Journal of Applied Geophysics 59 (2006) 162 – 175

www.elsevier.com/locate/jappgeo

The influence of soil moisture on magnetic

susceptibility measurements
G. Maier a,*, R. Scholger a, J. Schön b
a
Department of Applied Geosciences and Geophysics, University of Leoben, Peter-Tunner-Str. 25-27, 8700 Leoben, Austria
b
Joanneum Research, 8700 Leoben, Austria
Received 30 November 2004; accepted 14 October 2005

Abstract

An important methodological question for magnetic susceptibility measurements is if a variation of the soil conductivity, as a
result of a change in soil moisture, influences the measured susceptibility values. An answer to this question is essential because an
accurate magnetic susceptibility mapping requires a grid of comparable magnetic susceptibility values, which indicate the magnetic
iron-mineral contents of the soils. Therefore, in the framework of the MAGPROX project (EU-Project EVK2-CT-1999-00019), the
study aims at investigating the influence of soil moisture and the possible correlation between magnetic susceptibility and electric
conductivity. This approach was realised by model experiments in the laboratory and a field monitoring experiment, which was
performed in an analogical manner as the model. For the laboratory experiment, a plastic tub with a water in- and outflow system
and installed lines of electrodes was used. The measurements were carried out with layers of different magnetic material within the
experimental sand formation under varying water saturation conditions. For the field experiment, which was carried out from July
to December 2003, two test sites were selected. The magnetic susceptibility was measured by means of the recently developed
vertical soil profile kappa meter SM400 and a commonly used Bartington MS2D probe. The electric resistivity was recorded using
a 4-point light system (laboratory) and a ground conductivity meter EM38 (field). The knowledge of the resistivity of the sand
formation enabled an estimation of porosity and water saturation in consideration of the Archie equations. The laboratory
experiment results showed a very slight variation of measured magnetic susceptibility under different degrees of moisture,
indicating mainly the influence from the diamagnetic contribution of the water volume. A measurement error in connection
with the measurement method, for example caused by an interfering effect of soil conductivity variations, was not found. The
authors conclude, that in practical use of the investigated instruments for topsoil magnetic susceptibility mapping in the field, the
influence of soil moisture and resulting soil conductivity can be neglected, especially compared to the influence of the contact
between measurement loop and soil. The study presented here verifies the magnetic susceptibility data reproducibility and
comparability, which provides the basis for magnetic susceptibility monitoring. Additionally, new application approaches of
magnetic susceptibility measurements were proposed, which show again the versatility and the potential of the method.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Magnetic susceptibility; Electric conductivity; Soil moisture; MAGPROX

1. Introduction

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +43 1 40440 23334; fax: +43 1 40440

