Impact of Higher Education on Women Empowerment in Urban Bangladesh

Nusrat Jahan1, Md. Tanvir Hossain1, and Quazi Moshrur-Ul-Alam2

1
Sociology Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna-9208

2
Nutrition and Aquaculture Specialist, WorldFish Center
 Impact of Higher Education on Women Empowerment in Urban Bangladesh

Nusrat Jahan1, Md. Tanvir Hossain1 and Quazi Moshrur-Ul-Alam2

Abstract

This study was designed to explore the effect of higher education on women

empowerment. Following survey research design a sample of 140 higher educated

married women were selected randomly from Khulna City Corporation (KCC) of

Bangladesh. An interview-schedule, containing 46 Likert-type questions under eight

mutually interlinked domains on women empowerment, was administered for data

collection. Findings reveal that the post-graduated women, by and large, had greater

control over their respective household resources and played decisive roles in household

decision making process, as compared to graduates. Indeed, women’s exposure to higher

education marked noteworthy changes in their status of, access to and decision over

certain social, economic, political and cultural affairs. However, for a greater achievement

of women’s right and freedom, it is necessary to ensure women’s higher education as well

as participation in economically productive activities, followed by social and political

events; that would, in fact, uplift the overall status of women in Bangladesh from century

old disadvantageous status to socially approved and well-appreciated position within

household and in society at large.

Key Words: Higher Education, Economic Activities, Reproductive Health, Women

Empowerment.

2
Introduction

Bangladesh is a developing country with 148 million people, half of which are women

(Prothom-Alo 2012; BBS 2011). Like many developing nations in Africa, Latin America

and Asia, women in Bangladesh have been historically and systematically exploited by

men (Ahmed 2004). Despite their contribution in day-to-day life, from maintenance of

family to economically productive activities, women are discriminated for multitudes of

reasons, ranging from male supremacy, and ethnocentrism to sheer ignorance of religious

beliefs (Ahmed 2004; Pishgahifard et al. 2011). They are forced to remain inactive behind

the four-walls, confirming the culturally approved and socially sanctioned gender-

stereotypic roles as ‘caring mothers’, ‘affectionate sisters’, ‘faithful wives’ and ‘observant

daughters’ (Wollstonecraft 17921). They are discouraged to engage in economic activities,

denied to move alone outside their houses, prohibited to make their own decisions and

discriminated to access available resources (Tong 1998). Furthermore, the heavy

workload in households, the reproductive roles in particular, together with inadequate

knowledge and skills pushed women deep into inferior position (Islam 2011). As a result,

women are lagging behind men in terms of power to meet their basic needs (Chen et al.

1997) and are often forced to get married at early age that eventually increases their

physical, psychological and more importantly economic vulnerability (Grimes et al. 2006;

Miaji 2010)

To end this miserable condition, United Nations together with Governmental

Organizations (GOs) and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have devised

different measures and initiatives to empower women, especially in developing and least

1
‘A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects’ (1792) was the first book,
authored by a woman, that portrays women’s inferior position in society and pave ways to feminist upsurge in early
19th century.

3
developing nations like Bangladesh. In these nations, education is considered to be the

most effective and efficient tool to uplift the derailed status of women. Because,

education is the conduit for the preservation, transmission and promotion of culture and

cultural values that provides the means to reproduce the cultural heritage, to manage

economic progress, to facilitate advancement of knowledge, to better use of human and

mineral resources and to enhance individual’s ability to identify cultural changes and

economic opportunities (MacPherson 1982; Van Valey 2001). Thereafter, the

development of a nation as well as the progress of women’s condition are closely

interconnected as, through its multiplicity, it enhances individual’s knowledge, skills,

values and attitudes that provide the manpower to disseminate and accomplish socio-

economic and cultural needs of the nation and provides an opportunity to empower

individuals, especially, women (Moinifer 2011).

