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Realisation of a Semi-Kinematic Geodetic Datum using
an Absolute Deformation Model (ADM)
R. Stanaway, C. Roberts
School of Surveying and Spatial Information Systems, University of New South Wales
Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia; email richard.stanaway@student.unsw.edu.au, c.roberts@unsw.edu.au
G. Blick
Land Information New Zealand, Lambton House, 160 Lambton Quay, Private Box 5501, Wellington, New
Zealand ; email gblick@linz.govt.nz
Abstract. This paper describes a schema for an
absolute deformation model (ADM) that can be used
to transform point positions captured in the
International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF)
and World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) to a
reference epoch consistently over time. The ADM
schema described includes models of rigid plate
motion, plate boundary deformation and non-secular
deformation (e.g. coseismic and postseismic effects
or subsidence). Application of an ADM can enable
consistent Precise Point Positioning (PPP) over time
and seamless integration of Continuously Operating
Reference Station (CORS) networks within
deforming zones. An ADM can also ensure
consistency of time-tagged spatial datasets (e.g. laser
scanned point clouds and digital cadastral databases)
and GIS within a kinematic environment. An ADM
can also be used as the basis for static realisations of
a national or regional kinematic datum.
Keywords. semi-kinematic datum, dynamic datum,
PPP, reference frame, deformation model
_________________________________________
1 Introduction
The use of global kinematic reference frames such as
ITRF and WGS84 in positioning, navigation and
mapping is now widespread. Positions within these
reference frames can be acquired with a precision of
between a few millimetres and several metres
depending upon the choice of GNSS receiver,
differential service or processing method.
A major dilemma arises when these positioning
technologies are used to reposition fixed locations on
the Earth’s surface (e.g. land surveying, airborne
laser scanning, deformation monitoring, precision
agriculture and automated mining). Coordinates of
fixed locations within a kinematic reference frame
(or “dynamic datum”) change by up to 100 mm/yr
due to plate tectonics. Where large earthquakes
occur, coordinate changes of up to several metres in
1
magnitude are possible. Unmodelled deformation is
undesirable if surveys referenced to different
measurement epochs of a kinematic datum are to be
integrated or correlated.
This paper introduces the concept of an absolute
deformation model (ADM) where models of plate
motion and plate boundary deformation can be used
to transform ITRF coordinates to any reference
epoch in order to maintain consistency of
coordinates within a local context. Adoption of an
ADM by Single Point Positioning (SPP) and PPP
services is essential where coordinate repeatability
within a localised reference frame is required over
long periods. An ADM is also essential if positions
generated by SPP and PPP are used in conjunction
with localised CORS networks within a static or
semi-kinematic datum framework. An ADM also has
applications where CORS networks in deforming
zones are used to generate Network Real-Time
Kinematic (NRTK) corrections, and to improve the
precision of long baseline processing within a static
or semi-kinematic datum.
2 The objective of an ADM
The objective of an ADM is to enable coordinates
defined by a kinematic reference frame such as ITRF
to be transformed to the reference epoch of a ground
fixed coordinate system (or static localised reference
frame). This approach ensures that users of high
precision GNSS are not faced with the problem of
dealing with constantly changing coordinates, which
is a characteristic of a kinematic system. Many
countries in tectonically active areas have developed
a semi-kinematic datum to account for deformation
between measurement and reference epochs in order
to maintain consistency of coordinates within the
datum (e.g. Blick et al., 2006). The ADM schema
described in this paper extends this concept on a
global scale so that in effect, even tectonically stable
areas can benefit from a semi-kinematic realisation
of ITRF as a basis for a geodetic datum. To support
consistency of an ADM at a global level, an
international geodetic or spatial agency is required to
maintain and host an ADM. The International Earth
Rotation and Reference Frame Service (IERS)
already maintains the ITRF in a similar way.
Regional, national and local deformation models
ideally would be consistent with the ADM.
3 Benefits of a Semi-Kinematic Datum
Many countries and regions which straddle major
plate boundaries have adopted a semi-kinematic (or
semi-dynamic) geodetic datum in order to prevent
degradation of the datum as a function of time due to
ongoing crustal deformation that is occurring within
the country, e.g. New Zealand (Blick et al., 2006),
Western USA (Pearson et al., 2010), Japan (Tanaka
et al., 2007) and Papua New Guinea (Stanaway,
2004). The two major drivers for the adoption of a
semi-kinematic datum in these countries have been:
(1) the widespread adoption of precision GNSS
techniques for surveying and positioning and, (2) the
need to maintain consistency of coordinates to
support combination and integration of spatial
information acquired at different epochs. A
deformation model is an integral part of a semi-
kinematic datum and works by allowing precision
measurements made across deforming zones to be
“corrected” to the epoch of realisation of the
geodetic datum by accounting for relative
deformation computed between the two epochs by
the deformation model.
