October 2002
Performing and Interpreting Insulation Tests for Evaluation of
Low and High Voltage Rotating Electrical Machinery
Alex Settimi Sohler
Technical & Quality Manager WEG Australia
ABSTRACT
For many years, a multitude of tests has been available to
evaluate the condition of rotating electrical machinery
insulation. Nevertheless, there is usually confusion as to
what each test can and cannot reveal, its acceptance criteria
and interpretation. This paper discusses each of the major
insulation tests, how to perform them, their acceptance
criteria and interpretation of results. Reference to
international standards, mainly the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), The Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and European
Standard (EN), are made for each test method. Where
appropriate, additional comments on industry practices are
included. It is concluded that the choice of appropriate test
should be based on which aspect of the insulation needs to
be tested, the equipment available, how critical the machine
is to the plant and on the time available to test it.
1. INTRODUCTION
The first rotating electrical machinery, a DC generator, was
produced in 1856 by the German inventor Werner Siemens.
Thirty three years later, the AC induction motor was
patented by the electrical engineer Michael Dolivo
Dobrowolsky. At that time the kW vs weight ratio of an AC
electric motor was around 86kg/kW, that is a 4kW motor
weighed approximately 344kg. Whilst current technology is
still based on the same principles used by Dobrowolsky,
advancements in insulating materials and magnetic steel
have resulted in a reduction of KW vs kg ratio of almost
92% [4].
Initially, the magnetic wire used in machinery coils was
insulated with cotton yarn, then silk, and later enamel. The
enamelled wire enabled 78% reduction in space when
compared to cotton-insulated wire of the same ampacity. In
addition, the thinner insulation layer of the enamelling
system facilitates heat transfer from the copper conductor to
the external environment. This new technology in
conjunction with subsequent improvements in magnetic
steel were the main factors in the reduction of weight of
rotating electrical machinery throughout the years.
The insulation system of rotating electrical machinery
comprises of conductor insulation (in most cases enamel),
tapes and flexible sheets, rigid sheets, sleevings and cables,
semi-conducting corona shield materials, bracing tapes,
impregnating varnishes and resins [5]. The choice of
insulating material has great impact on the characteristics,
reliability and longevity of rotating electrical machinery.
1
The study of insulating materials is based on experimental
statistical data. When performance tests are carried out, a
large dispersion of individual values is encountered. Hence,
in order to quantify the individual properties of an insulating
material, one needs to refer to statistical concepts such as
mean, standard deviation and variance [6]. Research shows
that between 37 to 41% of rotating machine failures are
caused by insulation breakdown [13]. Insulation life is
directly dependent on temperature, ambient (corrosive gases
or vapours) and supply (voltage spikes or high dv/dts).
Every machine will be subjected to a few or all of these
stress factors, to a different degree, but with possible impact
on machine’s life. Fortunately, there are tests able to pin-
point insulation weaknesses or signs of early deterioration.
The understanding of the most common tests for evaluation
of rotating electrical machinery insulation, their acceptance
criteria and interpretation, is of paramount importance for
maintenance technicians and engineers. This is crucial
information in decreasing maintenance as well as
production losses costs. Among the many electrical tests
that can be used to assess electric rotating machinery
condition the most common are:
p INSULATION RESISTANCE
p POLARISATION INDEX
p AGEING FACTOR
p SURGE TEST
p HI-POT TEST
p IMPULSE TEST
p TANGENT DELTA
p PARTIAL DISCHARGE
Each of these tests give limited information about particular
conditions of a machine’s insulation. According to IEEE
432, insulation evaluation tests can be divided into two
categories [IEEE 432-1992, p. 13]:
1. Tests to discern existing weaknesses or faults
2. Tests that give some indication of expected
service reliability
Insulation resistance, polarisation index, surge test, hi-pot
and impulse tests belong to the first category, whilst ageing
factor, tangent delta and partial discharge tests are used to
access a machine’s service reliability. The first 5 tests are
suitable for both low voltage and high voltage machines,
whilst the latter 3 are suitable for high voltage machines
only.
