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FERTILIZATION: the union of the ovum and the spermatozoon. Usually occurs in the distal third portion of the fallopian tube.
life span of sperm cell- 48-72 hours
life span of egg cell- 24-42 hours
- an ejaculation of semen averages 2.5ml of fluid containing 50-200million sperm cells per ml. at the time of ovulation,
there is a decrease in the thickness of the cervical mucous making it easier to be penetrated by the sperm cell.
Sperm cells deposited in the vagina during intercourse generally reach the cervix within 90 seconds and the outer
end of the fallopian tube within 5 minutes after deposition.
- Sperm cells move by means of their flagella (tails) and with the help of uterine contractions through the cervix, the
body of the uterus, to the fallopian tubes, and to the waiting ovum.
- A proteolytic enzyme (HYALURONIDASE) acts to dissolve the layer protecting the ovum, making it easier to
penetrate.
- Immediately after the penetration of the sperm cell to the ovum, the chromosomal material of the sperm and the
ovum fuse. The resulting structure is called the ZYGOTE.
- Fertilization depends on at least 3 factors:
a. maturation of both the sperm and the ovum
b. ability of the sperm to reach the ovum
c. ability of the sperm to penetrate the ovum
IMPLANTATION:
- Once fertilization is complete, the zygote migrates towards the body of the uterus. This usually takes 3-4 days.
During this time, mitotic cell division/ cleavage begins. The 1st cleavage occurs about 24 hours. By the time the
zygote reaches the body of the uterus, it already consists of 16-50 cells. At this stage, because of its bumpy outward
appearance, it is termed as the MORULLA (mulberry).
- The morulla continues to multiply as it floats free in the uterine cavity for 3-4 more days. At this stage, the structure
is called a BLASTOCYST. It is this structure that attaches to the endometrium of the uterus.
- Implantation occurs approximately 8-10 days after fertilization.
- Then these 3 stages follow:
1. The blastocyst brushes against the endometrium (apposition).
2. it attaches to the surface of the endometrium (adhesion)
3. and then settles down into the soft folds of the endomentrium (invasion)
- The implantation point is usually high in the uterus, on the posterior surface. If the point of implantation is low in the
uterus, the growing placenta may occlude the cervix, and may make the delivery of the fetus difficult (PLACENTA
PREVIA)
1. The decidua- after fertilization, implantation happens in the endometrium of the uterus. The decidua, the layer that
thickens in order to cushion the egg does not slide off but instead continues to grow in thickness. The decidua has 3
separate areas:
a. decidua basalis- the part of the endometrium lying directly under the embryo
b. decidua capsularis- the portion of the endometrium that stretches or encapsulates the trophoblast
c. decidua vera- the remaining portion of the uterine lining
2. chorionic villi- once implantation is achieved, the trophoblastic layer of the cells of the blastocyst begin to mature
rapidly. As early as the 11th or 12th day, finger like projections or chorionic villi reach out from the single layer of cells
into the uterine endometrium.
- The outer layer of the chorionic villi develops into a separate hormone producing system producing the following:
a. HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) this is the 1st hormone to be produced. It can be found in maternal
blood and urine as early as the time of the first missed menstrual period until about the 100 th day of
pregnancy.
b. estrogen: primarily ESTRIOL contributes to the mother’s mammary gland development in preparation for
lactation and it also stimulates uterine growth to accommodate the developing fetus.
c. progesterone: is essential to maintain the endometrial lining of the uterus during pregnancy. This
hormone also appears to decrease contractility of the uterine muscles during pregnancy, thus preventing
premature labor.
d. Human placental lactogen: is a hormone with either growth promoting and lactogenic or milk producing
properties. It is produced as early as the 6th week of pregnancy. It promotes mammary gland growth in
preparation for lactation in the mother. It also serves to regulate maternal glucose, CHON, and fat levels so
that adequate levels of these are always available to the fetus.
3. Placenta- the placenta (Latin for pancake) arises out of trophoblast tissue. It serves as the fetal lungs, kidneys,
gastrointestinal tract, and as a separate endocrine organ throughout pregnancy. A placenta weighs 400-600g.
