Page 20 Is Awesome

2.
05
Glass Fiber Reinforced
PlasticsÐProperties
G. D. SIMS and W. R. BROUGHTON
National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, UK
2.05.1 OVERVIEW 2
2.05.1.1 Introduction 2
2.05.1.2 Material Property Requirements 3
2.05.2 GRP CONSTITUENTS AND COMPOUNDS 5
2.05.2.1 Types of Glass Fibers 5
2.05.2.2 Glass Fiber Reinforcement Formats 5
2.05.2.3 Thermoset Resin Matrices 5
2.05.2.4 Thermoplastic Resin Matrices 7
2.05.2.5 Fillers and Additives 7
2.05.2.6 Fiber Surface Treatments 7
2.05.2.7 Molding Compounds and PreimpregnatesÐSemifinished Products 8
2.05.2.8 Flat Sheet and Standard Pultrusion Profiles 8
2.05.3 CHARACTERIZATION AND PROPERTY DATA MEASUREMENT 9
2.05.3.1 Material Anisotropy 9
2.05.3.2 Characterization of Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics 10
2.05.3.3 Property Test Methods for GRP 11
2.05.3.4 Test Panel Manufacture 11
2.05.4 PROPERTY DATA FOR THE MAIN CLASSES OF GRPs 12
2.05.4.1 Injection Molded Thermoplastics 12
2.05.4.1.1 Description 12
2.05.4.1.2 Properties 13
2.05.4.2 Thermoformed Glass Mat Thermoplastics (GMTs) 14
2.05.4.3 Spray/Hand Lay-up Chopped Strand Mat (CSM) 14
2.05.4.4 Dough/Bulk and Sheet Molding Compounds (DMC/BMC and SMC) 16
2.05.4.5 Pultruded Profiles and Solid Section 16
2.05.4.6 Filament-wound Materials 17
2.05.4.7 Unidirectional/Multidirectional Preimpregnates 17
2.05.4.8 Fabric Reinforced Laminates 19
1
2 Glass Fiber Reinforced PlasticsÐProperties
2.05.5 COMPARISONS OF PROPERTIES FOR GRP MATERIALS 20

2.05.5.1 Introduction 20
2.05.5.1.1 Property ranges 20
2.05.5.1.2 Property prediction 20
2.05.5.2 Short-term Properties 23
2.05.5.2.1 Tension/compression modulus 23
2.05.5.2.2 Shear modulus 24
2.05.5.2.3 Poisson's ratio 24
2.05.5.2.4 Axial strength 26
2.05.5.2.5 Shear strength 28
2.05.5.2.6 Through-thickness properties 28
2.05.5.3 Long-term Strength Properties 30
2.05.5.3.1 Fatigue 30
2.05.5.3.2 Creep 32
2.05.5.4 Moisture, Water, Marine, and Weathering Resistance 32
2.05.5.4.1 Moisture and water effects 32
2.05.5.4.2 Weathering and marine environments 34
2.05.5.5 Fiber Degradation 35
2.05.5.6 Temperature Resistance 37
2.05.5.7 Chemical Resistance 37
2.05.5.7.1 Chemical and physical agents 37
2.05.5.8 Toughness Properties 38
2.05.5.9 Impact and High Loading Rate Properties 38
2.05.5.10 Thermal Conductivity and Expansion Properties 40
2.05.5.10.1 Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) 40
2.05.5.10.2 Coefficient of thermal conductivity (CTC) and specific heat 41
2.05.5.11 Fire Performance 42
2.05.5.12 Electrical Properties 42
2.05.6 SOURCES AND TRACEABILITY OF PROPERTY DATA 42
2.05.6.1 Sources of Material Property Data 42
2.05.6.2 Traceability of Property Data 43
2.05.6.3 Precision of Property DataÐRepeatability and Reproducibility 44
2.05.7 CONCLUDING COMMENTS 45
2.05.8 REFERENCES 46
2.05.9 APPENDIX 46
2.05.9.1 Bibliography 46
2.05.9.2 Standards 46
2.05.1 OVERVIEW the databases available, and the product design

analyses used for all classes of composites.
2.05.1.1 Introduction The properties of GRP should be considered
and understood in relation to the types or
The wide range of properties obtainable from classes of materials arising from different pro-
different glass-fiber reinforced plastics (GRPs) cessing routes and conditions, together with
has enabled them to be candidate materials in choices of constituents, their format, and
many applications from small electrical pro- weight/volume fractions. These aspects have a
ducts such as printed circuit boards to large direct influence on the material response and
mine-hunting ships greater than 50 m in length. behavior as characterized by the measured
In some cases, GRPs dominate an application property data. In addition, the wider context
to the extent that they are now the preferred of the measurement methods used and the data
material rather than one of several possible uncertainty must be considered.
candidates (e.g., small boat production). The glass-fiber reinforced plastics marketed
Glass-fiber reinforced systems are responsi- are predominately based on one type of glass-
ble for the majority of the fiber reinforced plas- fiber (i.e., E-type) but with a wide variety of
tic (FRP)/polymer matrix composite (PMC) fiber formats (e.g., mat, fabric, unidirectional
market, in spite of the advent of higher perfor- rovings), resin types, and fillers/additives; and a
mance, and higher cost, carbon and aramid wide range of process techniques (see Section
fibers. However, the increased research follow- 2.05.3.4). These choices result in materials with
ing the development and use of carbon fibers, a wide range of behaviors and properties. The
particularly for defense applications, has bene- range of resins, both thermoplastic and thermo-
fited glass-fiber based systems by improving the sets, used with glass fibers has also increased
materials understanding, the test methods used, over recent years.