623334.
E-mail address: guenter.maier@omv.com (G. Maier).
0926-9851/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jappgeo.2005.10.001
During the last few years magnetic susceptibility
measurements have become an established method to
detect polluted regions and their spatial demarcation.
 G. Maier et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 59 (2006) 162–175
Magnetic susceptibility mapping has been used for
investigations around power plants (Heller et al.,
1998; Kapička et al., 2001), iron industry and mining
areas (Strzyszcz and Magiera, 1998; Lecoanet et al.,
2001; Strzyszcz and Magiera, 2001; Hanesch et al.,
2003), urban environments (Hanesch and Scholger,
2002) and roads (Hoffmann et al., 1999). It has also
proved to be useful for studying the influence of atmo-
spheric processes on distribution and deposition of air
pollutants (Maier and Scholger, 2003, 2004) and for
discriminating different soil-contamination sources
(Lecoanet et al., 2003). A comprehensive overview of
magnetic monitoring methods in pollution studies is
given by Petrovský and Ellwood (1999).
In most cases, a Bartington magnetic susceptibility
meter for field measurements was used. Such measure-
ment systems operate on the principle of alternating
current induction (Bartington Operation Manual, 2002).
An alternating magnetic field (of low intensity) is pro-
duced by a sensor when it is connected to a source of
alternating current. The sensor consists of an oscillator
circuit for which a wound inductor is the principle
frequency-determining component. The magnetic sus-
ceptibility k is related to the relative permeability of a
medium l r and this parameter is closely associated with
the characteristics of alternating current circuits contain-
ing inductive elements (Collinson, 1983). When the
inductor contains only air the value of permeability of
air l 0 determines the frequency of oscillation. If the
inductor is placed within the influence of the material
to be measured, the value of l r determines the frequency
of oscillation. Thus, the relative change in inductance
and frequency resulting from the difference between the
permeability of air l 0 and the relative permeability l r of
another medium (e.g., soil) is a measure of magnetic sus-
ceptibility. In short, magnetic susceptibility is the ratio of
induced magnetisation to the applied magnetic field.
However, in these kinds of measurements, an im-
portant methodological question is if a variation of soil
conductivity, as a result of a change in soil moisture,
influences the measured magnetic susceptibility values.
The theoretical background of this possible interaction
is given by the third and forth Maxwell equation. In the
case of soils, soil moisture is the most significant factor
affecting electrical conductivity. Furthermore conduc-
tivity is also influenced by porosity, particle size and
salinity. Since the principle of susceptibility measure-
ment is based on applied alternating magnetic fields,
the influence of conductivity has to be considered.
The basic idea of this work is based on experiences
of the MAGPROX project partners (EU-Project EVK2-
CT-1999-00019) during magnetic susceptibility field
163
measurements on topsoils. Particularly in the low mag-
netic susceptibility range, dry and wet or waterlogged
soils yielded different values. This possible influence
has not been studied yet in empirical form. An answer
to this question is essential because accurate magnetic
susceptibility mapping requires a grid of comparable
magnetic susceptibility values, which indicate the mag-
netic iron-mineral contents of the soils. Therefore the
study aims at investigating the interfering influence of
soil moisture and the possible correlation between mag-
netic susceptibility and electric conductivity.
For the recently developed vertical soil profile kap-
pameter MAGPROXk SM400, Petrovský et al. (2004)
studied the effect of conductivity on magnetic suscep-
tibility measurements theoretically. Based on exact an-
alytical formulas derived from the Maxwell equations,
the authors calculated the negative effect of electrical
conductivity on relative change of inductance and mag-
netic susceptibility. According to Petrovský et al., con-
ductivity affects the imaginary part of the complex
magnetic susceptibility that cannot be compensated in
single-coil systems and contributes to total magnetic
susceptibility as a negative component. The authors
concluded that in practical use of SM400 for typical
soil conductivities the effect of conductivity could be
neglected. Additionally, by reference to the Bartington
operation manual the Bartington probes are particularly
insensitive to sample conductivity. After the manual the
response of kappameters to conductors is high if the
instruments feature a high operating frequency. Due to
the fact that the operating frequency of the SM400 is
relatively high (8 kHz) compared to the Bartington
MS2D probe (operation frequency of 0.958 kHz), it
could be expected, that the Bartington MS2D probe is
less sensitive to electrical soil conductivity than
SM400. However, the theoretical specifications had to
be examined empirically in the form of experiments.
This experimental investigation should quantify the
importance of conductivity variations for magnetic sus-
ceptibility measurements and the influence of soil mois-
ture on their accuracy and comparability.
The approach of this study was the investigation of
the relationship between magnetic susceptibility and
electric resistivity (the reciprocal of conductivity) as a
result of changing water content. This approach was
realised by model experiments in the laboratory and a
field monitoring experiment, which was performed in
an analogical manner as the model and should confirm
the laboratory results under natural soil conditions. For
the field experiment, which was carried out from July to
December 2003, two test sites were selected where
previous surface measurements (Bartington MS2D
164 G. Maier et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 59 (2006) 162–175

probe) and soil profile measurements (SM400) showed
enhanced magnetic susceptibility values.
2. Laboratory experiments
2.1. Experiment 1
For the model experiments, a plastic tub with a water
in- and outflow system and installed lines of electrodes
was used (Fig. 1a–c). In the lower part of the tub, a
layer of coarse grained gravel to fine grained gravel was
implemented, which guaranteed an undisturbed water
flow. Above the experimental sand formation (consist-
ing of homogeneous silica sand with a grain size of
0.5–2 mm) was implemented by means of underwater
sedimentation. In this way, a grading of the silica sand
should be avoided as good as possible. Three plastic
tubes for magnetic susceptibility measurements with

