Q E O L O G I N E N TUTKIMUSLAITOS '

GEOTaXNILLISIA JULKAISUJ A M o 68

ON SEISMIC PROSPECTING
LECTURES
BY
ADOLP A. T. METZGER, P. TAANILA, ESKO PENTTI-
AND M. T. PORKKA

O T A N I E M I 1965
 GEOLOGINEN TUTKIMUSLAITOS
G E O T E K N I L L I S I K J U L K A I S U J A N:o 6 8

ON SEISMIC PROSPECTING
LECTURES
BY

ADOLF A. T. METZGER, P. TAANILA, E S K O PENTTILA,

AND M. T. PORKKA

O T A N I E M I 1965
Helsinki 1965. Valtioneuvoston kirjapaino
 FOREWORD

This publication is based on lectures dealing with the application of

seismic research methods and data in geological practice. They were held
a t the Symposium on Applied Seismology, Turku May 26-27, 1961, under
the leadership of Professor A. A. Th. Metzger and arranged by the Geologi-
liitto (Geologists' Association).
The symposium is a part of the advanced training program maintained
by the Geologiliitto, currently directed toward the application of geophysical
methods in geology. This booklet is the fourth based on these symposia,
published jointly by the Geological Survey of Finland and the Geologiliitto.
Warm thanks are due to Professor V. Marmo, Director of the Survey, for
accepting Papers of this kind to be published in the series Geoteknillisiä
julkaisuja.
Geologiliitto r.y.
 CONTENTS

..........................................................
FOREWORD. 3
1. ADOLBA. T. &TZOER: On the general principles of seismic prospecting . . 6
2. P. T A A N I LInvestigation
~ of construction sites for hydro-electric plrtnts by
the seismic refraction method in Finland . . .... .. .. .. .. . . . . . . .. . ... .. . . 18
3. ESKOPENTTILÄ: On seismological investigabions of crustal structure in Finland 28
4. M. T. PORKKA:
The Earth's crust .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . 36
 ON THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES O F SEISMIC PROSPECTING

by
ADOLF A. T. METZGER

Seismological observations all the world over have had a great influence
on our theories concerning the interior of the earth, particularly relative
to the structure of the crust. Compared with general seismology, seismic
prospecting deals with structures of more restricted extent. Methodically,
seismic prospecting differs from general earthquake seismology in two im-
portant ways. Firstly, the mechanical impact a t the source, creating the
elastic waves in the ground, can be released a t any time at will. This means
that the moment of impact is known exactly. Secondly, the depth of penetra-
tion can be verified with the aid of several seismometers or geophones ade-
quately spaced with respect to the source. Even the force of the impact
itself may be varied according the purpose of the survey in each individual
case.
The most usual way of creating elastic waves in the ground is to detonate
an explosive charge, usually in a drill-hole penetrating below the weathered
Zone. I n spite of the fact that the charge often is columnar in shape, one
may treat the wave fronts aniving a t distant geophones as emanating from
a point source. However, this assumption is not valid in the immediate
surroundings of the charge. I n some cases several charges are exploded
simultaneously. Even shooting in the air above the ground has been used.
The elastic impulses created a t the source are picked up by a number
of geophones, usually 12 or 24 but there may be more, placed a t different
distances from the source. The mechanical impulses are converted into
electrical ones. These are amplified and registered on a photographic film
by the motion of a battery of string galvanometers. The registration equip-
ment always includes a tirning device making time marks on the film, to
allow the reading of time differences, usually to the nearest 0.001second.
The most importad time is the moment of detonation. Commonly it is
registered on the film over a separate line connected to the shotmaster's
equipment. If the distance between source and registration equipment is
very great, the moment of detonation can be transmitted by radio. The
moment of detonation is registered, and the time of arrival of the different
events read a t each geophone. Then, since the geometric distances between
the source and the different geophones are known, the velocities of propaga-
tion of the seismic impulses can be calculated. Hence, seismic prospecting
is chiefly a question of measurement of times and distances.
The impact at the source generates elastic waves, travelling through the
ground. We can distinguish between several kinds of waves, both according
to their mode of passing through the material and to the shape of the wave
motion itself.
The propagation of seismic waves depends on the elastic properties of
the materials composing the ground. I t is beyond the scope of this paper to
provide an exhaustive treatise on elasticity. For this purpose reference
should be made to the textbooks cited at the end of the paper. Here I will
only list the most important parameters used.
If a body of volume V is subjected to a uniform stress S in all directions,
its volume will be decreased by an amount * V . The ratio between the
compressive stress and proportional ohange of volume is called the bulk
modulus
l6 = S / ( a V / V ) .

This bulk modulus represents the ability of a rock to withstand the com-
pressive stress. Its reciprocal is called the compressibility. k for rocks is
variable over wide limits. I t depends on the physical state of the rock,
on temperature and on pressure.
If a pure shearing stress is acting, this stress is observed to be proportional
to the shearing strain, provided that the change of shape can be assumed
to be very small. The proportionality constant is the shear or rigidity
modulus ,U. This modulus is an expression of tho resistaiice to shear and
- .
stress. For rocks ,U is 0. i 10-l1-4.5 10-l1 dyn/cm2.
Young's modulus or the elasticity modulus E is of great importance.
This relates the two previous moduli as follows:

Young's modulus, expressed in 10-l1 dyn/cm2, is lowest, 0.6-0.8, for

sediments, such as clays, and highest, 11.2, for rocks low in silica, such as
basalt.
If a tensile stress elongates a body, a shortening perpendicular to that
stress will result. Otherwise, a compressive stress will produce a shortening
in its direction, causing an elongation a t right angles to it. The ratio between
the deformation perpendicular to either type of deforming force and that
in the direction of the force itself is Poisson's ratio

This ratio varies from 0. i i to 0.30 for rocks, being usually about 0.2 5.
 I n more theoretical calculations the parameter A is useful. It relates E
and ,U in the following way:
3, = k -( 2 / 3 ) p ,

where / L and A are the Lame coefficients of elasticity.

Before continuing our discourse on the propagation of a seismic impulse
through the ground, it is as well to consider what may be expected to happen.
I n theoretical considerations it is generally accepted that the different
media or rocks are both homogeneous and isotropic. I n this case two para-
meters are sufficient to define the elastic state of the rocks. However, if
the material is anisotropic 21 constants will be needed to produce the Same
result in the general case. Sedimentary rocks must be anisotropic from the
beginning. Their anisotropy will be increased by the pressure of the sedi-
ments on top of them and by the development of schistosity. This results
in a difference in elasticity between the planes of strike and the directions
a t right angles to it. Such material Comes to have an elasticity that may
be defined by 5 coefficients. Practical work has shown that the anisotropy
effect is not sufficiently important to require consideration in the usual
problems of seismic prospecting.
Neither can homogeneity be expected to exist in rocks. This means that
the elastic parameters are in reality functions of space. However, their
spatial variation is quite small and unimportant in respect to the sudden
changes a t the boundaries between different rocks. However, there are
certain areas where these inhomogeneities have to be taken into account.
GeneralIy it can be stated that theoretical considerations and calculations
based on the assumption that all rocks behave as ideal elastic materials are
simplifications of the problem. So far no valid extension of the theory of
elasticity has been developed to afford a reliable explanation of the elastic
behaviour of rocks. However, this simplification is no obstacle, provided
that the only variables used are the velocities of propagation of the seismic
impulses. I n this case the deviation from the ideal elastic state is of less
importance than the errors of the method.
A mechanical impact at the source will release elastic waves travelling
through the ground. These waves produce two kinds of deformation, one
a pure deformation of volume and the other relating to shape. The first
kind produces alternate compression and rarefaction in the material or rock.
The wave motion occurs in the direction of travel. The waves are longi-
tudinal and compressional. We call them P-waves. The second kind is a
shear wave, in which the wave motion is perpendicular to the direction of
travel. These transverse shear waves are called X-waves. The velocity of
the P-waves is
V, = ([k: + (4/3)~1l@)'l%
where p is the density. The velocity of the X-waves is