Overview 3
In contrast, for carbon-fiber reinforced plas- wide range of shapes including double curva-
tics (CFRPs) the principal variable between ture, provides design flexibility and part con-
different materials was initially the type of car- solidation.
bon fiber, in terms of their stiffness and In many cases, GRPs are used for a combi-
strength, used to reinforce brittle epoxy resins nation of these material properties, which with
(e.g., Type I and Type II). There was also a the flexibility and ease of processing can lead to
limited number of manufacturing processes unique design solutions. The actual range of
used such as autoclave, filament winding, and properties, as described later, depends princi-
wet hand lay-up in the earliest days of the new pally on the fiber format, particularly for
material. Alternative resins, such as tougher mechanical properties. It is important when
epoxies and high-temperature thermoplastics, designing with GRPs not to rely on a ªblack-
have been introduced more recently along boxº of properties even if fully three-dimen-
with lower cost process routes such as resin sional (3-D), but to be aware of the ªinternal
transfer molding (RTM). structureº as this will control the properties and
Although having lower specific values (i.e., failure mode. It is the linkage between the
modulus/density and strength/density ratios) material structure and constitution, the prop-
than CFRPs, GRPs have adequate combina- erty data, and the end use that is covered in this
tions of properties, at an acceptable manufac- chapter.
tured cost, to suit many applications and in
some cases are the preferred material compared
to CFRPs (e.g., toughness requirement in small
boats, insulation requirement in electrical ap- 2.05.1.2 Material Property Requirements
plications). This is particularly the case when
that most important ªpropertyº in any design In most preliminary designs, including the
consideration, the cost of the material and its aerospace industry, the first design ªconfigura-
manufacture as the end product, are included, tionº is expected to an accuracy of 10±20%. At
although this will not always be the dominant this level generic data are frequently satisfac-
factor (e.g., defense applications). The proper- tory as greater uncertainty arises from the ap-
ties of GRPs also show lower levels of aniso- plied loading conditions. For example, many
tropy for the same fiber format than carbon composites are used in displacement-limited
fiber reinforced systems, which may make de- situations or fail in compression through buck-
sign easier (e.g., for secondary stresses that need ling prior to a compressive flexural failure, both
to be carried). stiffness controlled failures. Therefore, the dif-
The major characteristics of GRPs are: ference between a clamped edge and a simply
(i) Corrosion: generally good, resulting in supported flexural loaded plate (nb. taken as
extensive use in applications such as marine, limits when the actual edge conditions of a rivet
off-shore, bridge enclosures, chemical pressure or bolted edge are unknown) is a factor of two
vessels, and process piping; in the predicted displacement. This is a greater
(ii) Lightweight: only one-quarter of the uncertainty than normally found in the material
weight of steel, resulting in good specific prop- data used once a suitable class of material is
erties making it suitable for automobile com- identified. Similarly, the cubed dependence of
ponents, etc. Also useful when transport to a the flexural deflection on panel or beam thick-
remote site is an issue, such as bridge construc- ness, compared to the linear dependence on
tion; modulus, makes thickness prediction and con-
(iii) Toughness: generally good, as in boats trol the more important parameter than
including lifeboats, special construction can Young's modulus.
give high specific energy values for use in Only when the initial concepts and materials
ªcrashº energy absorption applications; are shown to be viable, will more detailed as-
(iv) Electrical: very good insulation proper- sessments and calculations be carried out. At
ties, when void free, resulting in extensive appli- this stage, the user should consult the supplier
cations for circuit boards and heavy electrical of candidate materials for detailed mechanical
applications; property data on current materials, together
(v) Strength: high absolute and specific with the wider database required for other
strength values, particularly for aligned, con- property data (e.g., electrical, thermal, fire
tinuous reinforcement; properties, surface finish), processing informa-
(vi) Process freedom: range of process routes tion (e.g., gellation time, working life, cure
available to meet different needs regarding temperature and times, mold release tempera-
volume of production, product size, perfor- ture, etc.), and material/processing costs.
mance, and quality requirements; An apparently minor issue having a major
(vii) Shape freedom: ability to manufacture a impact on the use of composites in new areas is
Figure 1 Specific properties for metals and composites. (Continuous GRP includes continuous E- and S-
type glass-fibers in unidirectional, multidirectional, and fabric formats. Random GRP includes all mat
laminates including molding compounds (GMT, SMC, DMC, CSM). Aligned CFRP and aramids includes
unidirectioonal formats only, with CFRP fabrics separately identified. General areas for unreinforced
polymers, metals and ceramics are also shown).
the ease with which specifiers and purchasers or national standards, and that the material
can order composites to a recognized specifica- tested is fully characterized (e.g., fiber volume
tion. The flexibility of composite material de- fraction and format) so that it has a known
sign has delayed the full uptake of these pedigree is highlighted next. In the following
materials as there has been a lack of specified section is described the types and properties of
grades, equivalent to metal alloy specifications, different classes, or types, of GRPs based on the
and associated databases. The situation will be reinforcement structure, process routes, and
substantially improved by the work undertaken resin systems (e.g., preimpregnates, pultrusions,
by CEN (ComiteÂ EuropeÂen de Normalisation) sheet molding compounds (SMC), chopped
in developing specification standards for com- strand mat (CSM), glass-mat thermoplastics
posite material products based mainly on ISO (GMT), etc.). In this section, the discussion
(International Standards Organisation) test highlights the issues for each class whereby its
methods. This aspect is highlighted as appro- composition and structure affect the balance of
priate in this chapter. properties and the failure modes. In the next
A brief summary of specific properties is section the data are compared for different
given in Figure 1 compared with other struc- properties across the range of materials rather
tural materials. In addition to noting the wide than for each class of GRP. Where available the
range of properties obtainable, it is important use of predictive techniques to synthesis proper-
that comments are always specific to the type of ties in order to ªdesignº new materials, to con-
material being considered. For example, scatter firm measured data, or to undertake sensitivity
can be quite high for the basic hand lay-up studies are included. The importance of the
chopped strand mat glass-fiber and polyester traceability of test methods and their precision,
materials, but is very low for an electrical grade sources of property data, and databases avail-
material based on a fine glass-fiber fabric and able are finally discussed.
epoxy resin (i.e., less than 3% standard devia- The overall aim of this chapter is to provide
tion for tensile strength). Otherwise, all GRPs an understanding of the range of materials
and composites are unfairly viewed on the basis available, in terms of the underlying philoso-
of the worst case of hand lay-up chopped strand phies, the dependence on constituent materials,
mat/polyester. and the traceability needs for measuring prop-
In this chapter, the basic constituentsÐ erties. This approach is important as individual
fibers, matrices, coatings, and fillers, which materials and properties are continuously chan-
are covered in more detail elsewhere in the ging in response to materials developments and
workÐare briefly reviewed. The importance market needs, but an understanding of the
of obtaining data to industry recognized test underlying infrastructure will enable appropri-
methods, preferably available as international ate data to be sourced and appropriate choices
GRP Constituents and Compounds 5
Table 1 Glass fiber types and main characteristics. materials. The fiber lengths can vary from dif-
ferent length discontinuous fibers (milled,
Fiber type Main characteristics short, and long) to continuous fibers in swirled
mats, fabrics, noncrimped fabrics, and unidir-
E Main fiber used, easy availability ectional plies. The major use of glass fibers is
C Better corrosion resistance
D Radio frequency transparent
still as chopped strand mats of 25±50 mm
S-2 and R High strength length. There are different process routes and
AR Alkali resistant uses associated with the formats as shown
ECR Acid resistant below, although fabrics are perhaps the most
versatile format being used from hand lay-up to
autoclave processing as shown in Table 2.