Fig. 1. (a) Experiment plastic tub. (b) Position of the experimental sand formation and the drainage system. (c) Water in- and outflow system with
flowmeter. (d) Electrode array and their position on the chamber. (e) Magnetic susceptibility measurement with the Bartington MS2D probe at the
formation surface. (f) The markers and the self-weight of the probe guaranteed an identical measurement position and contact pressure of the coil for
each measurement. (g) Magnetic susceptibility measurement with the vertical soil profile kappameter SM400.
 G. Maier et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 59 (2006) 162–175
the recently developed vertical soil profile kappameter
MAGPROXk SM400 were built in to control the
three-dimensional uniformity of the magnetic layers.
The tubes were installed before the implementation of
the sand formation to eliminate vertical drainage in the
sand formation during the experiment. Between the
gravel layer and the experimental sand formation, a
fleece prevents the sand from being washed out during
the drainage. The measurements were carried out with
layers of different magnetic material within the exper-
imental sand formation under varying water saturation
conditions. Two magnetic layers were implemented, the
first in a depth of about 6 cm with a thickness of about
1 cm, the second as a 10 cm thick layer between depths
of about 40 and 50 cm. After determination of the
required mass of the highly magnetic concentrate
(with Bartington-MS2B5 Sensor), the concentrate
(iron–silicon-oxide, mass susceptibility = 1.32 d 10 6
m3/kg, grain size = 63–250 Am) was mixed with watery
sand in different steps of the dosage. After wetting of
the sand, the concentrate was scattered in and the
material was mingled using a stirring staff. This process
was repeated until the required volume for the layer was
reached. Before the implementation of the magnetic
layers, the mobility of the magnetic concentrate and
the risk of an unwanted migration were investigated in
form of a preliminary test. A magnetic layer of 1 cm
was installed in the middle of a plastic tube (50 cm
length) filled with water saturated sand. The suscepti-
bility of the tube was recorded with the Bartington-
MS2C-Sensor (Core Logging Sensor), and after the
outflow of the water through a hole at the bottom of
the tube, susceptibility was measured again. The results
showed a similar susceptibility distribution before and
after the water outflow and thus no disturbing migration
of the magnetic concentrate. The magnetic layer stayed
stable in its position.
The electric resistivity was recorded using a LIPP-
MANN 4-point-light system in dipole–dipole configu-
ration with current- and measurement electrodes at
every side of the chamber (Fig. 1b,d). The knowledge
of the resistivity of the sand formation enabled an
estimation of porosity and water saturation in consid-
eration of the Archie equations (Archie, 1942). Firstly,
magnetic susceptibility was measured by means of a
Bartington MS2D probe (in SI units at the more sensi-
tive range 0.1). Markers guaranteed that the horizontal
and radial measurement position was always the same
(Fig. 1e,f). The self-weight of the probe guaranteed an
identical contact pressure of the coil for each measure-
ment. Secondly, magnetic susceptibility was measured
with the soil profile kappameter SM400 (within in-
165
stalled plastic tubes) (Fig. 1g). The penetration depth
of this instrument is limited to some few cm, since the
measurement probe integrates more than 90% of the
signal at a distance of 12 mm. The temperature of the
experimental sand formation was measured using a
temperature sensor installed in the formation.
For the first measurement the water level was low-
ered and raised in 5 steps (1 step per day), based on the
estimated total water volume in the experimental sand
formation which amounted to 73.3l (Fig. 2). After the
final drawdown step, the dehydration of the sand for-
mation was observed for days.
The results of the magnetic susceptibility measure-
ments with the MS2D-sensor showed a very slight
variation of magnetic susceptibility under different
degrees of water saturation (Fig. 3b). The water satu-
ration is presented by means of the term beffective
water saturationQ. This parameter considers the penetra-
tion depth of the MS2D probe and the thereby caused
different measurement influence of the water saturation
conditions of each measurement level by weighting the
values. bEffective water saturationQ means the sum of
the depth-weighted water saturation values of each
measurement level within the reach of the MS2D
probe. The weighting was carried out based on the
specific penetration depth of the MS2D probe described
by Lecoanet et al. (1999). With decreasing water satu-
ration and increasing sand formation resistivity during
the drawdown the magnetic susceptibility measured at
the sand formation surface increased. With increase of
water saturation and decreasing resistivity during the
refilling of the tub the magnetic susceptibility de-
creased. The presented magnetic susceptibility values
represent the average of 10 measurements. Additional-
ly, Fig. 3b shows that the water saturation values, which
are estimated based on the resistivity did not return to
100%, although the sand formation was again totally
saturated at the end of the refilling process. The appar-
ently lower water saturation of only 80% is a result of
the settlement of the experimental sand formation dur-
ing the drawdown of the water level (Fig. 2). Thereby
the porosity and consequently the amount of water (the
conductive electrolyte) after the refilling were reduced.
That resulted in higher resistivity values, compared
with the initial sand formation resistivity, and to appar-
ently lower water saturation values. The settlement
effect can also be observed in consideration of the
magnetic susceptibility data at the end of the refilling
process. Firstly, the lower distance between MS2D
measurement coil at the sand formation surface and
the magnetic layer after the settlement, led to a slight
increase of magnetic susceptibility, compared with the
166 G. Maier et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 59 (2006) 162–175