From these formulae i t becomes evident that the P-waves are always
propagated a t a higher velocity than the X-waves. For this reason the
P-waves (primary waves) arrive at the geophone Stations before the S-waves
(secondary waves). Roughly, V# is about 58 % of V p .
The impulse a t the source travels through the ground a t a speed de-
pending on the elastic properties of the rock surrounding the source. If no
elastic discontinuity exists, the waves will travel symmetrically in all direc-
tions. The wave fronts take the shape of spheres, with the source as centre.
The first wave front will reach a series of geophones a t the surface a t different
times, depending on the distance of these instruments from the source.
The velocity can be calculated from the relation V = x / t , where X is distance
and t time in seconds. Depending on whether the distance is measured in
metres or kilometres (or even in feet) the velocity is expressed in metres
or kilometres per second (or feet per second). I n the case of a continuous
medium a uniform velocity will be registered at all geophones. If variation
of the velocity is found, the only possible explanation is that one or more
elastic discontinuities are hidden in the ground. We will now examine this
case.
We will first assume the case of a two-layer medium, as illustrated in
Fig. 1. At a certain depth h, a boundary plane L-L' separates the grouiid
into two media with different elastic properties. The upper strata may allow
the impulses to travel with a velocity V , and the lower strata with a velocity
V,. Further, V , < V,. We assume the thickness of the second layer to be
infinite. For the sake of simplicity both the boundary surface between the
two media and the surface plane will be assumed to be horizontal.
If we now follow the path of the wave fronts, we observe that the spherical
shape prevails only in the upper medium with the velocity V,. The first
wave front to touch the boundary plane is one which has the radius h. It
strikes the boundary vertically beneath the source. All wave fronts with a
larger radius, on reaching the boundary plane, will split into two parts, one
being reflected from the interface back to the surface and the other being
refracted into the second medium. I n our case the critical angle of refraction
in the sense of Snell's law is of special interest. This is the angle of total
reflexion i, for which sin i = V,/V,. I n Fig. 1 we have illustrated two
separate cases, one with V,/ V , = 0. a and the other with V,/ V , = 0.81
We shall first consider the first case a t the upper part of Fig. 1. The critica.
angle, or sin i = O.$, is 11.5". The ray striking the boundary plane a t this
angle to the vertical is the ray SR. At R one part of the ray is reflected back
 Fig. 1

to the surface. As the angle of reflexion is the Same as the angle of incidence,
the reflected ray will make an angle of 11 .Ei0 with the normal a t the interface,
but on the opposite side. The other, refracted part will now travel along
the boundary a t a speed V „ in our case five times faster than V,. From
these refracted impulses new impulses will rise to the surface and can be
registered there.
 We first have to consider the reflected waves. The wave fronts are agaiii
of spherical shape, but their centre is now the image of the sources a t a point
S' situated a t a depth of 2h below S . These reflected waves will reach the
surface with a velocity V1. Some of these wave fronts are shown in our
illustration.
The refracted waves, or rather wave fronts, have their centre at the
interface vertically below the source. The wider spacing of the wave pattern
in our figure shows the higher speed of the waves in the lower medium. As
mentioned above, these fast waves generate new waves in the upper medium,
which travel to the surface a t a speed V,. Lack of space precludes mention
of all the theoretical considerations underlying our present concept of this
fact, which has been confirmed by experimental evidente. I only wish to
draw the attention of the reader to the relevant part of the illustration.
Here we observe that the wave fronts returning from the interface towards
the surface are no longer of spherical shape. Their traces in the section are
inclined straight lines. If we picture them as three-dimensional bodies, we
find them to be cone-shapes, the apex lying on the vertical to the source.
Where these cones meet the spheres of the waves travelling in the upper
strata, we have an ideal discontinuity shaped like a flat bowl. This is denoted
by SX.
If we now consider Fig. 1 as a whole, we observe that the bowl-shaped
discontinuity, admittedly a fictious postulate, divides the subsurface space
into two very different parts. Above the bowl the initial waves travelliiig
in the upper medium reach every point a t the surface before the other im-
pulses, whether refracted or reflected. But below and outwards from the
bowl the refracted waves have been travelling for a shorter or longer time
st a faster speed in the lower medium and for this reason will outstrip the
slower initial waves. Hence outside the bowl the higher speed in the lower
medium will dominate. Consequently, if we arrange our experiment iii such
a way that we register a complete series of first arrivals, we observe the
velocity V , a t all geophones inside the bowl or a t distances of less than SX
and the velocity V, a t distances greater than FX. This can even be illustrated
in another kind of graph, the dromochronograph or travel-time graph. It is
the upperrnost curve in Fig. 1. The ordinate in this graph is the time t and
the abscissa the distance X. If we plot the observed time against the different
geophone positions, we find that certain successive plottings form parts of
straight lines of different slope. The slopes of these lines are V%-1.Hence
the lines with their different slopes illustrate the different velocities in the
ground and the distances from the source where these velocities cari be
observed a t the surface. I n our travel-time graph we observe only two
velocities, V , and V,. The former is illustrated by the steeper line beginning
a t the source X, whilst the latter forms the flatter line. The second line,
that for V,, deviates from the V,-line a t a point vertically about X. Hence
the travel-time graph shows the Same features as the wave front diagrams.
The question a t once arises whether there is any relation between the
distance Sn and other parameters, such as the depth h. From our figure
we See that X X equals about 2 . 5 h. If we now turn to the lower part of
Pig. 1, we find there a similar curve with the Same dimensions. but a different
velocity ratio. V,/V, is here 0.8. V, is only 1 . 2 5 times faster than V, and
- -
we have assumed that V, is 4 km sec-, and V, 5 km sec-,. I n this graph
the point X has moved away from the source, being about 6 times 71,.
It is obvious that the position of X depends on the index of refraction V,/ V,
or on sin i . This can be expressed by the formula

- 1 + sin i '1s
sx =2
(1 -sin i)

If V,/V, becomes 1 , i becomes 90". The indicent ray coincides with the
surface and there is neither a second medium nor a bowl RX. What will
happen if V2/Vl increases further and exceeds l ? I n this case a medium of
lower velocity lies below one with higher velocity. Now V,/V, should be
sin i according t o our theoretical assumptions. A sin i exceeding 1 does not
make sense. Hence a Oase of this kind cannot be treated by the method of
propagating wave fronts as applied above. Indeed, when the first arrivals
are used as indications, i t is impossible to make any predictions concerning
the depth h for such slow media. Here this method will fail.
We have stated that the position of the point X is dependent on the
relation V,/V,. Further, successful application of the method depends on
the existente of a series of increasing velocities i in the downward direction.
Hitherto, we have assumed the plane of the interface between the two media
to be horizontal. We will now briefly examine the effect of inclined inter-
faces. Figs. 2 and 3 give us some idea. I n both cases we have inclinatioii of
30" for the interface. The source is situated a t the surface a certain distance
down the slope. The profiles are assumed to be parallel with the dip. I n
fig. 2 the velocity ratio V,/ V, is 0.2 and in Fig. 3, 0.8. We See that the point
X has moved outwards in the direction of the outcropping of the lower
medium. The velocity V, is registered in a relatively narrow area near that
outcrop. From the travel-time curve we further See that the observed
velocity V, is no longer the true velocity, but an apparent velocity. Further-
more, this is negative, because the angle of dip is greater than the angle of
refraction. I n this case the geophones situated farther away will receive the
impulses earlier than the geophones nearer to the source. Now turning to
the second case, Fig. 3, we observe that with the higher ratio V,/V, only a
very restricted area is left for the observation of the second velocity. I t is
obvious that with a further increase in the angle of dip V , will be observed
only at geophones placed on the second medium behind the boundary line.
That means that, when such high V.',/V,ratios are in question, there is no
great difference between the effect of a vertical contact and a dipping con-
tact between about 40" and 80". But even for lower values of V , / V , steeper
contacts will not readily be distinguished from vertical contacts by observa-
tion of the first arrivals.
 Fig. 3.

If we now consider the reflected waves, denoted in our illustrations by

the broken circles, we observe that these wave fronts rise to the surface in
a regular patteni. These waves travel in the upper medium only a t the speed
characteristic of these strata. Their path downwards and back to the surface
is always longer than the path of the direct waves to the Same point of
reappearance. For this reason the reflected waves are always the slowest
ones and reflexions will be observed as later events in the seismograms. It
is even necessary to have an equipment capable of registering the seismic
impulse during a longer time in a clear way. Geophones are placed near
together in groups to make i t easier to recognize reflexions from corresponding
horizons. But if all these precautions are taken, the reflexions give the most
reliable picture of the subsurface structure. This method is the finest tool
available for geophysical prospecting. Reflexions can be registered fronl
different reflectors a t different depths irrespective of the nature of the atrata
intercalated between them. For a good evaluation of a reflexion survey,
however, i t is necessary to know the velocity distribution or a t least the
average velocity in the rock series in question. Mostly such data ean be
gained from seismic tests in drill holes. However, I wish to point out that
good reflexions depend partly on the existence of a sharp elastic contrast
a t the boundary of the reflector and partly on a sufficient transfer of energy
from the source through the whole series.
It is obvious that we can use two different kinds of seismic prospecting,
the method of the first arrivals or the method of refraction and the method
of reflexion. Refraction work is the method hitherto used in Finland, chiefly
for engineering problems, i.e., the determination of the thickness of the
Quaternary overburden on the bedrock, in the Course of construction of
power stations and in stripping operations in connexion with quarries and
Open pit mining. For this purpose refraction work is very useful, the contrast
between the Quaternary sediments and the crystalline bedrock being suffi-
cient and the depth seldom reaching extreme values. Greater difficulties have
been encountered in cases where we have tried t o use refraction work in the
investigation of esker deposits. I n such cases we have often been faced with
the problem of beds of slower velocity intercalated between ones of higher
speed. Here we were forced to use other methods, espeoially resistivity meas-
urements or inductive measurements of the type described by Haalck and
Metzger. Reflexion work could not solve the problems connected with these
shallow deposits.
No seismic investigations have been c a r r i d out in Finland concerning
the structural geology of the bedrock. It is still qnestionable whether seismic
methods can be regarded as a useful tool in this realm. Before dealing with
this problem in greater detail, I wish to introduce Pig. 4. Here the velocities
for P waves in different rock types are set out. The abscissa represents the
-
speed in km sec-l. Uppermost we find unconsolidated sediments, such as
sands (1-P), clay (5) and glacial drift (6). The velocities in these sediments
range from 0.3 to 3 km . sec-l. The next group contains consolidated sedi-
ments. It begins with psammitic (7) and pelitic (9) rocks in which the
-
velocities are between 1.2 and 4.5 km sec-l. I n the Carbonate rocks (10-12)
the range is much wider, from 1.8 to 6 km . sec-l. I n the evaporites (13-15)
 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 10 km
I I I I I I I sec