The different formats are often used together.
made in future considerations of new or im- For example, in pultruded profiles mats, rov-
proved applications. Standards mentioned in ings and surface veils will be used. Similarly, in
the text are listed in the Appendix, along with pressure vessels and general trade moldings,
a general bibliography. rovings, mats, and fabrics will be used. In the
case of GMT and SMC, some grades will in-
clude additional aligned rovings added to the
2.05.2 GRP CONSTITUENTS AND mat reinforcement in a single direction, such as
COMPOUNDS when intended for fabricating a beam structure
In this section the constituents are reviewed, (e.g., structural car bumper beam).
including the types and formats of glass fibers;
the thermoset and thermoplastic matrices; and
the fillers, additives, and fiber surface treat- 2.05.2.3 Thermoset Resin Matrices
ments used. The available ªcompoundsº or
supplier prepared composite, whereby fiber, While fulfilling the prime ªmicromechanicsº
resin, and other additives are preassembled, requirement to transfer load from fiber to fiber
are described. For detailed information, the efficiently, resin selection depends critically on
appropriate chapter elsewhere in this work several other aspects. These include, in addition
should be consulted as referenced below. to the chosen process routes and costs, the
required environmental resistance as providing
protection to the complete system (e.g., fiber,
2.05.2.1 Types of Glass Fibers interface, and resin) in order to guarantee the
performance and reliability of the composite
There are several types of glass fibers avail- structure. In response to the numerous and
able for use in reinforcing polymeric matrices. diverse end uses for GRPs, an extensive range
They are manufactured by drawing filaments of resin systems has been developed. It is worth
from a molten bath of glass held in a heated noting that higher temperature curing systems
platinum crucible. The different types of glass are generally more durable in humid environ-
fibers are designated normally by alphabetical ments, and that the resistance to acids, alkalis,
codes such as ªE,º ªS/R,º and ªECR/AR.º The and organic solvents, etc., decreases at elevated
main fibers used are ªEº glass fibers, which temperatures.
amount to 90% of the market. Although E- Thermoset resin matrices are cured using
glass fibers standing for ªelectrical gradeº with mainly heat, but light and electron-beam
a lime±alumina±borosilicate composition are cured systems are also available. Catalysis,
well recognized, there is no agreed ªstandardº hardeners, temperature, and time are used to
composition. The ªSº and ªRº fibers are high- control the curing process. There is increasing
strength grades. ªARº glass was developed as interest from the high-performance industries
an alkali resistant grade, with ªECRº as an in the lower cure temperature system to reduce
alkali-resistant glass. In Table 1 are given the both cost and residual stresses. Thermoset re-
main fiber types and their principal character- sins cannot be melted and reformed, which
istics. The main variations involve strength gives rise to more limited options for recycling
properties and environmental resistance, rather (e.g., incineration or grinding for use as a low-
than modulus as for carbon fibers. grade filler). The systems covered include
epoxies, polyesters, vinyl-esters, and phenolics.
2.05.2.2 Glass Fiber Reinforcement Formats In Table 3 are given the main types of thermoset
resins, their main characteristics, and uses.
There is a wide range of fiber formats which Thermoset resins are used extensively in their
together with the process route provide a useful own right, particularly in electrical applica-
breakdown of different classes of composite tions, so that an extensive series of test methods
Table 2 Glass fiber formats with corresponding composite materials, manufacturing processes, and end uses.
Fiber Fiber length Composite Normal Typical

format (mm) materials types process routes applications
Milled 50.1 Molding compounds Injection molded Electrical

Automobile
Discontinuous- short 51 Molding compounds Injection molded Electrical,
Automobile
Discontinuous- long 57.5 Molding compounds Injection molded Electrical,
Automobile
Chopped strand mat 7.5±50 CSM, Hand lay-up, Marine,
Dough molding Spray lay-up, Chemical tanks,
compounds (DMC), Compression molded General trade
Sheet molding moldings
compounds (SMC)
Swirled mat Continuous Glass mat Thermoformed, Automobile
thermoplastics (GMT), components,
Pultruded profiles, Pultrusion Access engineering,
Cable trays,
Stitched, All Any, Most All
pinned, needled where important
products to improve
through-thickness
properties
(see below)
Woven fabrics Continuous Lighter weight cloths Resin injection, General engineering,
200±450 g m72. Hand lay-up, pressure vessels,
Different styles Press molded Marine
(twill, balanced, (including autoclave)
satin)
Woven rovings Continuous Heavier weight cloths Hand and Heavy marine
machine lay-up,
Pultrusion,
Knitted Continuous 2-D and 3-D fabrics Resin injection Construction,
randomes,
propellers
Noncrimp fabrics, Continuous Bi-, Tri- and Resin injection, Marine,
NCF Quad-axial (stitched) Hand lay-up, construction,
Press molded automobile.
(including autoclave)
Multidirectional Continuous Preimpregnates Press molded High performance
(automobile and (including autoclave). aerospace,
aerospace grades). Filament winding F1 racing,
Rovings Pipes, torque tubes,
rocket motor cases
Unidirectional Continuous Preimpregnates Press molded Wind turbine blades,
(automobile and (including autoclave),
aerospace grades), Pultruded strip/bar
Table 3 Main classes of thermoset resins used for matrices.
Type Main characteristics and uses
Epoxy high Tg, good chemical resistance (especially for alkalis and organic solvents), low water
absorption, can be used in most processes, high performance end-uses, moderate resistance
to acids and strong oxidants
Phenolic High heat resistance, good acid resistance, used in cases where fire-resistance is important.