However, the role of higher education to empower women, particularly in Bangladesh,

how it changes women’s condition, what opportunities and facilities it offers women to be

empowered are not sorted out yet. To find out the answers for all these questions, this

study was carried out under the hypothesis of: ‘Higher education contributes to women

empowerment in urban Bangladesh’ which eventually would justify the impact of higher

education on women empowerment in urban Bangladesh.

Methods and Materials

This study was carried out following survey research design. Data were collected from

Sonadanga and Nirala Residential Area, established mainly for the high class residents of

Khulna Metropolitan City, under Khulna City Corporation (KCC) of Bangladesh

(Salahuddin et al. 2010). Stratified random sampling technique was used to select the unit

of sample, who had higher education i.e. 15 to 18 years of schooling. A total of 140

4
respondents, out of 437 educated married women, were selected at 95% confidence level,

considering an error of 6.84 from the population list conducted by the researchers (Survey

System 2011). Data were collected through an interview-schedule administering both

open and close ended items.

To measure women empowerment, an index was constructed by eight interlinked and

mutually reinforcing indices on women empowerment, i.e. control on resources, mobility,

involvement in income generating activities, participation in social and political events,

decisive role in household and reproductive health decisions and access to information,

were incorporated into the survey tool, suggested and used by Longwe (March et al.

1999) and Parveen and Leonhäuser (2004) respectively. 46 Likert-type attitudinal

questions, containing five possible responses were offered. Afterward, an index, for each

category of women empowerment indices, was constructed by adding up the responses

and the sum of the scores was divided into three equal intervals 2, i.e. high, medium and

low, to facilitate and to conduct bivariate analyses. Finally, the sum of the total responses

from eight indices of women empowerment was used to construct the Women

Empowerment Index (WEI). Pearson’s Chi Square test was incorporated to test the

hypothesis of the study and to measure the association between women’s higher education

and empowerment.

2
The scores, of a single domain, were divided into equal intervals by the following calculation –

i = (H-L) ÷ C
Where ‘H’ means highest value, ‘L’ stands for Lowest Value and ‘C’ signifies Number of Categories.

5
Findings of the Study

Background Information of the Respondents

Socio-economic status of the people is an influential factor of women empowerment.

Findings reveal that majority of the respondents belonged to the age group of 28 to 32

years (38.6%), two-fifth of them were aged around mid-twenties (18.6%) and thirties

(20.7%) respectively; and less than a quarter was above 40 years of age. About three

fourth of the total respondents were Muslims (75.7%), followed by 22.9 percent Hindus

and only 1.4 percent was Christians. Irrespective of religion, all the respondents were

seemingly lived in the male-headed households, mostly under husband’s jurisdiction

(86.4%), as the males historically occupy absolute supremacy in Bangladesh society that

in the long run facilitates their control over resources and decision making power to rule

over the family affairs (BBS 2009). The average household size of the respondents was

3.78, to be exact, much lesser than the national household size (4.4), according to

Population Census 2011 (BBS 2011); however, there were some respondents (12.1%)

reported to have a family with more than 5 members. Data also disclose that the

respondents had, on average, 16 years of schooling, graduation (60.7%) in particular; that

eventually delayed the age at marriage, as late as 30 years. Jahan et al. (2010) also found

that age at marriage of the woman significantly associated with the individual’s level of

education, the higher the education, the higher the age at marriage of the women. In spite

of high educational background, a significant percent of the respondents remained

economically dependent (39.3%), because of high concentration in semi-skilled and

unskilled informal and less productive economic activities or household chores (Afrin et

al. 2008). Thus, the average monthly income of the respondents was BDT 9,059.29 only.