Fig. 2. Water saturation values for each measurement level, initial porosity, end porosity and formation volume content during the measurement
procedure (drawdown of the water level).
 G. Maier et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 59 (2006) 162–175 167

Fig. 3. (a) Example of the vertical magnetic susceptibility progression of the experimental sand formation (experiment 1, measured with SM400);
the signals show the implemented magnetic layers. (b) Measurement 1: magnetic susceptibility k vs. effective water saturation S w during the
drawdown of the water level and subsequent filling of the experimental sand formation. (c) Measurement 2: improved drawdown and filling
procedure, adapted to the results of experiment 1. (d) Combined results of measurements 1 and 2; cross plot of magnetic susceptibility Dk vs. water
saturation S w (the error bars show the standard deviation of the values).

initial magnetic susceptibility. Secondly, the real reduc-
tion of the amount of water within the defined volume,
which influences the measurement, added to the mag-
netic susceptibility increase.
The magnetic susceptibility values measured using
the soil profile kappameter SM400 showed a slight
variation under different water saturation conditions.
However, outliers did not allow a satisfying interpreta-
tion. Based on these data, a correlation between mag-
netic susceptibility and the variation of the water
saturation conditions was not observable. A modified
laboratory experiment (experiment 2, Section 2.2)
aimed at improving the configurative precision and
comparability of the measurements with SM400.
During the second measurement the water level was
lowered and raised more carefully, adapted to the
results of measurement 1. The results showed an im-
proved data density between 30% and 60% of water
saturation (Fig. 3c). Again the magnetic susceptibility
measured at the sand formation surface with the MS2D
168 G. Maier et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 59 (2006) 162–175
probe increased with decreasing water saturation and
increasing sand formation resistivity during the draw-
down and vice versa during the refilling.
A cross plot of magnetic susceptibility vs. water
saturation, including the combined results of measure-
ments 1 and 2, showed a very slight increase of mag-
netic susceptibility in the range of 5.3 d 10 6 SI with
decreasing water saturation (Fig. 3d). The largest mag-
netic susceptibility value also has the largest vertical
error bar. If we would neglect this value, which seems
to be an outlier, susceptibility would only show an
increase of about 4 d 10 6 SI. An additional determi-
nation of the bulk magnetic susceptibility of the tap
water used during the laboratory experiments with the
GEOFYZIKA kappabridge KLY-2, showed a value of
9.0 d 10 6 SI. A sand–water mixture sample with a
water content equal to the content in the totally satu-
rated experimental sand formation amounted to a mag-
netic susceptibility contribution of 3.9 d 10 6 SI.
Petrovský et al. (2004) predicted for the soil profile
kappameter SM400 a magnetic susceptibility change of
8.7 d 10 6 SI for a conductivity change of 20 S/m.
The average conductivity of the totally saturated exper-
imental sand formation (initial state, cp. Fig. 2) amounts
to 16 mS/m. In consideration of these facts, the inves-
tigation results of the Bartington MS2D probe indicate
predominately the true decreasing and increasing influ-
ence of the diamagnetic contribution of water. An
interfering effect of conductivity variations was not
found.
The correlation between magnetic susceptibility and
water saturation shows a nearly linear behaviour for
high to medium water saturation conditions (100% to
35%). Under low water saturation conditions (35% to
7%) the curve shape changes and the correlation shows
a curvature with a non-linear increase of magnetic
susceptibility (Fig. 3d). These results indicate the pres-
ence of a second conductivity component, the interface
component, in addition to the electrolytic conductivity
component. Under low water saturation conditions or
dehydration this component becomes more important.
As a result of the decreasing water saturation and
following dehydration the continuous water contact
within the pore channels collapses and the electrolytic
conductivity does no longer exist. Only the interface
conductivity component, which is independent of a
continuous water contact in the sand formation, persists
and the direct correlation between conductivity and
water saturation (which is the basis of the Archie-rela-
tions) does not exist anymore (Archie, 1942). Conse-
quently the water saturation values, which were
determined using the 2nd Archie-equation, have been
overestimated. This results in an apparently non-linear
increase of magnetic susceptibility.
2.2. Experiment 2
The objective of experiment 2 was an improvement
of the configurative precision and comparability of
measurements with SM400 by the usage of an adapted
measurement configuration. For this purpose, a plastic
measurement cell was constructed. For the conductivity
measurements four lines of 9 electrodes were installed
on opposing sides of the cell.
The water level was lowered and raised in 5 steps (1
step per day), based on the estimated total water volume
in the experimental sand formation that amounted to 2.88
l. By means of the 4-point-light-system, the resistance
and the water saturation conditions were investigated in
the same way as in the previous experiment, with a
dipole–dipole configuration with current and measure-
ment electrodes on each side of the chamber to measure
the transversal resistance of the sand formation.
The vertical soil profile kappa meter SM400 was
implemented in the experimental sand formation (homo-
geneous silica sand) and the temperature of the sand
formation was held constant to ensure identical condi-
tions during the experiment (Fig. 4a). Fig. 4b shows the
magnetic susceptibility progression in the measurement
tubes detected with the vertical soil profile kappameter
SM 400. The amplitude in a depth of about 31 mm shows
the implemented magnetic layer, the hatched section
shows schematically the dimension of the experimental
sand formation. The coherence between magnetic sus-
ceptibility and different water saturation was observed
with regard to the magnetic susceptibility peak value of
the amplitude of the magnetic layer and the bbase lineQ in
a depth of 170 mm. The behaviour of these signals was
observed during the drawdown and the refilling process.
Fig. 4c shows the behaviour of the magnetic suscep-
tibility peak value of the magnetic layer marked in Fig.
4b during the drawdown and refilling process. Fig. 4d
shows the behaviour of the bbase lineQ (cp. Fig. 4b).
The results of experiment 2 showed also a slight vari-
ation of magnetic susceptibility under different water
saturation conditions, in a comparable range as in the
previous experiment. The adapted setup improved the
configurative precision of the experiment with the soil
profile kappameter SM400 and provided sufficient data
quality. Magnetic susceptibility values showed an in-
crease during the drawdown and dehydration process
and a reversible decrease during the refilling process.
For the SM400 the observed magnetic susceptibility
change was marginally higher than for the Bartington
 G. Maier et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 59 (2006) 162–175 169

Fig. 4. (a) Measurement cell and experimental sand formation with implemented vertical soil profile meter SM400. (b) Vertical magnetic
susceptibility progression of the formation; the amplitude shows the implemented magnetic layer. (c) Magnetic susceptibility k vs. effective
water saturation S w; behaviour of the magnetic susceptibility peak values of the magnetic layer during the drawdown and refilling process.
(d) Behaviour of a depth section (170 mm) which is evidently unaffected by the magnetic concentrate.