Polyester Good electrical and chemical resistance (specially acids, weak alkalis, and organic solvents) but
not suitable for strong alkalis, low cost and versatile. Widely used in all processes, good to
excellent resistance to acids. Can be used in many processes
Vinyl-ester Improved properties at higher cost compared to polyesters, but cheaper than epoxies, good
resistance to esters and ketones
GRP Constituents and Compounds 7
Table 4 Main classes of thermoplastic resins used for matrices.
Type Main characteristics
ABS Highly resistant to weak acids and alkalis, and provides good resistance to
most organic solvents, attacked by sulfuric and nitric acids, and is soluble
in esters, ketones, and ethylene dichloride
Polyamide (Nylon) Inert to most organic solvents, resist alkalis and salt solutions, attacked by
strong mineral acids and oxidizing agents
Polycarbonate Resists weak acids and alkalis, oil and grease, attacked by strong acids, alkalis,
organic solvents, and fuels
Polyetheretherketone High temperature capability
Polyphenylene sulfide Excellent resistance to organic solvents, unaffected by strong alkalis or aqueous
organic salt solutions
Polypropylene Good resistance to acids, alkalis and organic solvents, soluble in chlorinated
hydrocarbons
Table 5 Main classes of fillers and additives used.
Type Purpose
Fillers Can improve properties (e.g., talcÐstiffness, clayÐwear resistance); improves processing
and reduces shrinkage, reduces cost and extends resin (e.g., clay (kaolin), talc,
wood floor)
Pigment Gives color to material; different colors affect material properties to different degrees
Stabilizers Prevents environmental and UV light degradation of polymers (calcium carbonate)
Flame retardant Reduces flammability of polymers and reduces rate of spread of fire (aluminum
trihydrate)
Plasticizers Aids material processing, reduces glass transition temperature
and product specification standards exist in particularly in electrical, automobile, and con-
international standards that support their use sumer applications, ensures that an extensive
in composites. Further details of thermoset re- infrastructure supports their use as composite
sins are given in Chapter 2.01, this volume. matrices. Environmental and temperature
capability are again important properties influ-
encing their selection. Further details of ther-
moplastics are given in Chapter 2.02, this
2.05.2.4 Thermoplastic Resin Matrices
volume.
Although thermoplastics matrices are funda-
mentally different in their processing as invol-
ving a melt and solidification process only,
many of the thermoset processing routes are 2.05.2.5 Fillers and Additives
common with suitable detailed modifications.
A range of fillers are used to obtain enhanced
A main difference and benefit of thermoplastics
performance both during processing (e.g., re-
is the ease of recycling through grinding, melt-
duced shrinkage) and service life (e.g., fire re-
ing, and reforming. There are two classes of
sistance). In Table 5 are given the main types,
thermoplastics used commercially. First, the
their main properties, and uses.
lower performance commodity plastics such as
polypropylene and nylon. Second, the higher
temperature performance materials such as
polyetheretherketone (PEEK). In Table 4 are 2.05.2.6 Fiber Surface Treatments
given the main types of thermoplastic resins,
their main properties, advantages, and disad- Starch-based surface treatments are used
vantages. The majority of thermoplastics pro- to protect the glass fiber surface during proces-
duced are the short fiber injected grade, but sing such as when weaving fabrics and woven
there is now strong interest in the glass-mat rovings (Table 6). These protective sizes are
based materials and increased interest in removed by heat cleansing prior to the applica-
continuously reinforced systems. As for ther- tion of resin-compatible binders/sizes to encou-
mosets, the extensive use of thermoplastics, rage bonding.
Table 6 Main classes of fiber surface treatments.
Type Main characteristics
Weaving binders Starch-oil binders that provide maximum strand protection during weaving
Resin compatible binders Designed for maximum compatibility with epoxy/polyester resin systems
Table 7 Main classes of prepared composite materials.
Material Constituents Comments
Co-mingled fabrics Fabric woven from integrated Polypropylene normally used. Can
glass-fibers and thermoplastic fibers be draped, No shelf life restrictions,
in a single yarn. During hot pressing reduced wastage
the thermoplastic fibers melt
to become the matrix
Injection molding Short fibers with thermoplastic Thermoplastics commonly used are
compounds matrix as feedstock for injection given in Table 4. No shelf life restrictions
molding machines
Glass mat Swirled glass-fire mat laminated Usually polypropylene but other
thermoplastic with thermoplastic sheets as thermoplastics can be used. No shelf
(GMT) feedstock for thermal pressing life restrictions
(prEN 13 677)
Polyester molding Fibers, fillers, and modified resins SMC gives improved properties due to the
compounds available as dough (DMC or longer fiber length, long shelf-life
(Bulk/dough, sheet) BMC (bulk)), or sheet (SMC)
Preimpregnates Fibers (continuous/aligned or Limited shelf life. Storage required
(thermosets) fabrics/NCFs) together with, in freezer. Autoclave molded usually,
impregnated with a B-staged but other techniques possible (e.g.,
thermoset resin. pressclave, press)
Preimpregnates Fibers (continuous/aligned) Polypropylene plus others commodity
(thermoplastics) impregnated with a thermoplastic plastics and high performance
(e.g., PEEK). No shelf life limitations
or storage restrictions. Molded
similarly to thermoset prepregs
Increasingly, test methods are required to characterize the processing parameters, as appropriate, of these prepared materials, such as shrinkage,
reactivity, tack, flow properties together with their curing behavior. These properties are referenced in the specification standards being
produced for these products, e.g., prEN 13 677 for GMT. The standard recognizes the range of customer tailored grades produced and attempts
to control the consistency of the product, once property and/or composition levels have been agreed, rather than the absolute values.
2.05.2.7 Molding Compounds and tioned for a further period of 2 h. See also
PreimpregnatesÐSemifinished Chapter 2.18, this volume.