\- 3
--- '-,Sand
' 4
- - _ _ _ _ _ d
>
5 Clay

6 Glacial driFt
_______-------
- :C d/7 ':Pxtmmites
-----______---
Pel~tes

.---
9
10
-',
/----- ------------F-

11 Carbonate rocks
-------_______
-L--/'
2 /
,---
,/ 13 ------
-_____ 14 -
---_--__----Evoporites
1
15 Y,
l
. i'

,_---T------.--Y
,
--________-
'17 '\Gneises and shists
18 Granite
--
..__-----
---__- ---
20--..-~osic Magmatit
- - ---__-'
--C

22'~

A / K 6 3

Fig. 4.

the velocities may be as high as 6.5 km sec-l. The third group consists of.
the crystalline rocks. First we have the usual metamorphic rocks (16-17),
in which the velocities are between 2.0 and 6 km . sec-l. The granite itself
(18) shows velocities from 4 to 5.7 km sec-l. The highest velocities are .
found in the mafic igneous rocks (18-22), amounting to 4.9 to 8.4 km
sec-l. I n the crystalline rocks the velocity increases with decreasing amounts
of silica.
The table in Fig. 4 gives a reliable picture of the general velocity rela-
tions. IVe See that the many different rock types are characterized by a
wide range of velocities, several of which overlap each other. Whether a
sufficient velocity contrast is possible or not in a certain region depends
entirely on the interrelations of the velocities in the different rocks concerned.
Many velocity data are obtained from experimental surveys made in the
laboratory. It is by no means my intention to deny the value of these labora-
tory methods and their results, but more than 30 years of geophysical
prospecting have convinced me that the most reliable data are gained by
experimental surveys in the field. Only a trial in the field can provide data
sufficiently reliable to enable us to decide whether a certain method can be
used or not.
 From the above considerations we can only draw the conclusion that the
value of seismic prospecting for the elucidation of structures in the Pre-
cambrian bedrock is still Open to doubt.
The velocity contrasts between Precambrian rocks are not usually very
great. However, V 1 / V 2rnay range from 0.5 to 0 . 9 for gneisses, schists and
granites. But what the true value of this ratio rnay be is in most cases still
Open to conjecture. Nevertheless, there seems to be a certain possibility
that velocity contrasts cause refractions and reflexions even if weak.
More difficulties seem to me to be connected with the structures them-
selves. Steep contacts are known to occur in nearly every region. As we
showed above, it is difficult to differentiate between vertical and steeply
dipping contacts, especially when the relation V , / V 2 approaches unity. I n
this case the value of seismic prospecting as a tool for investigation of
horizontal or flat dipping struotures is clearly shown. Even the vertical or
very steep contact will be detected. But with weak velocity contrasts. dips
of medium to steep range are difficult to recognize.
Other trends in the tectonic pattern of Precambrian areas are intensive
folding and faulting. Both must have an influence on the application of the
seismic method. We must remember that the structures investigated in
prospecting for oil exhibit relatively gentle deformation over wide areas in
comparison with the Precambrian structures. For this reason it is not necessa-
rily correct to apply the seismic method in the conventional way used
hitherto. I am thinking here especially of the possibility of using equipment
capable of registering both first waves and later arrivals, and of the use of
geophone spread patterns better adapted to the problems of the Precambrian.
If I rnay be allowed to make some proposals regarding future lines of
research, I would suggest that our investigations should start from situations
already well understood. I would start in a region of flat dip with an un-
complicated structure. There are many regions where such areas occur.
Another type is represented by very steep tectonics.
There is one group of igneous rocks showing high velocities. These are
basic and ultrabasic intrusions. It rnay be possible to locate them by the
seismic method.
It rnay possibly be useful to apply fanshooting or some modification of
i t in areas with steeply iiiclined structures, basic plugs and similar structural
features. I n this method the geophones are placed at equal distances from
the source, forming arcs or fans. I n homogeneous ground the impulses will
arrive at all the geophones simultaneously. If this is not the case, the ground
is composed of two or more materials with different elastic properties. This
method was a t one time much used to map outlines of saltplugs. I believe
that there rnay be some use for it in research on Precambrian diapiric folds.
 As I now See the situation, there may be some possibility for research
either in flat or in extremely steep structures, whereas moderately steep
structures should be left out of account. The essential point is that the
velocity contrasts encountered should be sufficiently clear.
One thing, a t least, I wish to point out. Differentes in velocity suffi-
ciently great t o allow recognition of a boundary between two rocks need
not indicate or be identical with stratigraphic boundaries. For the phenomenon
does not depend on petrological contrasts but only on physical contrasts,
a fact that concerns all geophysical methods arid should not be forgotten
by the geologist. Hence seismic discontinuities need not always be identical
with known rock boundaries, but as markers they may greatly assist in the
interpretation of the structures.
I have here attempted to give a brief account of the seismic prospecting
method, its practice and possible applications. It has not been my purpose
to present a comprehensive treatise on the subject. For further information
the reader is referred to the text-books cited below. My interition has been
to bring the method of seismic prospecting t o the notice of geologists.
Geophysical prospecting of this kind, started in this country by my de-
partment with Messrs. Paraisten Kalkkivuori - Pargas Kalkbergs Aktie-
bolag in 1950, is a valuable tool that merits their attention and consideration.

REFERENCES

CAGNIARD, L. (1960) La prospection gt5ophysique. Paris.

-r>- (1962) Reflection and refraction of progressive seismic waves. Translated by
E- A. Flinn and G. H. Dix. New York.
DIX, C. H. (1960) Seismic prospecting for oil. New York.
DOBRI-N,M. B. (1960) Introduction to geophysical prospecting. N e n York.
GASSMANN, F. und WEBER,M. Einführung in die angewandte Geophysik. Berlin.
HEILAND,C. A. (1947) Geophysical exploration. New York.
JAKOSKY, J. J. (1950) Exploration geophysics. Los Angeles.
LEET,L. D. (1938) Bractioal seismology and seismjc prospecting. New York.
MENZEL, H. (1968) Die seismische Aufschlussmethoden, In Lehrbuch der angewandterr
Geophysik 11, by Hmlck. Berlin.
 INVESTIGATION OF CONSTRUCTION SITES FOR
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS BY THE SEISMIC
REFRACTION METHOD I N FINLAND

by
P. TAANILA

ABSTRACT:This article is e brief description of the principles and methods used

by the Oulujoki Power Company's Office for Soil Mechanics and Concrete Technology.
The field methods in both summer and winter conditions are described. The accuracy
of the methods is calculated from the results of 129 control drill-holes.

INTRODUCTION

Of the great excavations carried out in this country, those connected

with the installation of power plants are the most important. Thus, many
of the techniques used in preliminary surveying have attracted well-merited
attention, especially within the power companies. I n order to centralize
and promote the development of these techniques, the State power companies
Oulujoki Oy and Imatran Voima Oy founded a special Office for Soil Mecha-
nics and Concrete Technology in 1949. At the present time, the field of
investigation covered by this bureau includes the extensive surveying pre-
paratory to harnessing the power of the Lapland rivers, work which is being
undertaken by the Kemijoki Power Company. Of the branches of investiga-
tion in which the bureau is engaged, soil and bedrock prospecting, in which
the seismic method plays an important role, forms a very large part. It is
shown by the statistics for the years 1952-1960 that the Office for Soil
Mechanics and Concrete Technology carried out a seismic survey covering
ca. 800 kilometres, involving some 18 000 depth determinations.

THE SEQUENCE OB TERRAIN INVESTIOATIONS

Practical experience and requirements have determined the scale, se-

quence and methods of carrying out the different aspects of the geological
survey involved in power plant prospecting. These will vary, of Course,
according to local conditions. Generally, however, the exploration is carried
out in four stages:
 Stage A: Preliminary geological survey.
Stage B: Local geological mapping.
Stage C: Geological investigation of areas suitable for construction, and
selection of the construction site.
Stage D: Geological description of the site selected.

The names alone show that stages A and B are preliminary surveys,
carried out mainly with the aid of maps and surface observations, for the
purpose of determining, a t the lowest possible cost, whether i t is a t all
possible to construct a power plant on some stretch of a river (stage A),
and subsequently to decide upon more precise location of the site (stage B).
If the result is promising, more extensive geological exploration is carried
out with the aid of the seismic method supplemented by various drillings.
It may be that several sites are possible. During stage C, investigators work
in close cooperation with the planning department, which decides, on the
basis of comparative costs, which site will be the most economic. The final
geological description of the site is made in stage D.