MS2D probe. Whether this difference was caused by
the higher operation frequency of the SM400 or was
only the result of a configurative measurement error
could not be found.
The similar behaviour of the magnetic susceptibility
peak values of the magnetic layer (Fig. 4c) and the
depth section which was evidently unaffected by the
magnetic concentrate (Fig. 4d) was an essential infor-
mation. Although the magnetic susceptibility levels of
the two sections were quite different at the initial state
of the experiment, the magnetic susceptibility values
showed variations in the same range.
Consequently, even for the investigation with the soil
profile kappameter SM400 the correlation between mag-
netic susceptibility values and different water saturations
indicates mainly the true decreasing and increasing in-
fluence of the diamagnetic contribution of water.
3. Field monitoring experiment
The test sites were investigated with the Bartington
MS2D probe (for magnetic susceptibility) and with the
ground conductivity meter EM38 (for conductivity and
as a result of the conductivity values, for soil moisture).
170 G. Maier et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 59 (2006) 162–175

In field it could not be guaranteed, that the measure-
ment position and the contact between the measurement
coil and soil are always exactly the same (because of
the vegetated surface). Consequently, magnetic suscep-
tibility measurements with MS2D probe were done at
the rapid 1.0 range. A comparison showed that the use
of the 0.1 range would not improve the measurement
precision under these conditions. The conductivity
measurements were performed in vertical and horizon-
tal dipole mode, which provide different penetration
depths and sensitivities.
The measurement procedure and the magnetic sus-
ceptibility distribution at surface are demonstrated in
Fig. 5a–d and Fig. 5g. The sites had a size of 120 by
120 cm with regard to the length of EM38. Magnetic
susceptibility was measured in a grid of 10 by 10 cm,
which equals 36 measurement positions. Conductivity
was measured at 6 positions of both directions (12
measurement values). Magnetic susceptibility values
and conductivity values were averaged to provide a
mean value of the test sites at each measurement inter-
val. The sites were measured two times per week from
07/27/2003 to 12/01/2003. From July to December, air
temperature and soil temperature at surface and in the
depths of 5 and 10 cm were measured with a digital
thermometer and the temperature in 50 cm depth was
measured with a HOBO H8 Temperature Logger. The
knowledge of the temperature variation during the ex-
periment allowed a temperature correction of the electric
conductivity data. In addition to that, the real soil mois-
ture was determined with the gravimetric method. 4 soil
sample cores were taken from the direct surrounding of