6
Table-1: Background Information of the Respondents

Variables Number of Respondents & Percent Mean & Standard Deviation

Age (in Years)
23-27 26 (18.6%)
28-32 54 (38.6%)
33-37 29 (20.7%)
32.54 Years (5.739)
38-42 21 (15.0%)
43-47 10 (7.1%)
Total 140 (100.0%)
Religious Status
Muslim 106 (75.7%)
Hindu 32 (22.9%)
Christian 02 (1.4%)
Total 140 (100.0%)
Head of the Household
Father 06 (4.3%)
Husband 121 (86.4%)
In-laws 13 (9.3%)
Total 140 (100.0%)
Size of the Family (in Person)
<3 31 (22.1%)
3-5 92 (65.7%)
3.78 (1.285)
5> 17 (12.1%)
Total 140 (100.0%)
Age at Marriage (in Years)
16-19 08 (5.7%)
20-23 44 (31.4%)
24-27 63 (45.0%)
24.32 Years (3.254)
28-31 23 (16.4%)
32-35 02(1.4%)
Total 140 (100.0%)
Education (in Years)
Graduation (15-16) 85 (60.7%)
Post-Graduation (17-18) 55 (39.3%) 16.06 Years (.887)
Total 140 (100.0%)
Occupation
Housewife 53 (37.9%)
Service 80 (57.1%)
Business 5 (3.6%)
Student 2 (1.4%)
Total 140 (100.0%)
Income (in BDT)
No Income 55 (39.3%)
< 8,001 17 (12.1%)
8,001-16,000 31 (22.1%) BDT 9,059. 29 (8753.448)
16,001 > 37 (26.4%)
Total 140 (100.0%)

Higher Education and Controlling Power over Resources

Data, presented in the Table 2, show that women’s controlling power over household

resources depends on their level of education, and the difference is statistically significant

7
(X2=11.080; p < .004). Women, completed post-graduation, have greater control, ranging

from high to medium, over household resources compared to graduated women.

Table-2: Relationship between Higher Education and Controlling Power over Resources

Controlling Power over Resources3

Level of Education Total

High Medium Low

Graduation 46 (57.5%) 24 (53.3%) 15 (100.0%) 85 (60.7%)
Post-Graduation 34 (42.5%) 21 (46.7%) 0 (0.0%) 55 (39.3%)
Total 80 (100.0%) 45 (100.0%) 15 (100.0%) 140 (100.0%)
Pearson’s X2 = 11.080 (2); p < .004 (0.01)

Higher Education and Social Mobility

Data in the Table 3 show an empirical difference between women’s social mobility based

on their levels of education, and the difference is statistically significant (X2=15.457; p < .

000). Women, having completed post-graduation, have higher social mobility compared

to women with graduation, as the former is concentrated mostly in high and medium

domains of the social mobility.

Table-3: Relationship between Higher Education and Social Mobility

Social Mobility4
Level of Education Total

High Medium Low

Graduation 66 (70.2%) 16 (37.2%) 3 (100.0%) 85 (60.7%)
Post-Graduation 28 (29.8%) 27 (62.8%) 0 (0.0%) 55 (39.3%)
Total 94 (100.0%) 43 (100.0%) 3 (100.0%) 140 (100.0%)
Pearson’s X2 = 15.457 (2); p < .000 (0.01)

Higher Education and Participation in Income Generating Activities

Data, presented in the Table 4, disclose that women’s involvement in income generating

activities varies with their levels of education, and the difference is statistically significant

(X2=10.715; p < .005). A significant percent of post-graduated as well as graduated

3
Low = 6-10, Medium = 11-16, High = 16 >
4
Low = 6-10, Medium = 11-16, High = 16 >

8
women were involved in formal income generating activities. However, a notable

proportion of the educated women were economically inactive even though attaining

higher education.