THE SUITABILITY OF THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD

Önce the importance and usefulness of seismic refraction became ap-

parent, i t was employed for two maiil purposes in power plant terrain
surveying:
1. Depth-to-bedrock determination.
2. Determination of the velocity in the bedrock

As already mentioned, seismic survey is generally carried out on all

possible construction sites during stage C. On the basis of the results obtained
a t this stage, further measures are decided upon, for instanoe various drillings
and the taking of samples. A seismic survey often reveals immediately that
the depth of the overburden is too great or too small, depending upon the
construction plan, and thus all further, often very costly, investigations can
be abandoned. If the results are favourable for going ahead with the con-
struction work, seismic refraction surveys will naturally be used as much
as possible in stage D.
It should be noticed that the results obtained by the seismic refraction
method are always approximate. Their accuracy, however, has proved to be
sufficient for investigations 6f the kind described above. The accuracy is
illustrated in Fig. 1, which shows the results of seismic refraction carried
out between 1957 alid 1960, as compared with the exact results obtained by
diamond drilling. I should like to point out that the figure includes all the
results obtained, in spite of the fact that the errors involved may be con-
Fig. 1. Diagram giving comparison betwcen depth-to-bedrock measiued seismically aric1 deptlis
obtained through subsequent diamoncl drillings.

siderable. The slighter the disturbing factors, i.e., the actual deviations of the
terrain from its theoretically ideal state, the more correct, in general, are
the results obtained. I n connexion with this I need mention only the fre-
quently uneven grourid and bedrock surfaces, and the changes in soil com-
position on the profile. An experienced interpreter, however, is able to
e l i d n a t e a large proportion of the disturbing factors, so that they do not
always significantly affect the correctness of the conclusions drawn. Con-
cerning the accuracy of the results achieved by seismic refraction, i t may
briefly be stated that the deviation from the correct result is f1 metre
when the depth of the overlying layers is under 10 metres, and 10 % when +
i t exceeds this thickness.
Table 1. The average deviation of seismic results per siirvey year during period
1955-1960
Overburden i 10 m Overburden > 10 m
Error in metres ( + or -) Error % ( + or -)
Sear

1 Number of
obaer-
vationa
/ - I Number of
obvr
vationa
+
Number of
obser-
vationa
I I
-
Number of
obser-
vations

Table 1 shows the average deviation of seismic results per survey year
during the period 1955-1960. The correct results have been obtained by
diamond drilling. The table is divided into two parts, taking an overburden
depth of 10 metres as the basis of division.
It must be admitted that these data do not, perhaps, give an altogether
true picture of the accuracy of seismic refraction, because the diamond
drilling is done a t exactly fixed points, chosen on the basis of the results
of the seismic measurements. For i t often happens that at some point the
value is not reliably determined by the seismic method, and such a value
is then checked by diamond drilling. Values that are very easy to interpret
are seldom checked, and so statistics may give an unfavourable impression
of the accuracy.
The other purpose of seismic refraction is to determine the velocity in
rock. The velocity lies between about 2 500 and 7 000 m/sec and depends
on the type of rocks and its fractures. I n practice, the alteration of the
velocity can be determined by the seismic method on the longitudinal
direction of the line with an accuracy of about 5-15 metres. If several
profiles in an area are measured by the seismic method, such an area can
be mapped to show its rock velocities. I n this way the fractured zones in
the rock can be relatively accurately located, and even the contacts between
different rock types. The changes in velocity due to fractures are generally
greater than those caused by differentes in the type of the rock.
Concerning seismic velocities and rock fractures, the following empirical
observations may be taken a general guide: If the rock velocity is more
than 4 000 mlsec, the rock is practically unfractured in all types of rock
except granite. I n the case of granite, the velocity must be over 5 000 m/sec.
If, again, the velocity is less than 3 300 mlsec, the rock is very loose, what-
ever its type. Thus, readings between 3 300 and 4 000 mlsec must be
evaluated ori the basis of information obtained by diamond drilling and
geological investigation. This, however, makes i t apparent that a thorough
knowledge of rock velocities is necessary in selecting the site a t which
diamond drilling is to take place.

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT

I n 1952, the first seismic equipment was purchased by the Office for
Soil Mechanics and Concrete Technology. It was a 12-channel Century
Geophysical Corporation refraction unit from the U.S.A. Later, in 1954
Swedish ABEM (Aktiebolaget Elektrisk Malmletning) apparatuses were
procured, and about two years ago two more ABEM units, which are in
use a t present.
REERACTION SURVEY METHODS

The seismic work is either measuring by a ppoint methodo or )>profile

shootingo. In practice, both are carried out in the Same way. For shooting,
a line is drawn across the area to be examined. The shooting takes place
along this line a t certain intervals (50 m). The seismometers are installed
along a 50-metre stretch, 5 metres apart. The result is calcdated to the
shot-points by a critical-distance method or by an intercept method. Here
the points lying between are not included in the calculation. Depending
on the purpose of the investigation, however, these profile values may also
be calculated on the basis of the time-distance curve. This is necessary in
cases when an absolutely accurate profile of the bedrock surface, including
even small undulations, is needed. I n such a case, by this method, which
takes a longer time, it is possible to obtain a result a t each Seismometer,
i.e., at 5-metre intervals if the usual spacing of the seismometers has been
adopted.
There are several different methods for profile survey. The method most
commonly used by the Oulujoki Power Company is one developed by the
Head of the Office, Mr. J. Vuorinen. It is based on the use of effective
vertical velocity. The advantages of this method are:
1. It gives the profile of the bedrock surface directly a t its correct
elevation without the need for any preliminary information about the depth.
2. The offset of the depth-point is calculated correctly.
3. The slope of the rock velocity graphs can be checked by this method.
4. The method is relatively rapid in practice when a seismic slide rule,
also designed by Mr. Vuorinen, is used. (It is a slide rule devised for depth
calculation from intercept times in seismic refraction work.)
Fig. 2 shows a calculation made by this method. It differs, i t is true,
from a normal aiid complete interpretation in that two known diamond
 t01 I I 1 1 1 1 1 i I

Fig. 2. Profile shooting at Ossaiiskoski of the river Kemijoki.

drill-holes were used when the rock velocity lines were plotted, which, as
was already mentioned, is not necessary with this method. This information
was used to determine the velocity in the soil. The line in the example is
situated on a river, and it was measured by a normal refraction method
when the water was low.
A second, more typical example, achieved by profile interpretation, is
shown in Fig. 3. A deep and relatively steep depression in the bedrock,
which appears in the two reciprocal time-distance curves, was interpreted
from both curves, which shows that the calculated bedrock surface profiles
correspond a t almost every point. Furthermore, the absolute elevation of
the calculated profile is correct, since the interpretation was based on the
above-mentioned effective vertical velocity.
Lately, special atteation has been paid to riverbed refraction. During
the summer it is carried out as follows. Extensions of the line to be surveyed,
which runs across the water, are made from each end of it, and seismo-
meters are placed on them. The distance between the seismometer and the
end of the line must be so great that the first-arrival wave travels through
the rock when the shooting takes place a t the end pole of the line (for instance
7 5 m). The shooting is carried out along the line to be surveyed a t the desired
intervals, usually of 5 metres. The seismometers register the travel-times of
the wave from the shot-points. These are plotted as normal time-distance
curves. Thus reciprocal curves can be obtained for the line to be surveyed.
These, again, reflect the rock profib, the shape of which can be calculated
by determining the soil velocities, for instance by separate shooting a t the
 Fig. 3. Profile shooting for a tiirinel.

water's edge. The bedrock profile thus achieved only requires to be fixed a t
the right depth a t some point along the profile. Naturally, diamond drilling
holes, the depth of which are known, are used for this purpose. Another
possibility is to determine seismic depth-points on the shores and to relate
the profile line to them.
I n refraction surveying of this kind, the survey lines are best drawii
straight or diagonally across the river. Then the seisuiometers can be placed
on dry land, so that such interferences as the vibration of the seismogram-
lines caused by running water are eliminated. I should also like to mention
that by this refraction method the rock velocity can be determined in the
Same way as by the normal point method, with an accuracy of 200 mlseo.
 Profile refraction surveying has also been done on ice. It is carried out
by exactly the Same method as the normal refraction prospecting used
during the summer. The seismometers are inserted into the ice and shooting
is done a t a great distance (about 100 m) from them on the bed of the river.
Thus complete reciprocal rock curves are recorded. The method does not give
the soil velocities, and so they must be calculated from data obtained by
diamond drilling or by seismic investigation during the summer. No mistake
in these calculations, however, can be of any great importance, since i t has
been found that the velocities of river or lake beds are always between 1 500
and 2 100 mlsec. Then the final bedrock surface profile is calculated and
related to one or several kiiown depth points on the line.
I n connexion with refraction methods of the latter kind, the velocity
of the shock wave in ice has also been measured. It varies according to the
temperature and the time of year. I n March, a t a temperature of -10" C
the velocity has been found to be 3 100 mlsec. It has also been found that
the energy of the shock wave that moves along the ice is rapidly dissipated.
For instance, when a 0.4 kg explosive is used, the seismogram readings can
be taken up to a distance of 70 metres. Because of this, profile refraction
surveying can be carried out on the ice in winter by the method described
above.