4. Umbilical cord- functions to transport oxygen and nutrients to the growing fetus from the placenta and to return the
waste products of the fetus to the placenta. This is about 20-21 inches long and 2cm thick.
- The bulk of the cord is a gelatinous muccopolysaccharide called WHARTON’s JELLY which gives the cord body and
prevents pressure on the vein and arteries.
- The umbilical cord has no nerve supply
5. membranes and amniotic fluid- the amniotic membrane and the chorionic membrane cover the fetal surface of the
placenta and give that surface it’s typical shiny appearance.
- The amniotic membrane produces, and supports the amniotic fluid.
- A decrease in the amount of the amniotic fluid is termed as OLIGOHYDRAMINOS
- Normal amount of amniotic fluid is 800-1200ml.
- Amniotic fluid is slightly alkaline with a pH of about 7.2
- The amniotic fluid is an important protective mechanism for the fetus:
a. it shields against pressure or a blow to the mother’s abdomen
b. It protects the fetus from changes in temperature, because liquid changes temperature more slowly than
air.
c. It aids in muscular development because it allows free movement of the fetus
d. It protects the umbilical cord from pressure, protecting fetal oxygenation.
CARDIOVASCULAR:
Blood loss at a normal vaginal delivery is about 300-400ml whereas blood loss from a caesarean birth is
much higher at about 800-1000ml.
almost all women need iron supplements during pregnancy because of the following reasons:
a. women have a comparatively low iron storage of less than 500mg because of their monthly
menstrual loss
b. The fetus requires about 350-400mg of iron in order to grow.
c. Iron absorption may be decreased during pregnancy as a result of decreased gastric acidity, so
additional iron is prescribed during pregnancy to prevent anemia.
Women should also increase their intake of folic acid (spinach, asparagus, and legumes) to help reduce
the risk for neural tube defects in the fetus.
To handle the increase in blood volume, a woman’s cardiac output increases. The hart rate increases by
10 beats per minute
During the 3rd trimester, blood flow to the lower extremities is impaired because of the pressure of the
expanding uterus to the arteries and veins of the lower extremities, which slows the circulation to the
area. This leads to edema, and varicosities to the rectum, vulva, and legs.
Despite the increase in blood volume in pregnancy (HYPERVOLEMIA) the blood pressure does not
normally rise because of the increased heart action.
When a woman lies supine, the weight of the uterus presses on the vena cava obstructing the blood
flow from the lower extremities. This results to a decreased blood flow to the heart and in turn
HYPOTENSION. This is dangerous because it can lead to fetal HYPOXIA. ( Intervention: L side Lying)
RESPIRATORY:
Most women would complain of DOB or shortness of breath as the pregnancy progresses. Because as
the uterus enlarges, pressure is put on the diaphragm, and ultimately on the lungs.
Breathing rate also becomes more rapid during pregnancy (18-20 breaths per min.)
The mother may also complain of ‘stuffiness’ or congestion of the nasopharynx. This is normal because
of the increase in the levels of estrogen.
BREAST:
Breast changes may be one of the first physiologic changes a woman will feel during pregnancy
because of the change in the levels of estrogen and progesterone.
A feeling of fullness, tingling, or tenderness in the breast may be felt because of the increased levels of
estrogen.
As pregnancy progresses, breast size also increases because of the hyperplasia of the mammary alveoli
The areola also darkens in color and its diameter increases from about 3.5cm to 5/ 7.5cm
The sebaceous glands of the areola ( MONTGOMERY”S TUBERCLES) enlarge. The secretions from these
help prevent the nipples from cracking and drying.
By the 16th week of pregnancy, COLOSTRUM or the thin high protein fluid that is the precursor of
breast milk can be expelled from the nipples.
URINARY:
alterations in fluid retention, and renal, ureter, and bladder function
Urinary frequency is also noted to change. During the 1 st trimester, and during the last 2 weeks of
pregnancy to a rate of 10-12 time of voiding per day.