Fig. 5. Measurement methodology (example of a test site). (a) Magnetic susceptibility measurement at surface with MS2D probe. (b) Magnetic
susceptibility measurement positions. (c) Conductivity measurement with EM38 in vertical position. (d) EM38 in horizontal position; conductivity
measurement positions. (e) HUMAX-Soil sampling tool. (f) Soil sample core. (g) Example of the measurement procedure.
 G. Maier et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 59 (2006) 162–175
the investigation areas once a week. For sampling, the
HUMAX-Soil sampling tool was used (Fig. 5e). The
moisture was determined for the upper 10 cm of the
sample core (Fig. 5f). With regard to the specific pen-
etration depth of the Bartington MS2D-probe, this depth
section is particularly interesting for a comparison of
moisture and magnetic susceptibility variations.
Test site 1 was located at a dumping ground, where
slag from mining processes was deposited. The soil
profile showed a uniform soil development from 0 to
20 cm depth above the slag deposition. The soil mate-
rial consisted of silty sand with mainly slag components
as coarse fraction. Test site 2 was also located in a
region influenced by mining. The profile showed a
uniform horizon between 0 and 30 cm. The soil mate-
rial of this horizon consisted of loam and sandy clay,
respectively. From 30 to 50 cm depth this soil material
is mixed with clay schists, shale and slag components.
A grain size distribution showed significantly higher
clay contents of the samples taken from test site 2.
The ideal meteorological conditions in 2003 sup-
ported the significance of the experiment. The summer
months were extraordinarily hot and dry and provided
anomalously low moisture values. Heavy rainfalls dur-
ing autumn and the frequent changing of snowfall and
melting from November to December resulted in a
strong wetting of the investigated soils. It can be as-
sumed, that the moisture contrast of this period topped
the average annual contrast in this climatological re-
gion. The experiment was finished on the 1st of De-
cember. Freezing of the soil and a permanent snow
cover made further measurements impossible.
As expected, the soil conductivity values showed a
strong dependence on the degree of soil moisture. The
corrected soil conductivity values are demonstrated in
Fig. 6a–d. The results showed higher values for test site
2 than for test site 1. This is probably caused by the
higher clay content in the soil of test site 2. The higher
clay content and its water-retaining property is also
reflected in a slightly higher maximum soil moisture
of test site 2. Conductivity values measured in horizon-
tal dipole mode showed for both measurement areas a
more dynamic behaviour under varying soil moisture in
shallow depths than the values measured in vertical
dipole mode. This is due to the higher sensitivity of
the H-mode in these shallow depth sections. Conse-
quently, conductivity values measured in vertical mode
showed a slightly delayed behaviour indicating the
infiltration of the rainwater. When the electrolyte mi-
grated down in depth sections where the V-mode fea-
tures the highest sensitivity it results in a delayed
increase of conductivity.
171
Fig. 6e,f shows crossplots of temperature-corrected
electrical conductivity (horizontal and vertical mode)
versus real soil moisture. The crossplots demonstrate
that for both sites the coefficients of determination (r 2)
of the horizontal mode are higher than the coefficients
of the vertical mode. It is based on the fact, that the real
soil moisture was determined only for the particularly
interesting upper 10 cm of the soil and due to the above
mentioned higher sensitivity of the H-mode for this
depth section.
The good correlation between conductivity and soil
moisture allowed a depth-related estimation of soil
moisture in depths of 2.5 and 7.5 cm. According to