Table-4: Relationship between Education and Income Generating Activities

Participation in Income Generating Activities5

Level of Education Total

High Medium Low

Graduation 8 (80.0%) 39 (75.0%) 38 (48.7%) 85 (60.7%)
Post-Graduation 2 (20.0%) 13 (25.0%) 40 (51.3%) 55 (39.3%)
Total 10 (100.0%) 52 (100.0%) 78 (100.0%) 140 (100.0%)
Pearson’s X2 = 10.715 (2); p < .005 (0.01)

Higher Education and Participation in Social Activities

Data, in the Table 5, expose that women’s participation in social activities does not vary

with their levels of education, and the difference is not statistically significant (X2=3.060;

p > .217). A significant percent of educated women of both graduated and post-graduated

categories reported to have least participation in the social activities. One explanation for

such is that these women either involved in productive activities, i.e. service, business or

study, or household responsibilities rather than social events; therefore, they were

reluctant to participate in different social occasions.

Table-5: Relationship between Education and Participation in Social Activities

Participation in Social Activities6

Level of Education Total

High Medium Low

Graduation 12 (70.6%) 28 (51.9%) 45 (65.2%) 85 (60.7%)
Post-Graduation 5 (29.4%) 26 (48.1%) 24 (34.8%) 55 (39.3%)
Total 17 (100.0%) 54 (100.0%) 69 (100.0%) 140 (100.0%)
Pearson’s X2 = 3.060 (2); p > .217 (0.01)

Higher Education and Participation in Political Activities

5
Low = 4-7, Medium = 8-11, High = 11 >
6
Low = 7-8, Medium = 9-10, High = 10 >

9
Data show that women’s participation in political activities does not vary with their levels

of education (Table 6), and the difference is not statistically significant (X2=4.672; p > .

097). Though post-graduated women were more likely participated in the political

activities than the graduated women, however, the women of both categories were

reluctant to involve directly in political activities.

Table-6: Relationship between Education and Participation in Political Activities

Participation in Political Activities7

Level of Education Total

High Medium Low

Graduation 2 (25.0%) 18 (60.0%) 65 (63.7%) 85 (60.7%)
Post-Graduation 6 (75.0%) 12 (40.0%) 37 (36.3%) 55 (39.3%)
Total 8 (100.0%) 30 (100.0%) 102 (100.0%) 140 (100.0%)
Pearson’s X2 = 4.672 (2); p > .097 (0.01)

Higher Education and Participation in Family Decision Making Process

Data, presented in the Table 7, show that women’s participation in family decision

making process depends largely on their levels of education, and the difference is

statistically significant (X2 = 10.640; p < .005). Women with higher degrees had greater

influential role over the household decision making process than the graduated women.

However, it is visible from the findings that education is facilitating women to mark their

influential and commanding existence within households.

Table-7: Relationship between Education and Participation in Family Decision Making Process

Participation in Family Decision8

Level of Education Total

High Medium Low

Graduation 18 (40.9%) 44 (68.8%) 23 (71.9%) 85 (60.7%)
Post-Graduation 26 (59.1%) 20 (31.2%) 9 (28.1%) 55 (39.3%)
Total 44 (100.0%) 64 (100.0%) 32 (100.0%) 140 (100.0%)
Pearson’s X2 = 10.640 (2); p < .005 (0.01)

7
Low = 7-9, Medium = 10-12, High = 12 >
8
Low = 6-11, Medium = 12-17, High = 17 >

10
Higher Education and Participation in Reproductive Health Decisions

Data, illustrated in the Table 8, show a difference between women’s participation in

reproductive health decisions on the basis of their educational qualifications, and the

difference is statistically significant (X2 = 13.265; p < .001). The post-graduated women

reportedly had greater participation in reproductive health decisions than the graduated

women.