Changes in the urinary system result from the following:
a. effects of estrogen and progesterone activity
b. compression of the bladder and ureters by the growing uterus
c. increase blood volume
d. postural influences
Fluid retention is also seen during pregnancy. This brings about edema especially in the lower
extremities. Water is retained during pregnancy to aid in the increase in blood volume and to serve as a
ready source of nutrients for the fetus.
SKELETAL
Calcium and phosphorous needs are increased during pregnancy because the fetal skeleton must be
built
There is gradual softening of the pelvic ligaments to facilitate the passage of the baby during birth
Wide separation of the symphysis pubis as much as 3-4mm by the 32nd week of pregnancy may occur,
making the woman walk with difficulty.
The woman also changes her center of gravity because of the weight of the fetus, to make ambulation
easier. (LORDOSIS)
REPRODUCTIVE
Uterus
- length grows from approximately 6.5-32cm
- depth increases from 2.5-22cm
- width expands from 4-24cm
- weight increases from60-1000g
Cervix
- softens during pregnancy
- turns from pale pink to violet blue in color
- a tenacious lining of mucous fills the cervical canal ( OPERCULUM) which acts to seal out bacteria during pregnancy
and help protect the fetus from infection
Vagina
- changes in color from light pink to dark violet
Ovary
- no production of FSH and LH so ovulation does not occur
ENDOCRINE:
Placenta
- production of high levels of HCG, estrogen, progesterone, and relaxin
Pituitary Gland
- increase levels of growth hormones, and melanocyte stimulating hormones- causing skin pigment changes
- Late in pregnancy, the posterior pituitary hormone produces OXYTOCIN which will later be needed during labor.
Adrenal Glands
- Increase production of aldosterone and corticosteroids which aid in the suppression of inflammatory reaction- so
the woman’s body would not reject the fetus growing in her womb.
- Also helps regulate glucose metabolism in the mother
-
DANGER SIGNS OF PREGNANCY:
1. VAGINAL BLEEDING- a woman should report vaginal bleeding no matter how slight, because a lot of the serious
bleeding complications arise from slight spotting. The nurse should ask the woman how she discovered her spotting.
It could be possible that bleeding from hemorrhoids could be misinterpreted as spotting. Assessment is very
important to rule out if the spotting needs further evaluation or not.
2. PERSISTENT VOMITING- 1x or 2x of vomiting per day is not uncommon during the 1 st trimester. However. Persistent
and frequent vomiting is not normal. (HYPER EMESSIS GRAVIDARUM) vomiting past the 12 th week of pregnancy is
not normal. This is dangerous because it depletes the fetus of its nutritional supply.
3. CHILLS AND FEVER- this may be indicative of an intrauterine infection and should be checked immediately
4. SUDDEN ESCAPE OF FLUID FROM THE VAGINA- may indicate premature rupture of membranes. This may cause the
uterine cavity to be open to infxn, so it becomes a threat to both mother and baby.
- This may also cause the umbilical cord to prolapse (out from the uterus and into the vaginal canal) if the cord is
compressed by the fetal head, this may create immediate danger to both.
5. ABDOMINAL or CHEST PAINS- abdominal pain may be indicative of an ectopic pregnancy, separation of the placenta,
or preterm labor. Chest pains may be indicative of pulmonary embolus, which may follow a complication such as
thrombophlebitis. Severe chest or abdominal pain should therefore prompt immediate assessment and intervention.
6. PREGNANCY INDUCED HYPERTENSION- (PIH) this situation needs immediate assessment and requires that the
mother be monitored throughout her pregnancy so as not to endanger the life or the life of the baby.
signs of PIH include the following:
a. rapid wt. gain ( over 2lbs per week in the 2nd trimester)
b. swelling of the face and fingers
c. flashes of light or dots before the eyes
d. dimness or burring of vision
e. severe continuous headache
f. decrease in urine output
7. INCREASE OR DECEASE IN FETAL MOVEMENT- A fetus normally moves more or less the same amount everyday. An
unusual increase or decrease in this movement suggests either that the fetus responds to the need for oxygen, or
the fetus is in distress.