4 Limitations of Static Geodetic Datums
Countries and regions located on relatively stable
tectonic landmasses such as Australia, South Africa,
Brazil, Eastern USA, Germany and the UK have
geodetic datums that do not deform significantly as a
function of time. Typically, baselines measured
between any stable geodetic monuments in these
countries change by less than a few centimetres on
decadal time scales. This stability has supported the
adoption of a static geodetic datum for such regions.
The major limitation with a static geodetic datum
arises from the ongoing divergence between ITRF
and the fixed coordinates of a static geodetic
network due to rigid plate motion. While the
network may not necessarily be deforming internally
to any significant degree, the lithospheric plate on
which the network sits is moving as a rigid body
over the Earth’s asthenospheric mantle. The impact
of this deformation is noticeable where precision
GNSS techniques are used to compute ITRF
2
coordinates. For example, services such as
OmniStar-HP (Omnistar, 2010) and NRCan PPP
(Nrcan, 2010) deliver centimetre to decimetre
precise ITRF coordinates to users. Repeat surveys as
little as a few months apart are adversely affected by
coordinate changes due to tectonic motion
(Stanaway and Roberts, 2010). Satellite-Based
Augmentation Systems (SBAS) and improvements
to SPP such as the implementation of the new higher
resolution L5/E5 interoperable signals (Roberts,
2011) will possibly enable decimetre level real-time
positioning for the mass market by 2020. The
implications of these improvements are enormous, as
the international geodetic community as well as
vendors of GNSS hardware and associated software
do not currently have a uniform strategy to handle
this deformation. Another limitation of a static
datum arises from the processing of long GNSS
baselines. If the static coordinates of a reference
station are held fixed, rigid plate rotation of a long
baseline will degrade the precision of the point
computation as a function of time (Dawson and
Woods, 2010).
The rapid uptake of high-precision GNSS systems
configured to ITRF or WGS84 by a wide spectrum
of users will conflict with static datum positioning
unless the issue of tectonic deformation is addressed.
Datums can either become fully kinematic
(dynamic), or semi-kinematic. A deformation model
can be adopted to enable ITRF positions to be
transformed into a static or semi-kinematic system at
the moment of position acquisition so that users do
not see coordinate changes due to global plate
motions.
5 Limitations of Kinematic Datums
GNSS devices which use ITRF or closely aligned
systems position users in agreement with the
underlying kinematic frame, however, in practice
there are a number of very significant drawbacks to a
kinematic datum. Surveys undertaken at different
epochs cannot be combined or integrated unless a
deformation model is applied rigorously, or is
embedded within the data, and the data are correctly
time-tagged. Three-dimensional data sets acquired
by laser scanning techniques (e.g. airborne or
terrestrial laser scanning) are often several terabytes
in size and comparison of point clouds offset by a
different realisation within a kinematic system
imposes an increased computational workload and
potential for error. High-precision automated GNSS
techniques are rapidly being adopted in the
agricultural, mining and transport sectors (e.g.
aviation, lane control and shipping). Unless spatial
models of farm machinery tracks, mine
infrastructure, berths and runways also move several
centimetres a year to maintain alignment with a
kinematic system, the limitations of a kinematic
datum soon become apparent as kinematic and
ground-fixed coordinates become misaligned.
6 A Hierarchy for Geodetic Datums
There are two competing drivers for adoption of a
kinematic datum. The main conflict is between the
current requirements of users for static datums
(which inevitably leads to inconsistent coordinates of
ground-fixed features) and the complexities of
geodynamics. On the one hand, there is the need for
a kinematic and high precision global reference
frame to compute precise GNSS orbits and to
monitor real-time changes in the Earth (e.g. Global
Geodetic Observing System - GGOS) (Plag and
Pearlman, 2009). On the other hand, there is the need
for coordinate consistency within a localised
reference frame to support cadastral surveys, land
management, spatial data management, mapping and
precision navigation where coordinate stability (and
by definition positioning repeatability) are essential
(Stanaway and Roberts, 2009).
At present, the latest realisation of ITRF fulfils the
role of a high precision global scientific datum,
however the kinematic nature of ITRF precludes
practical adoption for the majority of users and real-
world applications. Rather, a two-tiered hierarchy
can be used to overcome the limitations of both
kinematic and static datums, while still retaining the
benefits of both. Transformation between kinematic
and static datums can be achieved by the use of
deformation models and kinematic transformation
parameters such as the 14 parameter model adopted
in Australia (Dawson and Woods, 2010). The
conventional static geodetic datum is replaced by a
kinematic (dynamic) datum and a deformation or
transformation model to support non-scientific users.