CAUSES OF ERRORS

As stated earlier, the results achieved with the seismic refraction method
are only approximate. There are some cases in which it is impossible, even
in theory, to attain even a reasonably correct result. Of these, I would like
to describe the following three cases:
1. The layer velocities have to fulfil the condition V 1 < V, < V3 etc.
This sequence is generally present. Winter conditions form an exception.
In frozeii top-soil the velocity is about 3 000 m/sec. I n the underlying layer
the velocity is always less than 2 500 mlsec. The above sequence of velocities
is thus not realized, and i t is impossible, or at least unlikely, that the normal
refraction method will give accurate results. I n these investigations, however,
i t has been found that the shock wave is rapidly absorbed in frozen soil,
and quickly dissipated, as in ice. Because of this, the profile method can be
used in the Same way as in summer, although the field work is naturally
more difficult.
2. A complete velocity layer, the so-called shadow Zone, is sometimes
lost. This is the case when the first layer of top-soil is deep and has a low
velocity (e.g. 20 metres, 500 mlsec), and a t the Same time the second soil
layer is much thiimer aiid has a high velocity (e.g. 7 metres, 2 000 mlsec).
In such a case it can be shown mathematically that the second layer cannot
be recorded a t a11. There are some methods, it is true, by which the existence
of this layer can be demonstrated, such as placing the explosive deep and
reducing the intervals between the seismometers, but they are not always
sufficient .
3. Similarly, it can be proved mathematically that it is impossible to
make an accurate deterrnination of the bottom of a steep gully in the bed-
rock. The shock wave may travel from the shot-point to the seismometer
through the bedrock walls on the sides of the gully (Cf. Fig. 3).
Fortunately the above-mentioned causes of error are so rare that they
cannot be considered to invalidate the seismic refraction method, provided
the interpreter is aware of them.

THE ADVANTAGES OF THE METHOD

By using the seismic refraction method, survey costs are considerably

reduced. The accuracy of the results achieved is quite sufficient for stage C
in the investigations, and yet the speed of the seismic refraction method is
quite different from that of diamond drilling, for instance. I n layers more
than 20 m deep, seismic results are achieved 25-30 times faster than by
diamond drilling. The average of seismic refraction measuring is 500 metres
of line a day, which means Ca. 10 points of survey a t 50-metre intervals.
This gives a clear picture of the usefulness of the method.
Seismic refraction a t its present level of development serves maiiy other
purposes, in addition to power plant planning. Of them the following are
the most important: 1, tunnel surveys; 2, canal surveys; 3, foundation surveys
for large constructions; and 4, determining the depth of sand layers.
Further, it will be interesting to know what seismic refraction method
can offer to solve problems such as the determination of the grouiid-water
level and excavation characteristics in the area. Such surveys have already
been made abroad, but in Finland are so far still in their prelirninary stage.

ACKNO WLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express his gratitude to the Oulujoki Power Com-
pany and especially to the Head of the Office for Soil Mechanics and Con-
crete Technology, Mr. J. Vuorinen, who has been of great help to the author
in all problems connected with seismic survey.
 LITERATURE
HEDSTR~M,
H. (1945) Den tilliimpade geofysikens metoder. Kosmos, Bd. 23, pp.
120-164.
KORHONEN, H. (1960) Refraktiomenetelmän käyttö seismisessä kallionpintaluotauk-
sessa. Summary: Seismic depth-to-bedrock determination by the refraction
method. Geologinen . tutkimuslaitos. Geoteknillisiä julkaisuja 64, pp. 9-15.
Geologiliiton julkaisuja 2.
K O ~ E L AK., (1961) Geologiset tutkimukset voimalaitossuunnittelussa. Summary:
Geological investigations in the planning and construction of hydroelectric
power plants. Geologinen tutkimuslaitos. Geoteknillisiä julkaisuja 65, pp. 63-69.
Geologiliiton julkaisuja 3.
MINTROP,L. (1953) Die Entwicklung der Sprengeseismik. Zeitschr. f. Geophysik, Bd.
19, pp. 101-122.
WELIN, ET (1958) Seismic refraction survey of a hydroelectric plant site in northern
Sweden. I n Geophysical surveying in mining and hydrological engineering
projects, pp. 262-270. European association of exploration geophysicist, the
Hague 1958.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF CRUSTAL STRUCTURE
I N FINLAND

by
ESKO PENTTILÄ

The first seismograph station was established in Finland in 1924 (Ren-

qvist 1926). But not until 1957, when new stations (Vesanen 1960) had been
established for the research projects of the International Geophysical Year,
1957-58, new instruments bought and seismometers and pen recorders
suitable for field use constructed (Nurmia 1960, Siivola 1960, Karras and
Nurmia 1960), was i t possible also to commence explosion seismic investi-
gations of the crustal structure.
Preliminary tests were made as long ago as the autumn of 1957 by
exploding charges on the sea bottom off the Porkkala area, and recording the
results a t the seismograph station in Helsinki. It was not until the summer
of 1958, however, that the first investigation proper took place. Underwater
charges were exploded on the sea bottom to the west of the town of Pori
on the Gulf of Bothnia, a t varying distances from Mäntykallo, which was
the site of the observation station. The most powerful explosions were
mcorded by the stations a t Nurmijärvi and even a t Sodankylä (Vesanen
et al. 1958, Penttilä et al. 1960).
I n the summer of 1959, an investigation was carried out on the coast
of the Gulf of Finland. The explosions were made on the sea bottom off the
Obbnäs promontory and the observation stations were located along the
coast, a t Kotka, Isnäs, Helsinki, Hanko, Porkkala and Nurmijärvi. On this
occasion use was also made, for the first time, of telerecording through
telephone cables, so that the recordings of the seismometers a t Hanko,
Porkkala, Kotka and Helsinki were obtained on one and the Same recording
paper a t the Helsinki stakion. A four-channel electroencephalograph served
as the recorder. A one-channel electrocardiograph was employed a t the Isnäs
station, whereas recording instruments constructed a t the Seismological
Station were used a t the other stations. At all the stations short-period
vertical instruments designed a t the Seismological Station were used as
seismometers (Nurmia 1960, Penttilä et al. 1960).
 A similar crustal structure study was undertaken on the shore of the
Gulf of Finland in the summer of 1960. This time the explosions took place
a t the other end of the line, a t the town of Kotka, on the sea bottom. There
were observation stations both to the west, along the coast, at Norrkulla,
Helsinki, Porkkala, Hanko and Nurmijärvi, and to the northwest, across
the rapakivi region. On this second line the stations were situated a t Rankki,
Kiviniemi and Lapinjärvi. Two weeks later, explosions were made to the
west of Hailuoto, in the northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia. The explosions
were recorded a t Oulu, Kajaani, Sodankylä, Hanko, Helsinki, Nurmijärvi
and Kotka (Penttilä, manuscript).
Investigations of the crustal structure have also been carried out on the
basis of seismograms obtained from earthquakes. The thickness of the crust
was determined, from the recordings of the earthquakes in Kuusamo and
Salla in February, 1960, for example. As will be described below, these
earthquakes were observed over a wide area, and recordings from seismo-
graph stations in Finland, Sweden, the Soviet Union, Denmark and Czecho-
slovakia were utilized in the research (Penttilä 1960).
Studies on structure can seldom be based on earthquakes occurring in
Pinland, since in this country earthquakes are infrequent and, when they
take place, weak. I n his study based on macroseismic observations, Ren-
qvist (1930) found that 235 earthquakes had occurred in Finland between
1610 and 1929. The most active area is the region around Kuusamo, where
an average of 30 earthquakes per hundred years had been observed. In a
relatively narrow zone running from here to the northern part of the Gulf
of Bothnia and extending into Sweden, 12-15 earthquakes are observed
per hundred years. I n southern Finland and Lapland the corresponding
figure is 0-4. According to a map published by Sahlström (1930), the seis-
mically most active regions of Fennoscandia are the region on the Gulf of
Bothnia mentioned above, the Oslo-Väner area on the Swedish-Norwegian
border and the regions of Nordlandet and Vestlandet on the Atlantic coast,
the last-mentioned region being the most active of all.
A microseismic study of the years 1956-59 indicated that about ten
earthquakes take place annually in the Kuusamo region (Penttilä 1960).
The shocks are so weak, however, that they do not generally attract attention;
and as they occur in a sparsely populated area they can only be detected
by sensitive seismographs.
I n recent years three somewhat stronger earthquakes have been observed,
all of them precisely in the regions where, according to Renqvist, earthquakes
are most frequent. I n December 1956, an earthquake was observed at
Ranua (Porkka et al. 1958). In February 1960, a somewhat stronger shock
took place between Kuusamo and Salla communes (Penttilä 1960, Kataja
1961). The other earthquake that occurred in February 1960 to the west of
Hailuoto, in the Gulf of Bothnia, was somewhat weaker (Kataja 1961).
Macroseismic observations of the Kuusamo-Salla earthquake which
took place on February 20, 1960, were obtained from an area of about 18 000
km2. Three weeks previously, a definitely stronger shock had occurred a t
Tolvantijärvi in the Soviet Union. I n Finland, too, this was observed within
an area of about 14 000 km2. The area was approximately the Same as that
where the Kuusamo-Salla earthquake was observed. The epicentres of
these earthquakes were about 130 km apart.
I n computing the velocities from the large number of seismograms, the
data on the two earthquakes were combined. This was done because the
shocks had occurred near each other and probably a t the Same depth. The
values found for the velocities of the P and S waves in the various layers
were as follows:
Pgl . . 5.72 km/sec Sgl . . 3.38 kmlsec
Pg2 . . 6.00 )) Sg2 . . 3.53 ))