Durlesser (1999), the sensitivities of horizontal and
vertical dipole mode were assessed (McNeill, 1980).
Finally, soil moisture in depths of 2.5 and 7.5 cm
could be calculated. The resulting moisture values are
demonstrated in Fig. 6g,h, together with the gravimet-
rically determined soil moisture and the magnetic
susceptibility.
Although the soil moisture varied from July to De-
cember in the range of 38%, the magnetic susceptibility
values showed the expected independent and nearly
constant behaviour for both investigation areas. Since
the magnetic susceptibility measurements with MS2D
probe were done at the rapid 1.0 measurement range,
the data were displayed in steps of 10 5 SI, which is
the usual scale for field measurements. The slight in-
fluence of the diamagnetic contribution of water mea-
sured under laboratory conditions was inferior and not
visible in the field, because of the more important
influences of vegetation, surface roughness, measure-
ment position and the contact between the measurement
probe and the soil. The stronger magnetic susceptibility
variation during the first 4 weeks with stable dry soil
conditions and the following constancy indicates the
growing measurement routine. However, as expected
an increase or decrease of magnetic susceptibility as a
result of different water saturation conditions could not
be observed.
4. Discussion and conclusions
The experimental investigations presented here
quantified the importance of conductivity variations
as a result of changing soil water contents for magnetic
susceptibility measurements. The influence of soil
moisture on the accuracy and comparability of magnet-
ic susceptibility values was successfully evaluated. The
properties of two magnetic susceptibility sensors, the
Bartington MS2D probe and the recently developed
vertical soil profile kappa meter SM400, are presented.
172 G. Maier et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 59 (2006) 162–175

(a) The different experiments and calculations
showed that the magnetic susceptibility values of soils
and sediments are dominated mainly by the volumetric
composition of the space within the reach of the mea-
surement coils of the investigated instruments. The
results proved that for typical soil conductivities the
effect of conductivity on magnetic susceptibility can be
neglected. This is in agreement with the theoretical
predictions of Petrovský et al. (2004).
Magnetic susceptibility measurement systems with a
measurement resolution in the range of 10 6 SI, but
ideally in the range of 10 8 to 10 7 SI, could provide
an additional, specific information for the estimation of
the soil water content, independent of the chemism of
water, pore structure, water contact within the pore
channels and temperature (e.g., applicable in frozen
soils or aquifers). Additionally magnetic susceptibility
measurement could open a new perspective for fluid
monitoring in reservoirs (Ivakhnenko and Potter, 2004).
(b) The magnetic susceptibility changes in depen-
dence of soil moisture are limited to a maximum var-
iation of 9.0 d 10 6 SI for a change in soil water

Fig. 6. (a) Conductivity EC measured in horizontal position vs. soil moisture H w; temperature corrected (25 8C), test site 1. (b) Test site 2.
(c) Conductivity EC measured in vertical position vs. soil moisture H w; temperature-corrected (25 8C), test site 1. (d) Test site 2. (e) Crossplots of
temperature-corrected electrical conductivity DEC (horizontal and vertical mode) vs. real soil moisture H w, test site 1. (f) Test site 2. (g) Magnetic
susceptibility k vs. soil moisture H w; the soil moisture curves show the gravimetrically determined moisture of the upper 10 cm and the depth
specific moisture calculated based on electrical conductivity information, test site 1. (h) Test site 2.
 G. Maier et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 59 (2006) 162–175 173