A “one size fits all” datum approach is not a
workable option as it fails to meet the requirements
of most users.
7 The Absolute Deformation Model Concept
An “absolute” model implies that the deformation is
modelled with respect to an Earth-Centred Earth-
Fixed (ECEF) reference frame consistent with the
latest IERS Conventions. An ADM can be used to
predict ITRF (absolute) site velocities at any
location. The ITRF site velocity is then used to
compute the displacement of the location between
3
the epoch of measurement or acquisition and a
reference epoch. An ADM can also be used for
processing of long GNSS baselines by forward
prediction of the ITRF coordinates of a CORS
reference station from a reference epoch. This
approach enables processing and network analysis to
be accomplished wholly within ITRF thereby
eliminating the effects of plate rotation between the
measurement and reference epochs. The same ADM
can then be used in reverse to compute the rover
station coordinates at the reference epoch.
8 Different Structures for an ADM
Regular Global Grid
A global grid of different resolutions (e.g. 1° or 0.1°)
of ITRF site velocities can be computed from
geophysical models and known site velocities. A
regular grid can be interpolated in much the same
way as a geoid model (e.g. by bilinear interpolation)
in order to obtain a site velocity. The size of the
interval would dictate the precision of the computed
velocity. A coarse model will generate velocities
with large uncertainties in rapidly deforming
boundary zones, hence the resolution of the model is
an important consideration. For example, two nodes
of the grid may lie on different tectonic plates and a
standardised interpolation method in these instances
is not ideal.
Irregular Global Grid
A global model of varying density sample size can
overcome the limitations of a regular grid, however
may require slightly more complex interpolation
methods in order to derive a site velocity. The
density can be increased in tectonically active areas,
rapidly rotating microplates or crustal blocks (Fig.
1).
Figure 1. Irregular global grid of modelled site velocities
showing increased density in plate boundary zones.
The model density can be a function of the desired
precision of the site velocity. An irregular grid can
be constrained by polygons joining sample points
along plate boundaries in a similar way that
breaklines are used in digital terrain models.
Rigid Plate Model
Approximately 94% of the Earth’s surface lies on
rigid tectonic plates where localised deformation
rarely exceeds more than a few mm/yr (Stanaway
and Roberts, 2009). Rigid plates consist of segments
of the Earth’s crust rotating over the mantle. Rigid
plate motion can be parameterised by three
parameters, either by definition of the Euler pole of
rotation, or the rotation of the Cartesian axes with
respect to the inertial Earth frame. The Earth’s
surface can be divided into irregular polygons
defining the boundaries of the respective plates (Fig.
2) in order that the correct plate can be assigned for
any given location to enable a site velocity to be
estimated.
Figure 2. Simplified polygon model of tectonic plates
For the 6% of the Earth’s surface located within
active deforming zones, improved precision can be
achieved by higher precision definition of
microplates and crustal blocks within these regions.
The larger the number of plates defined, the lower
the uncertainty of the site velocity will be at any
given location. This approach is limited by the
effects of locked faults within any plate boundary
zone.
Plate and Fault Model
The rigid plate model described above can be
augmented with models of locked faults within plate
boundary zones, so that the resulting effects of
interseismic strain accumulation can be modelled
correctly and applied to the computed rigid plate site
velocity. In many areas within plate boundary zones,
locations on the opposite plate can mimic the motion
of the adjoining plate while an active fault is locked.
Application of this type of model has already been
implemented in the Western USA (Pearson et al.,
2010). This strategy can be applied globally,
especially where models of locked faults are well-
defined (e.g. Japan and Chile).
4
An Actual Site Velocity Model
An irregular global grid model can be augmented by
points with known (measured) site velocities. These
can be CORS stations or passive survey monuments
with a sufficiently good history of space geodetic
observations to enable an ITRF site velocity to be
estimated. A major advantage of this approach is that
it limits potential inconsistencies between modelled
and measured site velocities at a common location,
and is well suited to NRTK CORS networks in
deforming zones.
Hybrid Models
Different model structures can be combined to
maintain small model size and acceptable precision.
A hybrid model could be constructed by dividing the
Earth’s surface into polygons, with each polygon
assigned a model type with associated data points or
rigid plate rotation parameters. Within a specified
radius of the data point, secondary interpolation
could be applied to ensure consistency with a CORS
network, for example.
9 Seismic Deformation and Non-Secularity
In order for an ADM to be effective, non-secular
effects such as site velocity changes, coseismic and
postseismic deformation and need to be included by
supplementary patching. These effects are treated
differently depending upon the structure of the ADM
adopted. For models which do not include actual
stations, slip-dislocation models can be used (as
described in HTDP, Pearson et al., 2010) to compute
seismic deformation. Actual site velocity models
consisting of CORS stations can incorporate epoch
dependent events to define the non-secular motion
and velocity in much the same way as the latest
realisations of ITRF do (Altamimi et al., 2007).