2. DEFINITION
Any electrical material can be classed according to its
insulation properties as per Table 1 (super-conductor have
resistivity < 10-6 Ohm-cm) [6]:
Table 1: classification of electrical materials
Type Volumetric
of resistivity
Material
[Ω cm]
Conductor 10-6 to 100
Semi-conductor 100 to 106
Insulator 106 to 1020
From Table 1, it can be concluded that all solid materials
conduct electricity to a certain extent. The difference is in
the amplitude of the current that flows in each type of
material when the same voltage is applied. Consequently,
insulators can be defined as materials of very high electrical
resistance that when placed between two conductors, to
which a potential differential (voltage) is applied, only a
very small amplitude current, in most cases negligible,
flows.
3. ELECTRICAL MODEL
Often, the term dielectric is used interchangeably with
insulator. A dielectric is deemed perfect when it does not
allow any current flow, but only a re-orientation of electric
charges. Only the vacuum between two non-contaminated
conductive surfaces meets this criterion.
Any dielectric or insulator can be modelled by an electrical
circuit composed of a capacitor and one or 2 resistors as per
figure 1[7].
C Rs
RP
Figure 1: Electrical model of a dielectric
In a perfect dielectric, Rs = 0 and Rp =∞ , that is the circuit
is reduced to the capacitor [7].
When a voltage is applied to a dielectric, a small electric
current flows inside and outside the dielectric. The external
current, called leakage current, is the result of leakage paths
on the surface of the insulation, caused by humidity,
contamination by conductive particles or small punctures or
cracks in the insulation. The internal current, that is the
current within the volume of the insulation, is the vector
sum of three currents [3]:
2
1. Absorption current: this current results from the
movement of electrical charges within the dielectric. It
decays rapidly following an exponential curve, but
maintains a high amplitude up to few minutes after
application of voltage to insulation material under test.
2. Conduction current: the conduction current does not
vary with time. Its amplitude is practically zero for
polyester or epoxy-mica insulation, but greater than zero
for asphaltic-mica insulation [IEEE 43-2000, p. 5]
3. Capacitance charging current: a high-magnitude short-
duration (< 1min) current related to the charging of the
capacitor as shown in Figure 1.
The total current in the dielectric is the vector sum of each
internal and external current component.
4. INSULATION RESISTANCE (IR)
From the classical definition of insulating material, the term
insulation resistance is defined as the resistance a body/
material offers to the flow of an electric current. The ruling
standard for IR test is IEEE 43.
4.1 How To Measure IR
Insulation resistance is measured by applying a DC voltage
to a machine’s insulation and measuring the current that
flows across it. For a perfect dielectric (Rs = 0 and R= ∞)
the current will be zero. This can be seen below by applying
Ohm’s law
I=V/R (1)
I=V/∞ =0 (2)
A real dielectric, however, will always allow the flow of a
small amplitude current. An insulation tester measures this
current and relates it to an insulation value by applying
Ohm’s law as per equation (1). Insulation resistance is then
quantified by measuring the total current through a
dielectric.
The most common test instrument is the megohmmeter, or
simply megger, capable of reading resistance in the order of
109 Ohms. Choice of appropriate test voltage is based on the
insulation rating and condition, and it usually varies from
500 to 5000V (see Table 2). Care should be taken not to
expose the machine to an excessively high potential, which
could damage its insulation.
The reading should only be taken after 60 seconds of
applying the voltage. Both the insulation between phases or
between phase and ground can be measured. When testing
interphase or individual phase to ground insulation, it is
recommended to ground the other phase(s) not under test. In
any case, the winding temperature should also be recorded.
Warning: “After the application of high direct potential,
grounding of windings is important for safety as well as for
accuracy of subsequent tests. The grounding time should be
a minimum of four times the charge time” [IEEE 43-1974,
p. 11].
Table 2: recommended test voltages for IR tests
Machine Voltage IR Test Voltage
(line-to-line rms)
< 1000V 500V
3.300 2500V
5001 - 12000V 2500-5000V
4.2 Acceptance Criteria
As insulation resistance is highly affected by temperature,
hence the tested value (Rt) should be corrected to a 400 C
base value by applying equation (3) below [3]:
Rc = Kt x R t (3)
The value for Kt can be found by entering the winding
temperature in the abscissa of Figure 2. For instance, for a
winding temperature of 300C, Kt is 0.5.