Pb .. 6 . 7 0 )) 8, . . 3 . 8 9 s
P , .. 8.10 )) Sn .. 4.59 ))

Pgl and Sgl had travelled in the uppermost layer of the sial, P„ and Sg2
in the sial, Pb and Sb in the sialma; and P , and X , in the topmost parts of
the mantle. The time difference sP,-P„ which was 9 sec, gave a hypocentre
depth of about 22 km. The wave denoted by sP had first risen to the earth's
surface as an S wave, from which i t had been reflected and travelled as a P
wave to the recording site. The difference sS,-X,, which was 10 sec, gave
a depth of 24 km. The earthquakes had consequently taken place oii the
border of the sial and sialma layers, for the analysis of the P wave recordings
gave 23 km for the thickness of the sial. The total thickness of the crust
was 31 km as computed from the P waves and 29 km as computed from
the X waves.
The first phase of the explosion seismic research Programme was ac-
complished in the summer of 1958. A field observation station had been
established a t Mäntykallo, and a total of seven charges were detonated
on the sea bottom a t distances of 6 to 7 1 km from the station.
Recordings were made with a short-period vertical seismometer, a
transistorized amplifier and s photographic recorder. Primarily for the
recording of the reflected impulses, a piezo-electric geophoiie and an EKG
recorder were also utilized. The explosion times were recorded from the
impulses received by a hydrophone, amplified and transmitted by radio
to the recording station (Riihimaa 1960). The most powerful explosions
were recorded a t other stations in Finland and also in Sweden.
The velocities of the longitudinal and transverse waves were: P, 5.72
km/sec, Sg 3.34 km/sec (Vesanen et al. 1958). The thickness of the upper
crustal layer, the sial, was also determined from the recordings obtained
with the piezo-electric geophone and the electrocardiograph. I n these seismo-
grams distinct impulses occurred which could be taken as reflected from the
border between the sial and sialma. Both single and double reflexions were
found, and these yielded depth values in giod agreement with those ob-
tained in the investigation carried out on the coast of the Gulf of Finland
and to be discussed below. The depth of the sial, as computed from these
impulses, was about 18 km (Penttilä et al. 1960).
I n July, 1959, an explosion seismic investigation was undertaken on the
north coast of the Gulf of Finland. The explosions took place on the sea
bottom, a t a distance of about 300 m from the shore and a t depths' of three
or seven metres, to the west of the Obbnäs promontory.
I n addition to the Helsinki and Nurrnijärvi stations, five temporary field
stations had been established between Maarianhamina and Kotka. To
supplement the recordings a t Sodankylä, a station had also been established
a t Kajaani.
I n the investigation use was made of 10-kg short-period vertical seismo-
meters constructed a t the Seismological Station. When seismometers,
embodying transistorized amplifiers and a smoked paper recording system,
are employed, the maximum magnification is 60 000 for a period of about
0.5 sec (Karras et al. 1960). These instruments were employed a t all stations
except Kajaani, where use was made of photographic recording with a
short-period galvanometer. At Sodankylä and Nurmijärvi the recordings
were made by the Same method, but 100-kg vertical instruments were used
as seismometers a t both places. The Sodankylä station employed a Benioff
vertical seismometer and the Nurmijärvi station a new vertical instrument
built a t the Seismological Station, with properties corresponding to those
of the Benioff seismometer. Both stations also had 12-kg short-period
horizontal instruments, designed primarily for the recording of near earth-
quakes. Apart from the vertical seismometer mentioned above, two some-
what longer-period horizontal instruments were in operation a t Helsinki
(Nurmia 1960). At Isnäs, seismograms of the explosions were obtained both
with a short-period vertical seismometer and with a geophone; a one-channel
electrocardiograph was used as recorder.
A total of nine charges were exploded. They were laid down on the sea
bottom and exploded with electric detonators. The largest charge consisted
of two 300-kg sea-mines, which were detonated simultaneously. One 40-kg
charge was exploded on a shore cliff. Little seismic energy was provided by
this latter charge; its explosion was not observed a t any of the stations.
I n point of fact, to receive the Same amount of energy for the generation
of earthquake waves, a charge detonated in Open space must be 1 000 times
as large as one exploded in a closed space.
 I n analyzing the seismograms, the recordings from Helsinki, Kotka end
Hanko were treated in combination with seismograms obtained with a
four-channel recorder. The velocities of the P and X waves which had
travelled in the various layers were calculated, and from these velocities
the thicknesses of the layers were determined. The results obtained were
as follows:

h . 2.2 km
h , . . 18.6 1) 20.8 km (sial)
h3 .. 8.2 o (sialma)
Total 29.0 km
hl .. 18.5 )) (sial)
h2 . . 10.5 D (sialma)
Total 29.0 km

In addition, the seismograms revealed impulses that were interpreted as

reflexions from the discontinuity between the sial and the sialma, and from
that between the sialma and the mantle. There were single, double and triple
reflexions from the Conrad discontinuity, as well as single reflexions from
the MohoroviEii: discontinuity. The following values, determined from the
averages of the observations, were found for the thickness of the sial layer
along the various lines:

Mean between Helsinki and Kotka ....... ... 21.1 km

Mean between Porkkela and Nurmijärvi . . . . . . . . 20.3
Mean between Porkkala and Helsinki . . . . . . . . . . 19.5 ))
Mean between Porkkala and Hanko . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 . ))

Furthermore, the Helsinki, Hanko, Isnäs and Kotka stations had re-
corded sharp impulses which were assumed to be Moho reflexions. From the
travel times of these impulses the thickness of the lower layer was computed
to be about 8 km, which agrees well with the result obtained by the refraction
method, viz. 8 . 2 km. No difference was detected in the thickness of the lower
layer between the eastern and western ends of the line, which indicates that
the total thickness of the crust changes within this area as much as that,
of the sial layer.
I n the summer of 1960, another explosion seismic study was undertaken
on the coast of the Gulf of Finland. The recordings were made along approxi-
mately the Same line as the preceding summer, but this time the charges
were exploded at the other end, on the sea bottom to the south of Kotka.
An additional recording line had been laid in the direction from Kotka to
Lahti through the rapakivi Zone. The sites of the recording stations were
Rankki island, Kiviniemi and Lapinjärvi. On the line along the coast the
stations were located at Norrkulla, Helsinki, Porkkala, Hanko and Nurmi-
jiirvi.
Use was made of the Same short-period seismometers as in the preceding
summer. A four-channel electroencephalograph was employed a t Kiviniemi
and a one-channel electrocardiograph at Lapinjärvi, while smoked paper
recorders were used at the other stations.
The velocities of the waves in the various layers and the layer thicknesses
were found to be as follows:

h , .. 18.0 ) 20.5 km (sial)

h3 .. 17.0 ) (sialma)
Total 37.5 km

h, . . 19.0 km (sial)
h, . . 18.5 )) (sialma)
Total 37.5 km

The thickness of the sial layer was found to be 20.5 km as computed

from the P waves, and 19.0 km as computed from the X waves; and the value
obtained for the total crustal thickness was 37.5 km. The refraction obs-
ervations gave 20.8 km for the thickness of the sial layer.
The recordings of the stations within the rapakivi region yielded the
following velocities:

The thickness of the sial layer was determined by using the P velocity
in this layer for the coastal line, i.e., 6.65 km/sec, in combination with the
recordings obtained for this region. The value found was 21 km.
I n June, 1960, explosions were also made in the Gulf of Bothnia, to the
west of Hailuoto. The size of the charges ranged from 300 to 1 200 kg.
Excellent seismograms were obtained a t the Oulu and Kajaani stations,
whereas the impulses recorded a t greater distances, a t Sodankylä, Nurmi-
järvi, Helsinki and Kotka, were weak. The explosions and the recording
times of the seismographs were synchronized by means of chronometers
adjusted according to BBC time.
 The Oulu, Kajaani, Helsinki and Kotka stations were equipped with
short-period vertical seismometers, and the seismograms were recorded on
smoked Paper. Similar instruments were also employed a t Sodankylä and
Nurmijärvi; in addition, however, these stations had vertical and horizontal
seismometers with photographic recording.
The following values were obtained for the P and S wave velocities:

The depth of the Conrad discontinuity as computed from the above

values for the P waves was 18 km, and that of the MohoroviEiE discontinuity
36 km, while the corresponding values calculated from the X waves were
13 km and 34 km respectively. The results diverge considerably from one
other. This is likely to be due to inaccuracies in the determinations of time
and place, as well as to the difficulties of interpretation attributable to weak
seismograms. Nevertheless, the value for the crustal thickness, 34-36 km,
may be regarded as reliable.
From the investigations described in the foregoing, the P and S wave
velocities in Finland can be taken t o be as follows:

P waves S waves
V, .. 5.80 f 0.05 kmlsec V, .. 3.35 & 0.05 kmlsec
V, .. 6.10 f 0.05 )) V2 .. 3.50 If: 0.05 ))

V, .. 6.65 f 0.05 B V, .. 3.75 f 0.05 ))

V, .. 8.20 f 0.05 )) V, .. 4.60 f 0.05 B

From the above results, the mean thickness of the sial layer and the
depth of the Conrad discontinuity can be estimated as 20 & 2 km, and the
thickness of the whole crust and the depth of the MohoroviCih discontinuity
as 33 & 3 km.