Where passive stations have been subjected to
seismic or other disturbance, the offsets can be
inferred so long as the model fits the actual ITRF
realisations at the different epochs of measurement
in the station’s history. Postseismic deformation is
typically represented by an exponential decay
function, however exponential decay can also be
represented by step functions or incremental changes
in velocity. Alternatively the period of postseismic
decay can be “quarantined” and mapped into the
cosesismic epoch. Coseismic effects from
aftershocks can be significant and these can preclude
the use of constant decay terms derived from the
main-shock.
CORS specific coordinate changes resulting from
monument disturbance, receiver firmware and
antenna changes should be handled differently. deformation. To minimise deformation model file
These effects need to be carefully defined and sizes in complex areas, it should be possible to clip a
modelled for NRTK applications, but are not portion of the model to cover the local region in a
representative of localised tectonic deformation, and similar way to the use of geoid models in GNSS
need to be decoupled from tectonic modelling and receiver controllers, for example.
interpolation.
In a similar way, patch models can be applied to
10 Patching of Episodic Deformation model earthquake and other localised deformation of
a more permanent nature. Patch models should be
Strict adherence to modelling of seismic deformation updated after each major seismic event (Fig. 3).
does create a practical dilemma at the location of a
fault trace where relative deformation has occurred
(Blick et al., 2009). Incorporation of coseismic terms
will mean that the coordinates of locations at a
reference epoch before the event on either site of the
fault trace will be the same before and after the
earthquake. To some extent a local coordinate
system should reflect local reality so that coordinates
can be used for engineering and construction.

In localised instances reverse patches can be applied

so that the effects of permanent deformation along a
fault trace augment the deformation model. This
strategy is explained in detail by Winefield et al.,
(2010). How the transition between the reverse patch
and neighbouring plate is handled warrants further
investigation. One approach is to develop patches
from interferometric synthetic aperture radar
(INSAR) models to map surface deformation.
11 Vertical Deformation Models
All ADMs, with the exception of a Rigid Plate
Model, can include models of vertical deformation,
for example arising from tectonic deformation,
glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA), or subsidence due
to groundwater redistribution. A Hybrid Rigid Plate
used to model horizontal site velocities can be
augmented with a vertical deformation grid. CORS
NRTK networks require precise modelling of
vertical deformation in order to prevent degradation
of the NRTK solution.
12 Deformation Models in Practice
Secular and non-secular deformation ideally should
be separated in practice. Secular deformation
supports a stable localised reference frame, whereas
episodic and localised non-secular deformation,
does not. Many modern GNSS positioning
techniques such as NRTK require high precision
models. The base model can be defined by a rigid
plate model and augmented with a grid based model
in deforming zones to account for strain
accumulation. This grid based model can have a
nested structure to account for more complex secular
Figure 3. Deformation model in practice showing how
cumulative patches can accommodate seismic deformation
within an interseismic deformation model.
13 Maintenance and Evolution of an ADM
An ADM can only improve as more CORS stations
come online and the network of passive marks with
known site velocities expands. These observations
result in improved definitions of rigid plates and
fault models. In tectonically active countries fixing a
reference epoch at some time in the past presents
many challenges to surveyors and managers of
spatial information, even with highly developed
deformation models and earthquake patches.
Updates of the reference epoch at more regular
intervals, particularly after a major seismic event,
would overcome some of the issues resulting from
complex deformation of the datum. Improvements to
ITRF result in increasingly small coordinate and site
velocity changes at common epochs between the
different realisations. By using an ADM, these
changes can be mapped into the model so that
reference epoch coordinates defined by an earlier
realisation of ITRF do not need to change, and
different jurisdictions could be responsible for their
own data.

5
 14 Conclusion
High precision GNSS positioning and navigation is
very rapidly highlighting the disparity between
global kinematic reference frames such as ITRF and
WGS84, and traditional static geodetic datums. The
disparity is brought about by the increasingly
widespread use of PPP and the sensitivity of these
techniques to deformation of the Earth due to plate
tectonics. In order for precision GNSS techniques to
continue to deliver temporally stable coordinates
within a localised reference frame, all significant
deformations should be modelled in a consistent
way. The modelling schema described in this paper
shows how instantaneous ITRF coordinates can be
transformed to the reference epoch of a static
geodetic datum, or localised reference frame. The
schema also shows how permanent deformations
arising from seismic activity, uplift and subsidence
can be applied by reverse patching techniques.
15 Acknowledgements
Chris Crook of LINZ has devoted some time to
reviewing this paper and has provided some insights
into how deformation modelling is being
implemented in New Zealand with NZGD2000.
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