From Figure 2 it can be seen that IR is halved for every
Figure 2: Kt correction factor for IR [IEEE 43 –1974, p. 9]
100C increase in temperature. This is an approximation,
which should be used only when the machine’s specific
insulation resistance temperature coefficient (Kt) is
unknown. The latter can be found by measuring the
machine’s IR for various temperatures above the dew point.
3
Hence, the comparison between different tests necessitates
the correction of each IR value to 400C. IEEE 43-1974
specifies that the minimum IR(Rm), corrected to 400C, can
be determined as per equation (4) below:
Rm = kV + 1 (4)
The above criterion should be used when previous
measures of a machine’s IR or the OEM’s minimum
recommended value is unknown, or as per IEEE-43-2000
for windings made before 1970. Manufacturers of rotating
electrical machinery tend to agree that the minimum IR
value should be 100MOhm. In fact, the year 2000 revision
of IEEE 43 has increased Rm to 100MΩ for form-wound
windings made after 1970. However, contrary to OEMs’
recommendations, it establishes 5 MOhms as minimum IR
for random-wound machines. This is, in our opinion,
inadequate, as even fractional random-wound machines
exhibit insulation resistance greater than 100 MOhms.
4.3 Interpretation of IR tests
As any test, IR has its limitations as to what it can and
cannot reveal about a machine’s insulation. IEEE states that
“it is recognized that the insulation resistance history of a
given machine, kept under uniform conditions, is a useful
way of monitoring the insulation condition” [IEEE 43-1974,
p. 13]. According to IEEE, “the recommended minimum IR
value is the lowest value at which a winding is
recommended for an overvoltage test or for
operation” [IEEE 43-2000, p. 15].
The insulation resistance test indicates how dry and clean
the insulation is. A low IR may also signal an eminent
failure, as cracks in the insulation will increase leakage
current. From a maintenance standpoint, it is impossible to
compare the quality of different insulation systems based
purely on IR readings, as the conditions that influence IR
can vary widely between machines. Finally, IEEE states
that a steady increase in IR, if all other conditions e.g.
temperature and humidity are kept the same, may indicate a
deterioration of the bonding materials [3]. Nevertheless, it
does not quantify what a steady increase is. In practice,
variations in IR are expected, as it is not possible to ensure
all conditions are kept exactly the same. Therefore, the
applicability of such criterion necessitates careful judgment.
If IR is below the minimum recommended value Rm, then
the machine windings should be cleaned and dried.
Thereafter, for good insulation, the IR value should be
above Rm. If not, it indicates cracks in the insulation, which
will eventually lead to failure. The decision to continue to
operate a machine despite a low IR value, is entirely up to
the maintenance manager, who will draw on his/her
experience and access the cost-benefit of a shut-down
against a possible machine failure. Nonetheless, there are no
known criteria to relate a given IR value to insulation life.
5. POLARISATION INDEX (PI)
Polarisation index (PI) quantifies the rate of decrease of the
sum of the leakage, conduction and absorption currents.
IEEE 43 is the reference standard.
5.1 How To Measure PI
PI is the ratio of the insulation resistance readings taken at
10 minutes and 1 minute. It is measured by carrying out an
IR test, but applying a constant voltage to the equipment
under test for 10 minutes. The polarisation index of an
insulation system is calculated as per equation (5).
PI = IR @ 10min / IR @ 1min (5)
5.2 Acceptance Criteria
So long as the insulation’s temperature does not change
more than 1 or 2 degrees C during test, the polarisation
index suffers no interference from temperature. PI is a
dimensionless number, for it is the ratio of two IR
measurements.
According to IEEE “the recommended minimum value of
polarization index for alternating current and direct-current
rotating machines is 2.0 for insulation classes B and
F” [IEEE 43-1974, p. 14]. The evolution of insulating
material has, nonetheless, resulted in an absorption current,
which decays substantially faster. This is the case of
random-wound and small epoxy-mica form wound-
machines. For these machines, when the same acceptance
criteria is used (PI > 2), industry has adopted variations in
PI measurements which include IR @ 1min / IR @ 30s and
IR @ 5min / IR @ 1min. Others have changed the
acceptance criteria to PI ≥ 1.2 and maintained the PI
measurement as per equation (5). To date, none of the
aforementioned alternative ways of measuring or accepting
PI measurements have been standardised.