Table-8: Relationship between Education and Participation in Reproductive Health Decisions

Participation in Decision regarding Reproductive Health9

Level of Education Total

High Medium Low

Graduation 55 (52.4%) 21 (80.8%) 9 (100.0%) 85 (60.7%)
Post-Graduation 50 (47.6%) 5 (19.2%) 0 (0.0%) 55 (39.3%)
Total 105 (100.0%) 26 (100.0%) 9 (100.0%) 140 (100.0%)
Pearson’s X2 = 13.265 (2); p < .001 (0.01)

Higher Education and Knowledge regarding Women’s Right and Violation

Women’s knowledge regarding their rights and vulnerabilities depends largely on their

education and their access to information. Data, in the Table 9, illuminate that women

with higher education have greater knowledge about the laws, and other provisions

regarding their rights, and they were well informed about the prevailing oppression

against women as compared to women with Graduation. Thus, the difference between

these educated classes, regarding their knowledge on women’s rights and vulnerabilities,

is statistically significant (X2 = 14.562; p < .001).

Table-9: Relationship between Education and Knowledge regarding Women’s Right and
Violation

9
Low = 11-13, Medium = 14-16, High = 16 >

11
 Knowledge about Women's Right and Violation10
Level of Education Total

High Medium Low

Graduation 24 (42.1%) 59 (72.8%) 2 (100.0%) 85 (60.7%)
Post-Graduation 33 (57.9%) 22 (27.2%) 0 (0.0%) 55 (39.3%)
Total 57 (100.0%) 81 (100.0%) 2 (100.0%) 140 (100.0%)
Pearson’s X2 = 14.562 (2); p < .001 (0.01)

Higher Education and Women Empowerment

Education has been hailed, by the governments and development agencies, as an effective

tool to uplift women’s status from inferior to relatively equal status in the male-dominated

society of both developed and developing nations. The present study stress to explore

whether higher education among women changes their position and enhances their

control, social mobility and participation in decision making process or increases their

knowledge or access to information or not. Data, presented in the Table 10, show that the

graduated as well as post-graduated women were empowered. However, the incidence of

empowerment was higher among the post-graduated women and the difference between

these two educated classes is statistically significant (X2 = 10.373; p < .006).

Table-10: Relationship between Education and Women Empowerment (Index)

Women Empowerment (Index)11

Level of Education Total

High Medium Low

Graduation Count 35 (51.5%) 38 (63.3%) 12 (100.0%) 85 (60.7%)
Post-Graduation Count 33 (48.5%) 22 (36.7%) 0 (0.0%) 55 (39.3%)
Total Count 68 (100.0%) 60 (100.0%) 12 (100.0%) 140 (100.0%)
Pearson’s X2 = 10.373 (2); p < .006 (0.01)

Discussion

Patriarchal values and ideologies are deeply embedded within the society that eventually

impedes women’s independence and restricts women within the web of gender

10
Low = 6-9, Medium = 10-13, High = 13 >
11
Low = 71-88, Medium = 89-106, High = 106 >

12
stereotypic roles, mostly expressive (Parsons and Bales 1955). Therefore, they hardly

have any control over the household resources; barely allowed to move alone outside

their households without any company, especially of males; often discouraged to

participate in income generating activities as well as social and political events like voting

behavior. They generally follow the decisions, made by the dominant-male within their

households, including the reproductive and health decisions. Women’s such subjugation is

further pushed forward because of their unwillingness and lack of opportunities to learn

about their legal, social, political and cultural rights (Varghese 2011). The industrial

revolution, followed by the world wars in early 20 th century and the successive feminist

movements, brought women into the day-light as they were given the opportunities to

educate themselves and to get involved in formal economic activities that entail them into

power exercising roles within their households and in society at large (Tong 1998; Ahmed

2004; CWD 2007). The present study stresses to understand how women’s exposure to

higher education changes their status, power, control and mobility within their respective

households and empowers them.

Findings of the study reveal that a significant percent of the educated women admitted to

have greater control over their household resources, i.e. income and savings and so on,

and it is statistically significant (p < .004) as well. Behrman et al. (2005) observed that

women’s increased education leads to higher involvement in income (p < .005), that

eventually increases their ability to support themselves, and lessens their dependence on

men. Additionally, it reduces the perceived gender gap within the society (Mowla 2009).

