory as rent processes that coalesce into the construction
well as the distance that students travel from home of urban morphology, specifically in the fragmen-
to school. Diverse studies document the variation tation presented in the city at different scales, a
of the educational offer across different areas of the methodology focused on the small scale (micro
city, existing an association between the resident neighborhoods) and, at the same time, projected
population socioeconomic status, and the adminis- at a commune and metropolitan scale was selected.
tration modality of the institutions present there The small-scale approach allows for considering the
(Astaburuaga, 2013; Flores & Carrasco, 2013). peculiarities of the fragments of the urban space
Likewise, a recent study reports the existence of a where certain schools are located, while the com-
considerable amount of daily trips made by stu- mune and metropolitan scale permits to analyze
dents, at all educational levels and in all types of broader processes, such as those determined by
school, from the commune where students reside daily mobility.
to that where they study (Rodríguez et al., 2016). The unit of analysis has been defined not in
In addition, even when a shorter distance between terms of a predefined administrative division
home and school would be positively valued by (census, commune or region) that often may
families from different socioeconomic status, it has be inappropriate to explain territorial processes
been established that parents with higher income (Bissonnette, 2012), but it terms of key factors that
and/or education level travel longer distances to should determine school segregation. If parents
take their children to school; while parents from choose a school because of its closeness and if
lower socioeconomic status tend to choose schools schools reflect the residential segregation of a place,
close to their homes and travel shorter distances the definition of the territorial unit should have
(Gallego & Hernando, 2009; Chumacero et al., the presence of one or more schools as a priority
2011; Flores & Carrasco, 2013; Alves et al., 2015). element. The hypothesis is that if in a specific te-
In this line, other study by Donoso & Arias (2013) rritory exists only one school, the vast majority of
points out that students who attend voucher private children living nearby will attend this school; but
schools show greater daily mobility than those from if at a short distance there is another educational
municipal schools. institution, school-age population will be divided
To summarize, research shows that Santiago between those two institutions.
has expanded and become more complex and frag- Therefore, the unit, denominated Fenced
mented. In this urban morphology transformation, Geographical Unit (FGU), is a small territory
mobility has played an important role in socio- characterized by the existence of two or more
territorial terms, therefore both morphological and schools located close to each other6. The analysis
mobility characteristics are factors to be taken into of small territories allows for studying in detail
account for the study of school segregation. the segregating dynamics at stake. It consists in a
case study that prioritizes a deep understanding
of complex units to analyze a phenomenon that
METHODOLOGY involves different dimensions (Della Porta, 2013).
This study uses cluster sampling. Each FGU
This research analyzes socioeconomic segregation corresponds to one cluster that was intentionally
among institutions that offer primary education,
because parents of small children would tend to 6
send their children to schools near their homes The FGU has been determined with a one- kilometer-
in diameter buffer, considering the distance defined as
(Gallego & Hernando, 2009; Chumacero et al., “walkable” by the specialized literature (Munizaga & Palma,
2012).
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C. Córdoba C., M. Farris and K. Rojas P. Discussing school socioeconomic segregation in territorial terms:…
selected according to the technical definition provi- localized domiciles7 collected between 2014 and
ded. Data was collected from both semi-structured 2015 in 10 FGU composed of 21 educational ins-
interviews (with families and school officials) and titutions: 12 municipal schools, 7 voucher private
surveys. The census-based survey at FGU level was schools and 2 non-subsidized private schools. These
directed to parents of kindergarten to fourth grade FGUs are located in 8 communes of Santiago, as
primary students who attended the establishments shown in Figure 1.
that formed the units. The survey consisted in a In 81% of the cases, the survey was responded by
self-administered questionnaire filled in without the student’s mother, in 11% by the father and 5%
the presence of an interviewer, which incorporated by other relative. Twenty-nine percent of mothers
open-ended and closed-ended questions about the declared having less than 12 years of schooling,
socioeconomic status of the students’ home and while 32% reported having 12 years and 33% more
school. This last datum allowed for calculating the than 12 years. With respect to household incomes,
on route distance that students travel from home 62.7% of homes lives with less than CLP 500.000
to school. per month, 11.7% reported receiving between CLP
The type of questionnaire employed has a regu- 500.000 and CLP 800.000, whereas 23.5% of ho-
lar and varied rate of response; however, the sample mes monthly receive more than CLP 800.000. The
size at the cluster level was sufficient to conduct a socioeconomic composition of the sample is similar
reliable statistical analysis. In fact, the average rate to that of SIMCE8 2013 in the Metropolitan Region
of response by school was 45.7%, with a standard (Annex, Table 1).
deviation of 13.5%, and minimum and maximum
values of 17.7% and 75.9%, correspondingly. The-
se rates do not substantially differ from the theo-
7 In the case of one school, data was obtained from
retically established criteria for a self-administered
administrative records (35 cases).
survey (De la Poza et al., 2003). The data presented 8 Education Quality Measurement System (SIMCE, in
correspond to information from 1613 surveys with Spanish) is a standardized evaluation of census nature that
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C. Córdoba C., M. Farris and K. Rojas P. Discussing school socioeconomic segregation in territorial terms:…
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C. Córdoba C., M. Farris and K. Rojas P. Discussing school socioeconomic segregation in territorial terms:…
teristics of these territories in order to generate a The unit is made up mainly of houses, small shops
hypothesis that allows for explaining the extremely and basic services units (educational institutions,
heterogeneous scenario described up to this point. primary and mental health centers, police stations)
Therefore, three FGUs with different territorial and is characterized by the existence of small
characteristics but descriptive of the morphology rectangular blocks. The nearest subway station is
of Santiago will be analyzed. located 1.15 km from this UGA center, at the same
distance from the most important close avenue.