REFERENCES
KARRAS,M. and NURMIA,M. (1960) A Method for the Calibration of Seismographs,
Geophysica Vol 7, No 2.
KATAJA,A.IRI (1961) The 1960 Kuusamo-Salla Earthquake. I I.Macroseismic Data,
Geophysica Vol 7, No 3.
-9- (1961) Seismologieal Notes. Earthquakes felt in Finland. Geophysica Vol. 7, No 3.
NURMIA,M. (1960) Some Inexpensive Seismograph Designs. Geophysica Vol. 7, No 2.
PENTTILÄ, E. (1960) On the Local Earthquakes in Finland. Geophysica Vol. 7, No 2.
->)- (1960) The Kuusamo Salla Earthquake. I. Ge3eraI Data and Impulse Velocities.
Univ. of Helsinki, Publ. in Seismology, No 48.
PENTTILÄ,E. and NURMIA, M. (1960) Determination of the Thickness of the Granitic
Layer in S. W. Finland. Geophysica Vol. 7, No 2.
PENTTILÄ,E. et al. (1960) Report on the 1959 Explosion Seismic Investigation in
Southern Finland. University of Helsinki, Publ. in Seismology, No 35.
PENTTILÄ, E. (Manuscript) Report on the 1960 Explosion Seismic Investigation in
Finland.
RENQVIST,H. (1926) Helsingin Seismografinen asema.
->)- (1930) Finlands Jordskalv, Fennia 54, No 1.
RIIHIMAA, J. (1960) Timing Equipment for Explosion Seismology, Geophysica Vol. 7,
No 2.
SAHLSTR~M, K. E. (1930) A Seismological Map of Northern Europe, Sveriges Geologiska
Undersökning Arsbok (1930) No 1.
SINOLA,A. (1960) New Seismograph Recorder with Transistor Amplifiers. Geophysica
Vol. 7, No 2 .
VESANEN, E. et al. (1960) Progress Report, Univ. of Helsinki, Publ. in Seismology No 28.
-a- (1958) Explosion Seismic Determination of P g and S g Velocities in Finland,
Univ. of Helsinki, Piibl. in Seismology, No 30.
 THE EARTH'S CRUST

by
M. T. PORKKA

ABSTRACT:A short review is given of the seismic methods used in crustal studies
and the main results are described. The marked difference between the continental
and oceanic crust is in conformity with the basic concepts of isostasy. The roots of
mountains have been seisrnically detected. The system of mid-ocean ridges seems to
form a third major type of crust. The low-velocity Zone existing in the upper mantle
is of different structure under continents and under oceans.

Most geophysicists define the earth's crust as the uppermost part of the
earth, which is separated by the MohoroviEiC discontinuity, or briefly the
Moho, from the underlying mantle. This definition of crust is adopted in
the present paper. The crust represents about 112 per cent of the earth's
total volume.
The Moho was first discovered by A. MohoroviCiC, who made a study of
the seismometric recordings of a Kulpa Valley earthquake. His paper )>Das
Beben vom 8. X. 1909))is one of the classics of seismology. MohoroviCiC
concluded that a t a depth of some ten kms there exists an abrupt change
in the velocities of seismic compressional or P and shear or S waves. His
value for the depth of this discontinuity, which is now called the Moho,
was 54 km. The existente of the Moho as a universal feature is now generally
accepted. I t s geological significance, however, is still uncertain.
A great number of investigations relating to the depth of the Moho and
the crustal structure have been performed during the fifty years since
MohoroviCid's pioneer work. The principal methods used for this investigation
are seismological and gravitational ones. The present short survey is in the
main founded on the results of seismological studies.
Deep drilling as a direct method would naturally be very valuable. It
alone would be able to provide reliable information on the rock composition
of the crust and the region below it. At present the scientists of the United
States are attempting to drill a hole through the crust a t the bottom of
the sea: Project Mohole (Bascom, 1961). The Russians have also announced
similar plans. I n the spring of 1961, an American group made noteworthy
Progress. They carried out test drillings between the Pacific coast of Mexico
and Guadalupe Island. The water was 3 760 m deep and the drilling was
made from an unanchored ship. Even though the depth reached in these
test operations was less than 200 m, the results are of notable scientific
significance (Bullard, 1961). The main point, however, is that they prove
that the realization of Project Mohole is possible.
Geophysical, i.e. indirect, research methods, however, have provided all
our present knowledge of crustal structure. The seismological methods may
be grouped into four classes: (1) those based on near earthquakes and
explosions, (2) those based on surface waves from earthquakes and nuclea
explosions, (3) those using waves reflected from the earth's surface and
from the Mohorovi6i6 discontinuity, and (4) those using exchange waves.
The last two methods are of limited use arid they are not considered in
this Paper.
Near earthquake and explosion methods utilize direct, refracted and
reflected compressional and shear waves. The interpretation methods re-
semble those used in seismic prospecting. The use of near earthquakes as
energy sources has many limitations. Naturally, they are available only in
areas where earthquakes occur and the location of recording stations prevents
their use in oceanic areas. The origin time, location and depth of an earth-
quake cannot be determined very accurately. Nor do we know beforehand
where and when an earthquake will occur and it is therefore difficult to
utilize previously chosen station networks. All these difficulties may be over-
come by using controlled explosions. Refraction shooting supplies the most
detailed information on crustal structure and hence this is the method
mostly used. The long-period surface waves often compose the most con-
spicuous part of the earthquake seismogram. They arrive after the P and S
waves because of their lower velocities and their longer path. The surface
waves are of two types: Love waves, in which the particles move perpen-
dicular to the plane of propagation, and Rayleigh waves, in which the par-
ticles move in ellipses in the plane of propagation, having both vertical and
horizontal components. The surface waves are dispersive, i.e. their propaga-
tion velocities depend on their wavelength or period.
The dispersion of surface waves depends on the distribution of elastic
properties and density in the crust and below it. For the interpretation of
dispersion observations, one must compute theoretical curves for various
crustal models. The model selected will be the one which best fits the ob-
served dispersion and which agrees best with the other information available.
There are two different methods by which surface waves may be utilized
for crustal studies. The group velocity is computed simply from the epicentral
distance and travel time. Near earthquake and explosion methods are
essentially point measurements, whereas the group velocity dispersion gives
information on the average structure between the observation station and
the earthquake epicentre. For the determination of the phase velocity, the
arrival times of corresponding wave phases a t three or more near-by stations
must be known. The results apply to the area bounded by the stations used.
Dispersion studies on crustal structure have been performed since the
1920's, but not really effectively until the 1950's. The experimental and
theoretical investigations under the direction of Prof. M. Ewing of the
Lamorit Geological Observatory merit especial mention. The great advance
is largely due to the development of long-period seismographs and to the
use of electronic computers.
If we examine the results of investigations in different countries, we find
that they are in conformity with the basic concepts of isostasy. The Moho
lies at a depth of around 35 km under the continents and around 10 km
below sea level in the oceanic areas. The latter means that the crust is only
about 5 km thick under the oceans.
The most generally accepted concept of the continental crust consists,
in addition to the variable sedimentary column, of two crustal layers, the
upper and the intermediate layers, characterized by different seismic velo-
cities. The boundary between these two layers is called the Conrad discon-
tinuity. Many investigators have reported results indicating the existente
of a still greater number of crustal layers, although, particularly in the
early days, some scientists claimed that, apart from the Moho, there were
no discontinuities at all. The recent surface wave results are compatible
with the presence of the Conrad discontinuity.
The waves refracted from the intermediate layer frequently occur on
records as later arrivals and their identification is therefore often difficult.
The correlation techilique, first applied in crustal studies by Gamburtsev,
(Riznichenko, 1957), has turned out to be quite applicable to the solution
of this problem also. B&th (1961) has reviewed all available reports of studies
made on the continental crust by explosion methods. His conclusion is that
the Conrad discontinuity apparently does exist and that the divergence of
the conclusions drawn is mostly due to differences in the interpretation of
the data.
The increase in the depth of the Moho under the major mountain areas
seems to be a general phenomenon. Some, a t least, of the discrepant results
may be erroneous and due to the difficulty of detecting the intermediate
layer or to misinterpretation of the Conrad discontinuity as the Moho.
The structure of mountain roots is complicated by variations in the relative
thicknesses of the two crustal layers. This means that variations exist in
the mean density of the crust. The crustal studies made in Central Asia by
the Russians (Weizman et al., 1959) have shown that the intermediate
laper is usually thicker beneath elevated areas. This suggests that the mean
 DEPTH OF M O H O