Products
Although materials are frequently purchased
as fibers and resin (including catalyst, etc.), 2.05.2.8 Flat Sheet and Standard Pultrusion
several forms of prepared composite material Profiles
are available where the supplier has combined
the constituents described above to produce Due to the coincidence of the manufacture
injection molding compounds, compression of the material and the product in most cases,
molding compounds, and preimpregnates (see few off-the-shelf composites exist. Two excep-
Table 7). Those containing ªB-stagedº resins, tions are flat sheet and pultruded profiles. Flat
indicating a preliminary degree of cure to pro- sheets are often used with cores (e.g., polymer
vide a handleable product, must be kept in a foams, balsa, honeycombs) as skins to form
freezer at 718 8C. The material should be re- sandwich panels. Flat sheets can be produced
turned to room temperature while still sealed in fairly continuously, and when plasma surface
its packaging to avoid any water condensation treated retain the ability to bond successfully
of the material prior to processing and condi- for more than one year. Flat sheets are also
Characterization and Property Data Measurement 9
sections (e.g., rods or flats) are also of interest

in the construction industry as re-bars to rein-
force concrete, or as strengthening plates
bonded to structural elements (e.g., beams, pa-
nels, and columns). Further information on the
pultrusion process are given in Chapter 2.24,
this volume.
2.05.3 CHARACTERIZATION AND

PROPERTY DATA
MEASUREMENT
In discussing the properties of GRPs it is
important to ensure that industry recognized
test methods are used, preferably available as
international or national standards, and that
the material tested is fully characterized (i.e., it
has a known pedigree).
2.05.3.1 Material Anisotropy

The properties of GRPs are anisotropic to
varying degrees depending on the type and
amount of fiber present. The material axes of
Figure 2 (a) Axes of symmetry for a unidirection- continuous or discontinuous unidirectional
ally reinforced laminate, (b) axes of symmetry for a composites are defined by a set of three mu-
multidirectionally reinforced laminate. tually perpendicular directions parallel and per-
pendicular (transverse) to the fiber direction.
The material axes are also known as either the
symmetry axes or principal axes. For in-plane
available ªoff-the-shelfº in the electrical indus- properties, the direction parallel to the fibers is
try where GRPs are used extensively for known as the longitudinal or 1-direction and
printed circuit boards and larger electrical the direction perpendicular to the fibers is
transmission purposes due to their good insu- known as the transverse or 2-direction (see
lation properties. Figure 2(a)). The through-thickness (out-of-
No international product specification stan- plane) direction perpendicular to the fibers is
dards exist currently for flat sheet or sandwich the 3-direction.
panels, although in-house grades do exist. Transversely isotropic materials (e.g., contin-
However, the area of pultrusion is very active, uous unidirectional laminates) possess a special
with specification standards seen as key facil- plane of isotropy in which the mechanical prop-
itators for the increased use of these materials, erties are equal in all directions. The plane of
in both standard and custom form. Pultru- isotropy for continuous unidirectional lami-
sions, fairly uniquely for composites, are avail- nates is the 2±3 plane. Three-dimensional ana-
able as finished products in stock sizes, but lysis of transversely isotropic materials requires
also in an increasing range of special sections. five independent elastic constants. These are
There are major opportunities for the growth E11, E22 (=E33), n12 (=n13), n23, G12 (=G13)
of pultrusions as there will be increased ªen- for continuous aligned materials.
couragementº through health and safety legis- In laminated structures (including multidir-
lation to use closed mold rather than open ectional, random mats, and fabrics), the three
mold production. material axes are labeled x, y, and z. where x±y
The new European standard prEN 13 706 is the plane of the laminate and z is the out-of-
defines initially two grades of pultruded pro- plane direction with the principal fiber direc-
files, E17 and 23, that have mandated minimum tion (08) normally set parallel to the x-axis, as
properties underpinned by the test methods shown in Figure 2(b). In cases where there are
described in Section 2.05.3.3. Currently light no principal fiber directions, then the process
transport, general construction, and bridges direction is taken normally as the x-direction.
are the most active application areas. Solid However, for mats etc., which only show small
Table 8 Properties and methods for initial characterization of GRPs.
Property Method Comments
Fraction of fiber ISO 1172 Latest revision of this ªresin burn-offº technique allows the
and filler proportion of dissolvable filler to be calculated. Inert fillers are
included in the glass fraction. The full thickness of sample should
be used when the product is not homogeneous in the thickness
direction
Void fraction ISO 7822 Method based on use of ISO 1172 mostly used. Limited accuracy
for low (50.01) voidage. More suited to higher values as found
in CSM. Optical microscopy is useful but has a disadvantage in
requiring specimen preparation and providing only local
information, unless repeated across the product or test panel.
Voidage maybe either ªmacroº as occurring in resin-rich areas
or ªmicroº for poor wet-out of fiber bundles
Fiber format and ISO 1172/ Careful handling and inspection of the glass-fiber residue after
stacking sequence ISO 1268 resin burn-off will allow these features to be determined. In ISO
1268 is given a standard format for specifying the lay-up sequence
of unidirectional and fabric layers. In other systems, reference is
made to the production direction for continuous products
(e.g., chopped or swirled mats, pultrusions), or in fabrics the warp
direction. In balanced systems (mats, fabrics) it is more difficult to
check if the plies have been alternated at 08 and 908 to remove any
directionality, or in the case of fabrics, ªnestedº to improve
the interlocking of layers
Degree of cure ISO 11 357 Several methods exist, such as differential scanning calorimetry
and/or glass (DSC) (DSC), dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), and deflection
transition temperature ISO 6721 temperature under load (DTUL). Some care is needed in the
(DMA) selection and use of these techniques, see Mulligan et al.
ISO 75 (2000), as the different methods do not give
(DTUL) the same value
Defect assessment Various In addition to the presence of voids, other defects may be present,
techniques such as resin-rich/fiber scarce areas, distorted reinforcement
layers, inclusions, delaminations, etc. that will affect the measured
properties. Due to the transparency of GRPs (cf. CFRPs) it is often
possible to inspect visually for defects using front, or better,
back-illumination. Ultrasonic inspection can be used, but less
successfully than for carbon-fiber composites. Some requirements
are given in the parts of ISO 1268. X-ray inspection and optical
microscopy (see above) can also be used for GRPs
anisotropy, the layers are often orientated alter- mechanisms, and the final failure mode. This
natively at 08and 908 to produce a more uni- knowledge is also needed to ensure that the
form material. appropriate test methods are used as in some
These axes are applicable to the mechanical, cases, the specimen size etc. depends on the
thermal, etc. properties, which are equally cap- material format and properties (e.g., ISO 527
able of anisotropy. Parts 4 and 5; ISO 14 125). Several aspects of
the characterization of GRPs are covered by
international test methods.