5.3 Interpretation of PI tests
The measured insulation resistance increases with the
duration of application of the test voltage. The rate of
increase is high in the first few seconds when voltage is first
applied, decreasing until the readings stabilise (see Figure
3). Recall that both the capacitance and absorption currents
decline rapidly with time. Hence, as time elapses, only the
leakage and conduction currents, which are fairly constant,
remain. Consequently, PI is a better measure of the leakage
paths of the insulation system.
Leakage current is affected by humidity, contamination of
the winding by conductive particles, and small punctures on
the surface of the insulation. Thus PI is a measure of how
clean and dry an insulation system is, as well as the
condition of the surface insulation. If the insulation is dry
and clean, a lower than acceptable PI indicates deterioration
of the main (ground wall) insulation.
4
current
total current
Capacitance leakage current
charging current
absorption current conduction current
1 min 10 min
Figure 3: Current flow on a dielectric
6. AGEING FACTOR
Ageing factor is a simple test to evaluate the change of
insulation resistance with the applied voltage. It has been
suggested that it is possible to detect deterioration of
insulation condition by means of an ageing factor test [9].
6.1 How To Perform an Ageing Factor Test
Ageing factor is measured by applying a voltage potential to
the machine’s insulation in a similar manner to an IR test.
The applied voltage should be 50% of the maximum
permissible voltage. The latter must be based on the
machine’s voltage rating and insulation condition (for
guidance see Table 2).
The duration of the test should be long enough to eliminate
any significant influence of the capacitance, and preferably
the absorption, current. Whilst some authors recommend 60
seconds [9], a longer time may be required for larger
machines. When the IR value is stable, a reading is taken.
Next, the applied voltage is increased and a second reading
is taken. A total of 3 or 4 readings should be taken until the
maximum permissible test potential is reached.
Warning: care should be taken not to exceed the
machine’s permissible test voltage. If IR value at lowest
potential is under acceptable limit, do not proceed with
test.
6.2 Acceptance Criteria
Generally, there should be no significant decrease in
insulation resistance for an increase in applied potential, so
long as the latter is within the rating of the machine’s
insulation. As the ageing test is not endorsed by
international standards, there is no official acceptance
criterion. Some authors have suggested that there should be
no more than 25% drop in IR between any two test
potentials [9]. IEEE 43-2000 states that although the value
of IR decreases somewhat with increase in applied voltage,
the IR of a good and dry insulation should be practically
the same for any applied voltage up to the peak value of the
machine’s rated voltage..
6.3 Interpretation of Ageing Factor Test 7.2 Acceptance Criteria
If, after eliminating the effects of absorption and capacitive The surge test is basically a pass or fail test. Hence, the pass
currents, IR decreases substantially with applied voltage, criteria are that the machine under test withstands the
this is indicative of imperfections or cracks in the insulation, applied voltage transient and that the waveforms between
aggravated by the presence of dirt or moisture, or may be any two coils are similar (see Figure 4).
due the effect of dirt or moisture alone [3].
a) b)
The theory behind the aging factor test is that at higher
potentials, i.e greater dielectric stress, minute cracks in the
insulation, which may not give rise to significant leakage
currents at low voltages, will be stressed enough to
significantly increase leakage current amplitude. If the
insulation is dry and clean, the increase in leakage current,
and subsequent decrease in IR, can only be due to fractures
in the insulation, which will ultimately decrease the life of
the machine. Figure 4: Waveforms of two good coils (a) and shorted turn-
to-turn coil (b) in a surge test
7. SURGE TEST
7.3 Interpretation of Surge Test
Surge test is a quality control test used by manufacturers
Neither IR nor PI is sensitive to the condition of the
and repairers of rotating electrical machinery to verify the
interturn insulation. Hence, a surge test is used as a means
integrity of interturn insulation as well as winding
of checking interturn and ground wall insulation, as well as
connections. It also checks the ability of the main insulation
winding connections. If the machine under test withstands
(ground wall) to withstand steep fronted transients likely to
the voltage transient and if the waveforms between any two
be encountered during the machine’s normal operation [10].
phases are similar (Figure 4(a)), then it is safe to conclude
By comparing waveforms between any two coils it is
that both ground wall and interturn insulation are in good
possible to identify turn to turn shorts, open coils, or shorts
condition and that all connections have been made
to ground. This test is normalised by IEEE 522 standard.
properly.