0 moa1
-100
-_
-200
-300

Fig. 1. Transcontinental profile across the United States (Ewing and Press, 1960).

criistal density increases as the crust thickens. Woollard (1959) has examined
the relationship of the crustal structure to the gravity anomalies. He finds
an evident correlation of the Bouguer anomaly with elevation and with
crustal thickness. The isostatic compensation seems to be regional, not local.
Fig. 1 shows the strong agreement between the surface wave results and
Bouguer anomalies along a profile across the United States (Ewing and
Press, 1960).
I n Fig. 2 are shown some crustal sections according to refraction
shooting. They are chosen almost arbitrarily to represent different results.
The sections a), C), d) and g) are from lowland areas. The results for the
New York-Pennsylvania area (column d)) are based on the combined use
of refraction and phase velocity methods. I n the high mountain area of
Northern Pamir (column h)) the Moho is depressed to a depth of 70 km
below sea-level. The thickness of the intermediate layer of column i), cor-
responding to the Zailijski Ala-Tau mountain ridge, is striking. The results
obtained in Finland have been summarized by Penttilä (1962).
The reported velocities of the compressional waves in the upper layer
vary between about 5.5 and 6.2 km/sec. It is possible that the lower values
are representative of the upper part of this layer only, and that the charac-
teristic velocity is close to 6 kmlsec. The observations of the P velocities
in the intermediate layer show greater variability from 6.5 to 7.5 kmlsec,
approximately. This may be a real feature. The mantle P velocity beneath
the continents is little more than 8 km/sec.
The results obtained by the refraction studies in different parts of the
world show considerable dissimilarities. For example, Riznichenko (1957)
emphasizes that the results of crustal studies in the U.S.S.R. are only under-
standable if one assiimes that appreciable structural differences exist be-
Fig. 2. Crustal sections. a) Central Europe (RothB, 1908), b) South Africa (Hales and Sacks, 1969),
c) South Texas (Cram, 1961), d) New York-Pennsylvania (Oliver et al., 1961), e) Eastern
Montana (Meyer et al., 1960), f) California-Nevada (Press, 1960), g) Volga-Ural plat-
form (Weizman et al., 1959), h) Northem Pamir (ibid), i) Zailijski Ala-Tau Mountains
(ibid), j) Western North Atlantic (Ewing and Ewhg, 1969), k) Eastern North Atlantic
(ibid), 1) Off Lower California (Raitt, 1956), m) 15Of S, llOOW-170°W (ibid).

tween one place and another. On the other hand, the surface wave results
obtained by the group velocity method suggest that the average properties
of the crust in continental dimensions are generally quite uniform in different
continents. Likewise, the phase velocity method (Ewing and Press, 1960)
has led to results which support the uniformity (Fig. 1). One factor affecting
this discrepancy is the much greater wavelength of the surface waves, which
eliminates the effect of local inhomogeneities. The combined use of various
seismic and gravity methods will certainly lead to better agreemeiit of
results (Press, 1960).
The thickness of the unconsolidated sediments on the ocean floors varies,
being usually a few hundred metres. Immediately below the sedimeiits is
often observed a thin layer with a compressional velocity of 4 to 6 kmlsec.
The main layer of the oceanic crust has a velocity approaching 6.0 km/sec
and its thickness is about 5 km. This layer has been found in all refraction
work done in various oceans. The mantle velocity is about 8 km/sec, as
beneath the continents. Columns j) to m) of figure 2 represent some average
results of oceanic crustal investigations.
The greatest depths in the oceans are found in the deep ocean trenches
associated with island arcs. They are characterized by a thickened crust.
 3 I I , L , , 130

Fig. 3. Crustal section across the Puerto Rico Trench (After Talwani et al., 1959).

\
Manfle Manfle
\ 20

\
/ 30
Fig. 4. Schematized crustal section across the Mid--4tlantic Ridge south of the Azores (After
Ewing and Ewing, 1959).

Fig. 3 shows a section across the Puerto Rico Trench according to seismic
and gravity studies (Talwani et al., 1959).
Recent geophysical work has suggested that the mid-ocean ridges form
a third major type of crustal structure, along with the continents and oceans.
The best known of them is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. This structure extends
into all the other oceans, forming a system, which is 60 000 km long and
hundreds of kilometres wide (Heezen and Ewing, 1961). Pig. 4 shows a
schematized crustal section across the Mid-Atlantic Ridge taken from J. and
M. Ewing (1959). The ridge structure differs considerably from the standard
oceanic structure. The upper layer, with a velocity of about 5.15 km/sec,
is identified as volcanic rock. The nature of the deeper layer, with a velocity
of about 7.21 kmlsec, is problematic. Its thickness has not yet been seis-
mically determmed but, assuming isostatic equilibrium, a value of about
30 kms is obtained. J. and M. Ewing (1959) have tentatively suggested that
it is a mixture of mantle and oceanic layer. The central rift valley running
along the ridge is one of the most surprising present-day discoveries.
 The structural inhomogeneity extends below the crust. Recent dispersion
studies of long-period Rayleigh waves give strong additional evidence of the
existence of a low-velocity channel in the upper mantle (Dorman et al., 1960).
This channel, with a minimum velocity a t a depth of about 140 kilometres,
has a different structure under continents and oceans. The difference extends
to depths of several hundred kilometres. The low velocity in all probability
means that the rocks a t these depths are near melting point. It is obvious
that such a soft zone will influence many geophysical and geological pro-
cesses.
Some of the basic features of the earth's crust are a t present known,
but as regards most details we have as yet only probable solutions. Por
solving many important problems, such as the nature of orogenetic pro-
cesses and the origin of continents and oceans, a more detailed knowledge
of the crust and the upper mantle is needed.

REFERENCES

BASCOM, WILLARD (1961) A Hole in the Bottom of the Sea. Doubleday.

BULLARD, EDWARD (1961) The Mohole. Endeavo~ir,XX, 188-196.
BATH,MARKUS (1961)Die Conrad-Diskontinuität. Freiberger Forschungshefte, C. 101.
CRAM,IRA H. JR.(1961) A crustal structure survey in south Texas. Geophysics, XXVI,
560-573.
DORMAN, JAMES,EWING,MAU~ICE and OLIVER,JACK (1960) Study of the shear-
velocity distribution in the upper mantle by mantle Rayleigh waves. Bull.
Seismol. Soo. Am. 50, 87-115.
EWING,JOHN and EWING,MÄURICE(1959) Seismic-refraction measurements in the
Atlantic Ocean basins, in the Mediterranean Sea, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge,
and in the Norwegian Sea. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 70, 291-318.
EWINQ,M. and PRESS,F.(1960) Determination of crustal structure from phase velocity
of Rayleigh waves, Part 111:The United States. Bii11. Geol. Soc. A., 70, 229-244.
HALES,A. L. and SACKS, I. S. (1959) Evidence for an intermediate layer from crustal
structure studies in the Eastern Transvaal. Geophys. J. 2, 15-33.
HEEZEN, B. C. and EWINQ,M. (1961) The mid-oceanic ridge and its extension through
the Arctic Basin. Geology of the Arctic, Vol. I, G. 0. Raasch, ed., University
of Toronto Press.
MEYER,R. P. et al. (1960) Refraction phase comelation techniques as applied to and
preliminary results of crustal studies in eastern Montana (Abstract). J. Geophys.
Research, 66, 2511.
OLIVER,JACK, KOVACH, ROBERT,DORMAN, J. (1961) Crustal structure of the New
York-Pennsylvania area. J. Geophys. Research, 66, 215-225.
PENTTILÄ, E. (1962) On seismological investigations of crustal structure in Finland
(in press).
PRESS,FRANK(1960) Crustal structure in the California-Nevada region. J. Geophys.
Research, 65, 1039-1052.
RAITT,R. W. (1956) Seismic refraction studies of the Pacific Ocean Basin. Bull. Geol.
Soc. h., 67, 1623-1640.
RIZNICHENKO, Y. V. (1957) K izucheniyu stroeniya zemnoi kory V period Tred'ego
Mezhdunarodnogo Geofizicheskogo Goda. AN SSSR, Seriya geofiz., No 2.
ROTH*, J. P. (1958) Quelques experiences sur la structure de la croiite terrestre en
Europe occidentale. Contributions in Geophysics, ed. by H. Benioff et al.
Pergamon Press.
TALWANI, M. SUTTON, G. H. and WORZEL, J. L. (1959) A crustal section across the
Puerto Rico Trench. J. Geophys. Research, 64, 1545-1555.
WEIZMAN, P. S., KOSMINSKAIA, J. P. and RISNICHENKO, J. V. (1959) New deep seismic
sounding data, on the structure of the earth's crust and on mountain roots.
Pub. Bur. Cent. Seism. Internat., ser. A, 20, 97-112.
WOOLLARD, G. P. (1959) Crustal structure from gravity and seismic measurements.
J. Geophys. Research, 64, 1521-1544.