2.05.3.2 Characterization of Glass Fiber Starting from the test panel, a traveler cou-
Reinforced Plastics pon, or a section cut from the product itself,
there are several measurements that should be
It is important when quoting property data undertaken to characterize the material, as de-
that the material is fully characterized for fiber tailed in Table 8, prior to further evaluation.
volume fraction, fiber format and orientation, These characteristic data should be recorded
void fraction, etc., as they control not only the with input material codes, specifications etc.,
properties in the absolute sense but also together with information or data obtained in
through the balance of properties, the failure the testing program.
Characterization and Property Data Measurement 11
Table 9 Standard test methods for property evaluation.
Standard number Title Similar ASTM standards
EN ISO 527-4 Tension ªisotropic materialsº ASTM D 3039

EN ISO 527-5 Tension ªunidirectional materialsº ASTM D 3039
EN ISO 14 125 Three and four-point flexure ASTM D 790
EN ISO 14 126 Compression ASTM D 3410
EN ISO 14 129 In-plane shear by +458 tensile test ASTM D 3518
EN ISO 14 130 Interlaminar (short beam) shear ASTM D 2344
ISO 15 310 In-plane shear modulus by plate twist
ISO 15 024 Mode I fracture energies ASTM D 5524
ISO 13 003 FatigueÐgeneral principles ASTM D 3479
2.05.3.3 Property Test Methods for GRP dardization, which may be for a composites
product only (e.g., GRP pressure vesselsÐ
In the following sections, the properties are CEN/TC 210 and GRP pipingÐCEN/TC155)
discussed for temperatures below the Tg or with equivalent standards covering the use of
DTUL, in particular below the (Tg ± 40) 8C other materials in the same application, or an
normally used to set the working range for area where a single standard covers all compet-
long-term applications of a material (e.g., ing materials (e.g., access engineering (ladders,
prEN 13 121, Lloyd's Rules). walkways) CEN/TC 114). In addition, an ISO
For the constituent fibers and resins there is a working group has been initiated under ISO/
fairly comprehensive range of material specifi- TC67 for off-shore GRP piping based on the
cations and test methods, principally in the guidance document developed by the UK Off-
ISO, CEN, and ASTM (American Society for shore Operators Association. Harmonization,
Testing and Materials). For laminates, how- or complimentary action, of CEN and ISO
ever, harmonized laminate test methods were work in the general area of GRP piping is
only published between 1997 and 1999. These obviously important.
standards were mainly based on existing GRP
standards but brought up-to-date and widened
to include other small diameter fibers (e.g.,
carbon and aramid). Some recently published 2.05.3.4 Test Panel Manufacture
standards are given in Table 9. These ISO test
methods are referenced in the ISO 10 350-2 Property data can be obtained from a flat
standard for the presentation of data relevant section of the product or from a test panel
to technical data sheets for systems with start- manufactured for the subsequent preparation
ing fiber length >7.5 mm. of test coupons. A newly revised standard, ISO
At the subcomponent level specification, spe- 1268, covers the manufacture of test panels
cification standards are being developed in using the full range of established techniques.
CEN for pultruded profiles (i.e., prEN The standard will also become the European
13 706). These products are one of the few standard at a later date. ASTM has published a
cases where composites are available in a final similar standard, ASTM D 5687. The parts of
cured form for immediate use, normally as a the standard currently available are listed in
bolted or bonded assembly. The technical spe- Table 10. Recommendations are included cov-
cification in Part 3 of the standard requires that ering the quality assessment procedures to be
compliance is based on property data obtained used for assessing and quantifying the panel
from standard test methods, as listed in Table 9. after manufacture. The ISO source documents
Other specification standards are being devel- listed will be withdrawn with publication of the
oped for GMTs and SMCs based again on the new version of ISO 1268. Further parts to the
same set of test methods. Specifications for standard will be necessary as new manufactur-
preimpregnates are under development in the ing techniques become established such as resin
CEN aerospace series (e.g., prEN 2833 for glass film infusion (RFI).
fiber laminates). A standard procedure is given in ISO 1268,
Several bodies are involved in product speci- Parts 1 and 4, for designation of the lay-up
fication and approvals. Within Europe the stacking sequence for unidirectional plies and
main source will be from CEN in support of fabrics. Further descriptions of manufacturing
European Directives. There are several techni- processes for composite materials are given in
cal committees (TCs) working on product stan- Chapter 2.29, this volume.
Table 10 ISO 1268 for test panel manufacture and T indicating compression and tension. In
(plus source documents). this section the discussion highlights the issues
for each class whereby its composition and
Part no. Title structure affect the balance of properties and
the failure modes. In the following sections the
1 General principles (ISO 1268)
data are compared for each property across the
2 Contact and spray-up molding
3 Wet compression molding (ISO 1268) range of materials rather than for each type of
4 Molding of preimpregnates product.
(ISO 9353, Aerospace EN 2743, Micrographs of some of these materials are
prEN 2565 and ASTM D 5687) shown in Figure 3 to illustrate the wide range of
5 Filament molding (ISO 9291) structures encompassed by GRPs from the very
6 Pultrusion molding irregular mats to the organized fabrics and
7 Resin transfer molding unidirectionally reinforced materials.
8 Molding of SMC/BMC The majority of the data in the following
9 Molding of GMT/STC illustrations were measured by the authors
10 Injection molding of BMC/DMC
from test plates and end products to validate
the use of micromechanics for the synthesis of
the properties of composite materials. It was
2.05.4 PROPERTY DATA FOR THE MAIN found that due to the simplicity of the models
CLASSES OF GRPS used in order to reduce input data require-
ments, that the agreement between measured
In principle, an endless range of individual and predicted values was not perfect. In the case
composite materials can be ªdesignedº or for- of compression data, it is both the test and the
mulated using the constituents described pre- prediction that are of concern. However, the
viously (e.g., fibers, resins, and fillers/additives, correlations were found to be consistent for
see Table 1±6, Section 2.05.2). However, there different materials of the same class (e.g., con-
has evolved an established subset of composite tinuous fiber mats), so that correlation factors
material classes that have proven to have been could be determined that yielded practically
commercially successful. Within each class, the useful data. These predictive models are now
flexibility of the design of composite materials available commercially (see Sims and
can be used to tailor the properties to meet Broughton, 1999). The data shown, therefore,
specific needs. In addition, there are continuous represents a particular material, which is repre-
innovations in materials and/or processes that sentative of its class of products and is suitable
widen the potential of GRPs (e.g., integral glass for preliminary design.