7.1 How To Perform a Surge Test

8. HI-POT TEST
Commercially available equipment, which apply a voltage
The high potential test is mainly used on new or completely
surge of adjustable magnitude to the machine’s insulation
rewound machines as part of quality assurance process. The
and compare the waveforms between two coils on an
reference documents are IEC60034-1 and IEEE 95.
oscilloscope screen, are readily available. These equipment
come, normally, with a detailed set of instructions and
guidelines on how to interpret the waveforms.
8.1 How To Perform a Hi-Pot Test
The test can be carried out with either an ac or dc power
The basic idea is to apply a high potential transient with a
source. It consists of applying a test potential between phase
typical rise time of 0.1µs to the coils under test. The voltage
to earth, with the other phases not under test duly grounded.
amplitude can be calculated as follows:
The test voltage is applied for 60 seconds.

Vcoil = Vphase (6) IEC 60034-1 standard sets forth the adequate test potential
No groups x No coils amplitude for each type of machine. For instance, an AC
machine with output greater than 1kW should be tested at
twice its rated voltage plus 1kV(ac hi-pot). The test voltage
Vsurge = 2 x Vcoil + 1kV (7)
amplitude for dc power supply should be 1.7 times the
equivalent ac test voltage.
It is recommended that this test be carried out on each coil,
after assembly into the stator core but before connecting the
phase groups. This is the only way to verify the integrity of 8.2 Acceptance Criteria
interturn insulation of each coil. This is a pass or fail test, hence so long as the machine’s
windings are able to withstand the test without an insulation
breakdown, the machine is deemed to have passed the test.

5
8.3 Interpretation of Hi-Pot Test
The test potential in the hi-pot test is high enough to stress
the ground wall insulation (in form wound machines) or
interturn insulation (in random wound machines) so that if
there are any significantly large air bubbles, cracks or
punctures they should break down during test. Although
weakened insulation is likely to break down, there will be
no detrimental effect to good and new insulation. If a
machine passes the test, it is concluded that its insulation
system is capable of withstanding electrical stresses found
during normal operation [10].
9. IMPULSE TEST
Impulse test is a destructive test used as part of
manufacturers’ quality control tests. It can be used to
assess both interturn and main insulation.
9.1 How To Perform an Impulse Test
Impulse test equipment is extremely expensive, hence it is
only offered by a few laboratories. The test consists of
applying a steep-fronted transient voltage to either two
terminals of a sample coil (impulse test of interturn
insulation) or between coil terminals and earth (impulse test
of main insulation). The former requires a test voltage with
front time of the first peak to be 0.2µs and peak amplitude
as per equation (8). The latter requires a voltage rise time of
1.2µs and a peak amplitude as per equation (9)
VT = 0.65 x (4 VN + 5kV) (8)
VT = 4 VN + 5kV (9)
Where VT is the test potential and VN is the machine’s rated
voltage.
9.2 Acceptance Criteria
This is also a pass or fail, however, potentially destructive
test. Hence the test values given by equations (8) and (9)
are prescribed for sample coils, which should be a perfect
replica of the machine’s coils. IEC states that “the impulse
voltage withstand of a complete winding can be proved
indirectly by tests on a sample coil” [IEC34-15-1995, p. 17].
9.3 Interpretation of Impulse Test
Impulse test theory is based on the fact that “when a steep
voltage surge is applied to a machine’s coil, the
corresponding phase cannot suddenly, i.e. during the
impulse rise time, adopt the same potential on all its points.
Hence, two types of voltage arise in the winding: the voltage
between the copper and earth (transverse voltage) and the
voltage along the copper (longitudinal voltage). Whilst the
transverse voltage stresses the main wall insulation, the
longitudinal voltage stresses the interturn insulation”
6
[IEC34-15-1995, p. 15]. Therefore, if the sample coils pass the
test, it can be concluded that both the machine’s interturn and
main insulation are capable of withstanding the transients and
surges likely to be encountered during their service life.