As a result, women are now moving outside their households (Kamal and Zunaid 2010),

even without the company of the male members of the family (p < .000).

13
Unlike the increased social mobility, as evident in the present study, the respondents

reported to have low involvement in social and political events. Findings, indeed, do not

imply that higher education impedes or discourages women to participate in social get-

together or cultural events or political activities like voting behavior. Instead, education

increases women’s option to choose, enlarges their aspirations and self-concepts and

enhances their opportunities to express their views and mobilizes them to participate in

different social and cultural activities (Adeola and Olufunke 2010). Khan and Ara (2006),

on the contrary, observed that women’s limited participation in social and political

activities, however, are the consequences of women’s close tie to their reproductive roles

as well as the patriarchal attitudes, embedded deep into the society. These household

responsibilities and social obligations, thus, may permit little time to engage in social and

cultural events (p > .217). Besides, the political instability and violence discourages both

educated men and women to engage in direct political actions in Bangladesh (p > .097).

In spite of relatively low engagement in formal economic activities, the respondents of

the study show a positive change in the decision making process within their households.

A significant percent of the women admitted to have greater power to make decisions

regarding buying and selling of daily necessities, ensuring health and education for

children, deciding of food menu and so on (p < .005). It is also evident that a large

number of the educated women are more inclined to make decisions of their reproductive

health issues, including the use of contraceptives, birth spacing, and frequency of sexual

intercourse and so on (Breierova and Duflo 2004). In Bangladesh, particularly in rural

areas, men are still the prime decider over their wives on reproductive health issues,

whether they are educated or not. However, the findings show relatively positive change

as per higher education is concern (p < .001). Additionally, the study reveals that with the

consistent exposure to higher education, together with the mass media, majority of the

14
respondents are familiar with the laws and regulations regarding their rights (Dighe

1995); and the discriminations and violence that has taken place against women in the

male-dominated society (p < .001). Mukhopadhyay (2008) argued that women’s exposure

to higher education increases vocal against all the social injustices, including early

marriage, dowry, domestic violence and so on, even if they remain economically

dependent on men.

Findings of the study, in fine, show that the women’s attainment of higher education

significantly (p < .006) affects their empowerment process. It was also observed by Ojobo

(2008). Education is the cornerstone for the sustainable development and a catalyst for

women empowerment, including social, economic, political and cultural aspects. It

benefits women’s marital obligations as loving mother and caring wife, increases

economical production through knowledge and skills, ensures quality health through

balanced diet and medication, contributes to national and social development and gains

financial success by involving in income generating activities and triggers a total-

structural change that the feminists expected for women.

Conclusion

It is evident from the above discussion that education is playing a pivotal role to increase

women’s control over household resources, mobilizes them to participate in economically

productive activities, enhances their decision making roles and responsibilities in family

and in reproductive health, grows conscientization about their legal rights and violence

against women. Thus, to apprehend women empowerment, more and more women should

be encouraged to acquire higher education, particularly in developing countries like

Bangladesh, which ultimately privileges women into more equal and equitable positions

within the social and power structure of the society. The government of Bangladesh and

15
their development partners, therefore, must create opportunities for female education,

irrespective of urban and rural settings, to promote women’s socio-economic status, to

enhance their participation in decision making process and to change the thousand-year

old social systems of Bangladesh, in order to endorse national solidarity as well as social

development. Apart from these, they should stress on women’s economic empowerment

so that women can attain greater social standing within their households and in the

society, granting greater voice in important issues, including reproductive health and

hereditary property rights. Finally, women’s empowerment is a complex issue that it

cannot be achieved overnight. An increase of people’s awareness, of both men and

women, is necessary in this regard. Moreover, an integrated approach to ensuring

women’s education, creating income-generating opportunities, and providing healthcare

facilities should be taken by the government and non-government organizations of

Bangladesh.

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