fiber and polypropylene fibers). Each type or
class of material is mainly associated with a
particular manufacturing processes as noted
2.05.4.1 Injection Molded Thermoplastics
in Table 2. The materials classes reviewed are:
(i) injection molded discontinuous fiber 2.05.4.1.1 Description
thermoplastics,
(ii) thermoformed glass mat thermoplastics These materials are based on short fiber
(GMT), reinforced thermoplastics fabricated by injec-
(iii) spray/hand lay-up chopped strand mat tion molding. Conventional thermoplastics
(CSM), have fibers of less than 0.1±0.5 mm length
(iv) compression molded dough or bulk after processing, while the ªlongº fiber versions
molding compounds (DMC/BMC), have mean lengths of 2±4 mm. The matrix can
(v) compression molded sheet molding com- be either a ªcommodityº or ªhigh-perfor-
pounds (SMC), manceº thermoplastic. The feedstock is nor-
(vi) pultruded profiles and solid sections, mally chopped pellets of an extruded polymer
(vii) resin molded fabric reinforced lami- coated fiber bundle. This process route uses
nates, matched metal tools and high-pressure screw
(viii) filament wound continuous fiber lami- or ram extruders feeding the injection head.
nates, The process is used principally for high volume
(ix) hot pressed unidirectional and multidir- production of smaller charge weight items due
ectional preimpregnates. to the capital costs of both the process equip-
In each case typical data are given with ment and the mold. Typical load bearing appli-
suffices of ª11,º etc. indicating directions in cations include car pedals (e.g., accelerator,
the material (see Section 2.05.3), together clutch) and inlet manifolds. These are both
with E and s for stiffness and strength, G product areas where composites will shortly
and t for shear stiffness and strength, and C be the preferred material.
Property Data for the Main Classes of GRPs 13
Figure 3 Micrographs detailing different reinforcement formats and volume fractions.
The short fiber systems form the basis of local variations in the properties resulting from
most commercial grades and are often based the flow that can be used directly in finite
on nylon or polypropylene matrices. The longer element methods to predict the component per-
fiber lengths were introduced to give improved formance.
toughness and creep resistance, although im- A fiber length of 7.5 mm, in the starting feed,
proved short fiber system performance in these has been taken in ISO 10 350 on databases to
areas have been achieved through optimized distinguish between those materials tested by
processing. These materials can give variations methods also used for unreinforced plastics
both within the plane and through the thickness (i.e., using test methods described in Part 1 of
as a result of flow induced variations during the standard) and those reinforced by longer
molding. The molding process tends to form a fiber lengths that require the specialized test
skin layer against the mold surface with differ- methods referenced in Part 2 of the standard.
ent anisotropy in the central core layer. The Commercial materials do not fall precisely
anisotropy, as shown by the longitudinal mod- either side of the defined limit, but this does
ulus/transverse modulus ratio, is normally in not influence the test method or specimen type
the range 1.5±2.5 for both in-plane and as at this level of anisotropy they are the same.
through-thickness transverse moduli. Only as the materials become more anisotropic
will the specimen design be different.
These molding materials have a balance of
properties that result in tension failures when
2.05.4.1.2 Properties loaded in flexure (i.e., compression strength
higher than the tensile strength), providing
Due to the importance of the flow history on yielding failure is not triggered on the compres-
the performance of the molded component, sive face of the beam. The shear strength is
processing software is increasingly used to pre- relatively high so that in the interlaminar
dict the mold flow and pressures, the position of short beam shear strength test, failure occurs
weld-lines, etc. Some software products predict by compressive yield/tension rather than by the
Table 11 Typical properties of a long discontinuous glass-fiber/nylon.
Fiber: E-glass
Matrix: Nylon
Fiber volume fraction 0.30
Density (kg m73) 1540
Fiber format Long discontinuous random (skin/core structure)
Process route Injection molded test plaques
(nb avoids the higher anisotropy found in injection molded dumbells)
Orientation x direction taken arbitrarily as higher values in production molding
Elastic properties
ExxT (GPa) 10.6 (+0.80) ExxC (GPa) 10.3 (+0.80)
EyyT (GPa) 7.9 (+0.34) EyyC (GPa) 5.6 (+0.55)
nxy 0.35 (+0.06)
nyx 0.22 (+0.01)
Gxy (GPa) 1.6
Strength properties
sxxT (MPa) 137 (+12) sxxC (MPa) 180 (+4)
syyT (MPa) 112 (+7) syyC (MPa) 148 (+12)
txy (MPa) 91.4 (+3.9)
( ) = Standard deviation.
intended shear on the specimen neutral plane. 2.05.4.2.2 Properties

These materials can fail through propagation of
ªbrittleº cracks in notched Charpy tests or These materials normally exhibit in-plane
compact tension fracture toughness tests. Dis- properties with low levels of anisotropy and
continuously reinforced specimens show similar are considered as fairly homogenous through
rate and temperature dependence as the unrein- the thickness (see Table 12). When used for
forced matrix. Other properties such as moist- beam element type products, additional aligned
ure absorption and chemical resistance will also rovings are added in a specified direction con-
be controlled by the matrix. Typical mechanical struction, resulting in higher levels of aniso-
properties are given in Table 11 for a long tropy. These materials may be designated as
discontinuous glass-fiber nylon. ª20 + 20º in these cases, indicating 20% by
weight mat together with 20% by weight
aligned fiber. The response to chemicals,
water, etc. is similar to the base thermoplastics
2.05.4.2 Thermoformed Glass Mat used. They have a fairly narrow failure plane
Thermoplastics (GMTs) when failed in tension.