10. TANGENT DELTA TEST
Tangent delta test and its derivatives (dissipation factor, power
factor and tip up tests), are used as either part of manufacturers’
quality control or as a maintenance test. When used as a condi-
tion monitoring, that is trending technique, it provides informa-
tion about a machine’s service reliability. The reference stan-
dards are VDE 530 and EN50209.
10.1 How To Perform a Tan-Delta Test
Traditionally a Shering bridge has been used to measure tan
delta. Today there are other commercially available equipment,
which usually include a software package that is able to take
readings automatically and save data onto a spreadsheet.
The test is carried out by applying 20% of the machine’s rated
voltage to a set of sample coils or the machine’s windings. The
latter can be further subdivided into two tests: between phases
or phase to ground. The voltage is increased in 0.2pu steps until
it reaches 1.2pu. The tests must be carried out at room tempera-
ture.
10.2 Acceptance Criteria
EN50209, which is applicable to rotating electrical machines
from 5kV to 24kV, stipulates the highest permissible values for
tangent delta for three conditions as per Table 3.
Table 3: Upper limits for tan delta test EN50209
Parameter EN50209-1999
T a n δ (0.2Un) 0.03
∆ T a n δ m a x . /∆ U 0.005 - 0.006
1
2 (tan δ 0 . 6 − tan δ 0 . 2 ) 0.0025 - 0.0030
It is important to note that the limits in Table 3 are applicable
to bars and coils of high voltage windings with rated voltages
less than 11kV. Also, for bars and coils, at least 95% of them
must be under the lower range limit (e.g. 0.005 for delta tan
delta / delta U). EN50209 states that limits for a complete wind-
ing should be agreed [between manufacturer and purchaser]
separately. This is based on the premiss that a complete wind-
ing will somehow have greater losses than an individual bar or
coil.
10.3 Interpretation of Tan-Delta Test
The test results for bars and coils can be assessed directly using
Table 3 limits. This should be interpreted as a quality control
test to assess the uniformity of manufacture as well as deter-
mine the dielectric behaviour of the insulation [13].
Conversely, the results for a complete winding should be
used to trend the machine and assess its service reliability. It
is expected that tan delta values will drop in the first 6 to 12
months of operation, as the varnish/resin cures. For a clean
and dry insulation, a steady increase in tan delta with time,
if all test conditions are kept the same (mainly temperature),
is a strong indication of deterioration.
To better understand the tan delta test and what each of the
parameters in Table 3 reveal, refer to Figure 5.
2πfCVtg δ
I machine is. An abnormal increase in tanδ from low to high
2πfCV
δ voltage is the result of excessive voids within the insulation,
θ
Voltage
Figure 5: behaviour of a real dielectric when submitted to an
alternating voltage
Figure 5 is based on the electric model of a dielectric
depicted in Figure 1. In a perfect dielectric (?Rs=0 and
Rp=∞) only a capacitive current flows, hence its current
leads the voltage by 900, which means δ = 0 and tan δ = 0.
Conversely, for a real dielectric, whose leakage and
conduction currents are different to 0 (θ < 900), δ > 0 and
tan δ > 0.
If, for simplicity, the electric model depicted in Figure 1 is
approximated by making either Rp=∞ or Rs = 0, we have:
for Rp =∞ ⇒ tan δ = 2 π f C Rs (10)
for Rs = 0 ⇒ tan δ = 1/ (2 π f C Rp) (11)
The power dissipated in this RC circuit can be calculated
by:
P = V I sen δ (12)
It follows from equation 12 that a tan delta test is a measure
of the losses in the insulation, which is generally dissipated
in the form of heat. These losses are, in turn, directly
related to the applied voltage and the vector sum of the
currents flowing in the dielectric. Consequently, the angle
δ is known as the loss factor or dissipation factor.
For test voltages around 0.2 to 0.4pu, the voltage amplitude
is too small to generate any electrical discharge in the
insulation .