Fig. 6. (continued).

content from 0% to 100%. This observation was con-
firmed in the form of different experiments and verified
by calculations.
For example, the laboratory measurement results of
the Bartington MS2D probe showed a magnetic suscep-
tibility change of about + 5.3 d 10 6 SI during a water
saturation change of 92% and corresponding changing
water content from 40% to 3%. The magnetic suscepti-
bility change correlated with the water content and the
resulting electrical conductivity. Furthermore the labo-
ratory measurements with SM400 showed similar mag-
netic susceptibility changes for the behaviour of a
magnetic layer and a depth section which was evidently
unaffected by the magnetic concentrate. This indicates
that the magnetic susceptibility variation was predomi-
nately affected by the water volume content.
Consequently, this study quantified the influence of
water on magnetic susceptibility measurements as very
low and showed that the influence is based mainly on
the diamagnetic contribution of the water volume. A
measurement error in connection with the measurement
method, for example caused by an interfering effect of
soil conductivity variations, was not found. To con-
clude, a physically founded significant dependence of
the magnetic susceptibility values of polluted soils
(which are commonly in the range of several
100 d 10 6 SI) on soil moisture caused by weather or
season does not exist.
174 G. Maier et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 59 (2006) 162–175
This information is of great importance for the
method of magnetic susceptibility mapping and
answers open questions about data reproducibility and
comparability. The answers confirmed the reliability of
the screening standard procedure developed within the
MAGPROX project (Schibler et al., 2002). The repro-
ducibility of repeat measurements was verified, which
provides the basis for the magnetic susceptibility mon-
itoring of a test site or an investigation area.
(c) On the other hand, there is no doubt that weather
(heavy rainfalls) and season (snow, freeze processes)
can change the magnetic properties of the soil itself.
The determination of the vertical distribution of mag-
netic susceptibility in soils, for example with the
SM400, may provides the exact depth sections of trans-
port channels, boundary layers and redox zones and
allows the observation of material movements in a
sufficient resolution.
(d) For the Bartington MS2D probe, the above de-
scribed slight magnetic susceptibility variation under
different water saturation conditions (in the range of
10 6 SI) was only measurable at the more sensitive
measurement range of the instrument during the labo-
ratory experiment (under ideal conditions). In this case
the magnetic susceptibility data were displayed in steps
of 10 6 SI.
During the field experiment the measurements were
done at the rapid range and the data were displayed in
steps of 10 5 SI, which is the usual scale for field
measurements. Under field conditions the magnetic sus-
ceptibility showed a stronger variation (in the range of
10 5 SI) and did not correlate with the soil water content.
Consequently, the slight influence of the diamagnetic
contribution of water was concealed by other influences
like measurement position, vegetation, surface rough-
ness and generally, slight differences in the contact be-
tween the measurement probe and the soil.
Based on these facts and the practical experiences
during the field measurements, it could be assumed that
these influences are generally much more important
than the influence of water. Wet soils show in many
cases well developed vegetation. Often, they are abun-
dantly covered with grass or moss. The specific pene-
tration depth of the Bartington MS2D probe was
mentioned above. The change in sensitivity with dis-
tance is of great importance for measuring vegetated or
rough surfaces. A layer of diamagnetic material or of
low density overlying a surface will have a significant
effect on the measured value.
For example, a natural cover (plants or litter) of 5
mm thickness would have the effect of reducing the
loop reading to 75% of the value which would be
expected if the loop was in contact with the underlying
soil (Dearing, 1999).
The authors conclude, that in practical use of the
investigated instruments for topsoil magnetic suscepti-
bility mapping in the field, the influence of soil mois-
ture and resulting soil conductivity can be neglected,
especially compared to the influence of the contact
between measurement loop and soil. Whenever a
high reproducibility and comparability is required,
this point should be kept in mind and an identical
horizontal and radial measurement position and an
identical contact pressure should be guaranteed or
aimed.
Acknowledgement
This study was carried out in the framework of the
MAGPROX project (EU-Project EVK2-CT-1999-00019).
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