First case: FGU 5 The most available mean of transportation is the
It is compound of four educational institutions: three bus, although there are also passenger taxis, whose
municipal schools (A, C and D) and one voucher pri- fare is higher than bus fares.
vate school (B). It was possible to gather information The schools of this FGU receive students that
of three of them (A, B and C). The socioeconomic travel very short distances from home: half of them
status of students from schools B and C was classified travel less than 600 m. The limited connectivity of
as low by SIMCE 2013, while that of students from the place might influence the decisions of families,
school A was categorized as low middle. who would discard the option of sending their
This FGU is located in a commune south of children to more remote schools. This hypothesis
Santiago, in a neighborhood known as one of the is also sustained by studies evidencing that lower
most prominent social housing initiatives at a re- class workers travel shorter distances to work than
gional level. Its origin dates from illegal occupancies middle and upper class workers (Delunay et al.,
of land that took place in the late 60s. Over the 2013), which might be due to the fact that they
years, these improvised houses were improved by work in informal sectors whose activities take place
their own owners. This FGU is a predominantly in the city outskirts (Suárez et al., 2015).
residential area, which accommodates families from Figure 2 represents FGU5, indicating the schools
low-middle and low socioeconomic status, with located in it and the points of origin of the trips
scarce territorial attractions and poor connectivity. to them.
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C. Córdoba C., M. Farris and K. Rojas P. Discussing school socioeconomic segregation in territorial terms:…
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C. Córdoba C., M. Farris and K. Rojas P. Discussing school socioeconomic segregation in territorial terms:…
tary government ended up in this commune. On Students who attend the non-subsidized private
the other hand, land divided into lots was sold to school travel on average much longer distances
construction companies that built gated condomi- (4 km) than their municipal school peers (1 km)
niums and neighborhoods directed to middle and do. Likewise, half of the students attending the first
upper class families. Therefore, in this commune, school travel more than 3.5 km, while half of the
families from very different socioeconomic status students from the other school travel only 0.4 km.
currently coexist (Pérez & Roca, 2009). In the municipal school, 75% of students attend
The arrival of these ‘new neighbors’ has brought the educational institution closest to their home,
along the construction of large buildings, together whereas the reverse is true for almost all students
with a series of small shops and services. Likewise, from the non-subsidized private school.
new private educational institutions have settled This case reveals how the reduction in physi-
in this place, including the non-subsidized private cal distance does not imply a reduction in social
school of this FGU. distance (Ruíz-Tagle & López, 2014; Ruíz-Tagle,
The neighborhood where this FGU is located is 2016), in spite of being really close to each other
arranged along an avenue, one of the communes’ (300 m), the two schools do not target the same
main (public and private) vehicular traffic arteries. population (Figure 4).
The nearest subway station is located approxima-
tely 1.2 km away from the FGU center, which also CONCLUSIONS AND PROJECTIONS
contains a big shopping mall. On one side of the OF THIS STUDY
avenue are social and self-constructed houses as
well as small shops; while on the other side are This study presents some developments with res-
large areas of unbuilt land. Around 400m from pect to the studies on school segregation conduc-
the FGU center are placed the gated condominiums ted thus far that should be noted.
where families with highest purchasing power
reside.
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C. Córdoba C., M. Farris and K. Rojas P. Discussing school socioeconomic segregation in territorial terms:…
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C. Córdoba C., M. Farris and K. Rojas P. Discussing school socioeconomic segregation in territorial terms:…
nization and considering only some of them may search (CONICYT) for funding this study through
lead us to wrongly believe that the part is the whole. the Project FONDECYT 11130149 “Analysis of
As for the last concept, network, the projections socioeconomic school segregation in primary
of this study focus on the analysis of the mobili- school”.
ty strategies of families. Since these practices are
hybrid, in other words, the majority of trips has The study used the database of the Quality of
more than one objective (Jirón et al., 2010), we Education Agency. The authors would also like to
hypothesize that the routes of students that tra- give thanks to the institution for granting access
vel longer distances to school are associated with to this information. All the results of this research
other family purposes, such as going to work. are exclusive responsibility of the authors and do
This is one of the pending tasks that will be ad- not commit the referred institution.
dressed in further stages of the study.
Finally, we would like to extend our thanks to the
reviewers who commented the first version of this
ACKNOWLEDGMENT work as well as to Manuel Vallejos Caroca, who
elaborated the cartography.
We would like to thank the Chilean National
Commission for Scientific and Technological Re-
ANNEXES
Table 1. Educational level of mothers and household income, study sample and SIMCE 2013 database
(4th grade, Metropolitan Region).
Percentiles
N Mean SD Min. Max.
25 50 75
1648 2515.5 3155.8 17.00 29083.0 704.0 1412.0 3184.5
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C. Córdoba C., M. Farris and K. Rojas P. Discussing school socioeconomic segregation in territorial terms:…
Table 3. Proportion of students that travel more than 1 km by educational level of mothers and income
quintile.
Table 5. Descriptive and Contrast Statistics variable distance home–school by FGU and school.
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C. Córdoba C., M. Farris and K. Rojas P. Discussing school socioeconomic segregation in territorial terms:…
Table 6. Percentage of coincidence between school attended and school closest to home by FGU.
Table 7. Descriptive and Contrast Statistics variable distance home–school by type of school.
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C. Córdoba C., M. Farris and K. Rojas P. Discussing school socioeconomic segregation in territorial terms:…
Table 8. Coincidence between school attended and school closest to home by type of school.
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