7
As the applied voltage increases, air-filled voids within the
insulation or between the coils and stator core, will discharge
[10]. This phenomenon is termed partial discharge (PD). One of
the conditions for PD to occur is that the applied electric field
be greater than the material’s dielectric constant (3kV/mm for
air at 1atm), which explains why it only occurs at higher
potentials. The energy of these discharges is transformed into
heat and light, increasing the windings’ electrical losses, which
results in a higher tan δ.
Based on the above, the low voltage tan delta (at 0.2pu) is a
measure of the dryness and cleanliness of the insulation, as the
machine is practically free from PD activity. Conversely, the
∆tan δ, also termed power factor tip-up when cosine rather than
tangent is computed, indicates how well impregnated a
which discharge at high voltage [10].
In addition, the phase to ground tan delta increases with the
applied voltage. However, the interphase tan delta can, in fact,
decrease with voltage. This is normal for rotating machinery
manufactured with stress grading tape/paint at the endwindings.
The latter has a non-linear resistance, which decreases with
voltage, thus decreasing tanδ.
Finally, the phase to ground tangent delta typically indicates the
condition of the coils within the slots. Whilst the interphase tan
delta relates to the condition of the endwinding.
Some authors state that the limitations of tan delta test is that it
averages out the losses over the entire coil/winding under test.
Hence, it may not be sensitive to the worst area of the insulation
[10].
11. PARTIAL DISCHARGE TEST
Partial discharge is a localized electrical discharge that only
partially bridges the insulation between conductors and which
can or can not occur adjacent to a conductor. Partial discharges
generally appear as pulses having a duration of much less than
1µs [14].
11.1 How To Perform a Partial Discharge Test
Partial discharge can be measured in miliamps (mA), milivolts
(mV) or picoCouloumb (pC). From these, the transfer of charge
q has traditionally been used, since it is directly related to the
discharge energy and can be measured with a discharge detector
[16]. There are a number of techniques used to detect and/or
measure partial discharge, the most common are:
• Noise detection: Noise detection by ear is possible for
discharges greater than 50pC [16] , but this is obviously
a rough test as it is dependent on ear sensitivity and
background noise. One other method is to use an
ultrasonic noise detector, but with the inconvenience of
having to locate it somehow inside the machine.
• Light detection: This can be done in a dark room by
either the human eye (sensitive to discharges in the
magnitude of 500 to 1000pC) or by photography [16].
Naturally, this technique can only be used for visible
discharges which occur on the surface of the test
material.
• Electrical: Electrical measurement of PD is usually
carried out by means of stator slot or capacitive couplers.
The former are installed in the slots of larger machines
(usually greater than 100MW). The latter are used in
smaller machines and can be installed inside the
machine’s terminal box or the incoming phase bus [10].
Noise and light detection techniques are used to detect the
occurrence of partial discharge, however, they are unable to
measure its magnitude. Conversely, electrical detection
techniques are used to detect and measure the magnitude of
partial discharge. Finally, PD can be measured with the
machine either on-line or off-line.
11.2 Acceptance Criteria
To date there are no acceptance criteria for PD magnitude.
In a recent paper, Zhu et al stated that “While on-line PD
testing is widely used today for condition-based
maintenance of rotating machines, many users still ask the
question, “How do I know when my machine has a
problem?” Does a rotating machine with higher PD
readings fail more quickly that one with lower PD
readings? Naturally one expects that a criterion of an
absolute PD magnitude exists for evaluating stator winding
insulation condition. Unfortunately a criterion for
acceptable PD does not exist for rotating machines due to
PD calibration problems” [Zhu et al, (nd) Introduction
section].
Consequently, there is no international standard which
relates a certain PD level to a particular winding condition.
Thus PD should be not be used as a one-off diagnostic test,
but as a trending or condition monitoring approach.
11.3 Interpretation of Partial Discharge Test
The three main variables that can be measured/recorded in
PD tests and their respective meanings are:
8
• Magnitude: The magnitude of the partial discharge is directly
related to its energy or size of voids.
• The number of discharges per unit of time: This relates to the
number of voids or partial discharge events.
• The polarity: The polarity of a PD is used to locate the voids.
Since no absolute values of PD can be used to assess the
condition of a machine’s insulation, the best approach is to use
it for trending purposes. It is generally accepted that the
doubling of PD levels every 6 months indicates a severe
insulation deterioration [10]. If PD levels are high compared to
similar machines, but do not increase with time this means that
the machine’s insulation has not worsened and is in a stable
condition. Therefore, a machine with a higher PD magnitude is
not necessarily in worse condition than a similar machine with
lower PD amplitude. The change of PD with time is the most
significant parameter.
12. CONCLUSION
This paper has explained the principles underlying the 8 major
tests used to evaluate rotating electical machinery insulation.
For each test, an explanation of how to perform it, its
evaluation criteria and interpretation was given. The tests were
divided into two main categories: tests to discern existing
weaknesses or faults and tests to evaluate expected service
reliability.
Choice of the appropriate test should be based on which aspect
of the insulation needs to be tested, the equipment available,
the time available for testing the machine, as well as how
critical the machine is to the plant. These criteria are
summarised in Table 4 (the time required for each test listed
therein is indicative only and does not include machine outage,
dissassembly, disconnection, reconnection etc) .
This paper has not covered the techniques for visual inspection
of rotating electrical machinery. This is covered at length by
IEEE 432. Also, when a machine’s insulation resistance or
polarisation index value is low, the procedure to clean and dry
its insulation has not been described. Detailed information can
be found in IEEE 43 or in the OEM’s maintenance manual.
There are a number of factors that influence the results found in
each of the tests covered herein (temperature, age, cleanliness,
dryness, etc). Also, the machine’s design and materials (type
and thickness of insulation, the presence or absense of stress-
grading tape, coil spacing) have significant bearing on most of
these tests. Thus the use of diagnostic tests based on a one-off
reading is very limited and not recommended. The best
approach to machine maintenance is the trending of key
performance parameters. Substantial oscillation in a test value
is a strong indication of abnormality or deterioration, which
may warrant further investigation.
Table 4: Summary of Methods of Tests
Ultimately, every plant/site has its own peculiarities, such Test Purpose Equipment Test Acceptance
as environmental charateristics. Hence a database based on Required Time Criteria
periodical test results, may prove invaluable in improving a
company’s product specification, thus ensuring the IR Assess insulation Megger < 10 > 100MΩ
dryness and minutes
acquisition of higher-quality products, more suitable to its cleanliness
environment. The maintenance engineer is encouraged to
PI Assess insulation Megger 30 to 60 >2
research applicable standards and OEM’s publications in dryness and minutes
search of new trends and tests, as well as their cleanliness plus
interpretation and acceptance criteria. (eliminating effects 4 times
of absorption and test
capacitive currents). duration
Detect deterioration
of main insulation
Ageing Evaluate Megger 15 ∆IR < 25%
Factor deterioration or minutes
ageing of insulation
Surge Evaluate interturn Surge Tester 20 to 40 Coils must
Test and main insulation, minutes pass test
as well as verify coil depends without
connections on breakdown
number and
of tests waveforms
between
coils must
be similar
High- Detect any cracks or High voltage 60 Machine
Potential punctures in the ac or dc seconds must
insulation. Ensure power source per phase withstand
machine is fit for high
service potential
Impulse Assess quality of Impulse 30 to 60 Sample coils
Test interturn and main generator minutes must
insulation and their withstand
suitability to surges
withstand surges.
Tangent Assess dryness and Schering 5—10 Refer to
Delta cleanliness of bridge or minutes Table 3
insulation. Evaluate other similar per phase
insulation losses and equipment
partial discharge
activity to assess
machine’s service
reliability.
Partial Evaluate machine’s On-line or Depends Trending
Discharge insulation (interturn, off-line tan on
interphase and main delta method
insulation) with equipment of test
respect to its service
reliability

Warning: It should be noted that the tests described herein may

consitute a life harzard, as they require the use of high voltage power
sources. Therefore, such tests should be performed by qualified
personnel only. Furthermore, prior to conducting some of the afore-
mentioned tests, an assessment of the machine’s condition is
necessary. Failure to do so could result in damage to the machine’s
insulation. In case of doubt, it is recommended that the machine’s
manufcaturer be consulted prior to performing any test.

9
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10