2.05.4.2.1 Description
2.05.4.3 Spray/Hand Lay-up Chopped Strand
These materials are based on a swirled glass Mat (CSM)
fiber yarn mat laminated with polypropylene,
or other thermoplastic, into a sheet suitable for 2.05.4.3.1 Description
thermoforming. The material is thermally
pressed in matched tools and has found appli- These materials form the backbone of the
cation particularly in the automobile industry. GRP industry by providing the capability of
This in part may reflect the wide familiarity of manufacturing small to large components using
this industry with the press fabrication route, low-cost tooling. Using either hand lay-up or
normally used for metal sheets, but principally spray lay-up with integral choppers, compo-
by the ability of GMTs to be recycled. Nor- nents can range from modular water tanks,
mally due to the poor surface finish they are not equipment covers, specialist car bodies, process
used for visible parts but for underbonnet ap- pressure vessels to large boats. The manufac-
plications such as the inner front bulkhead in turing process can be set up cheaply and quickly
automobiles that supports the radiator, cooling by companies or individuals, which can result in
fan, and front lights; bumper armatures; and variable production quality. In contrast, cor-
battery trays. These materials are also used rectly produced material is extensively used in
when a cosmetic layer is used, such as a soft demanding applications (e.g., chemical process
or padded finish for an automotive boot floor. vessels). The use of this manufacturing route is
Table 12 Typical properties of a glass-fiber mat/polypropylene (GMT).
Fiber: E-glass
Matrix: Polypropylene
Fiber format Swirled mat (random)
Process route Thermoformed, press molded
Elastic properties
ExxT (GPa) 6.2 (+0.14) ExxC (GPa)
EyyT (GPa) 5.7 (+0.66) EyyC (GPa)
nxy 0.38 (+0.02)
nyx 0.38 (+0.03)
Gxy (GPa) 2.4
Strength properties
sxxT (MPa) 88.6 (+7.8) sxxC (MPa) 105 (+4)
syyT (MPa) 96.8 (+8.4) syyC (MPa) 104 (+4)
txy (MPa) 55.9 (+2.5)
Table 13 Typical properties of a chopped-strand mat/polyester (CSM).
Fiber: E-glass
Matrix: Polyester
Fiber format Random chopped strand mat
Process route Hand lay-up
Elastic properties
ExxT (GPa) 7.27 (+0.55) ExxC (GPa) 7.86 (+0.64)
EyyT (GPa) 6.64 (+0.34) EyyC (GPa) 7.67 (+0.60)
nxy 0.39 (+0.02)
nyx 0.40 (+0.02)
Gxy (GPa) 2.16
Strength properties
sxxT (MPa) 81 (+6) sxxC (MPa) 168 (+11)
syyT (MPa) 68 (+5) syyC (MPa) 160 (+14)
txy (MPa) 81 (+9)
likely to decrease as health and safety regula- materials, are often presented in product design
tions reduce allowable styrene levels. In addi- standards (e.g., prEN 13 121) as unit loads ªN
tion, other manufacturing routes may provide a per unit width per kg m2 º on the basis that the
greater consistency of properties and a higher performance is governed by the weight of load-
quality level. For example, resin transfer mold- carrying glass fiber present, the resin load-bear-
ing using the same type of single-faced mold ing contribution being ignored.
could be easily adopted (cf. matched tool RTM). CSM materials have relatively low tensile
and shear strength, and can fail through
delamination under impact conditions. The
2.05.4.3.2 Properties matrices are generally less tough than the ther-
moplastic based materials discussed above.
The properties of CSM (see Table 13) depend However, CSMs can provide adequate impact
critically on the quality of lamination in terms performance when correctly designed and man-
of the fiber volume fraction and void content. ufactured as shown by their use in work-boats
The properties of CSM, and fabric reinforced including heavy duty lifeboats.
Table 14 Typical properties of a sheet molding compound.
Fiber: E-glass
Matrix: Polyester + fillers/additives
Fiber volume fraction 0.47 (glass-fiber + filler)
Fiber format Long discontinuous random
Process route Compression molded
Elastic properties
ExxT (GPa) 11.3 (+0.5) ExxC (GPa) 11.4 (+0.6)
EyyT (GPa) 11.4 (+0.6) EyyC (GPa) 13.7 (+0.4)
nxy 0.29 (+0.01)
nyx 0.30 (+0.01)
Gxy (GPa) 4.80
Strength properties
sxxT (MPa) 84.7 (+5.3) sxxC (MPa) 143 (+8)
syyT (MPa) 74.5 (+1.5) syyC (MPa) 169 (+8)
txy (MPa) 76.9 (+2.0)
2.05.4.4 Dough/Bulk and Sheet Molding native to hand lay-up CSM in modular water
Compounds (DMC/BMC and SMC) tanks, but the available modular sizes are likely
to be more restricted due to the match tools
2.05.4.4.1 Description required for SMC.
Using conventional width specimens, high
These materials are based on the use of a local variations are found in properties, but
highly filled (e.g., chalk) thermoset resin with these do not necessarily result in low panel or
short fibers (dough/bulk molding compounds) product performance. The material is relatively
processed by compression or injection molded ªbrittleº in its response under flexure or impact
in match metal tools as the matrix. Low shrink- loading due to the high filler content but
age compositions exist that include thermoplas- tougher grades have been developed. Cracks
tic additions to give zero-shrinkage materials. can be propagated transverse to the planes of
DMC/BMCs are often used for ªchunkyº items delamination. Typical mechanical properties
such as electrical connection blocks. SMC are given in Table 14 for an SMC compound.
materials are based on the use of longer, dis-
continuous fiber lengths. They are often used as
trim panels in the automobile industry, car
closure panels (e.g., rear hatchback doors and 2.05.4.5 Pultruded Profiles and Solid Section
front bonnet lids), and bumpers. High-perfor-
mance beam elements requiring directional re- 2.05.4.5.1 Description
inforcement can include continuous material
These materials may either contain fully uni-
along a preferential direction. DMCs are pro-
directional roving as solid sections (e.g., rods)
cessed by injection molding or hot pressing in
or mixed formats in profiles normally with thin
match metal tools, whereas SMCs can only be
walls in both standard (e.g., I beam, Tee beam,
hot-pressed.
angle, U channel, tube, and box) and custom
shapes. These thin walled profiles may contain
mat, fabrics, and roving reinforcements, to-
2.05.4.4.2 Properties gether with a surface veil for improved chemical
and weathering performance. Thermosets are
For automobile applications, low shrink ver- used for the vast majority of pultrusions
sions have been developed to give good surface although there are some developments with
finish and an absence of shrink marks for ribs thermoplastics principally as strips. The use of
and bosses. There is also an established market pultrusions is developing from handrails etc.
in truck cab panels, truck grills, and business meeting basic deflection criteria towards highly
machine cases. They are also used as an alter- visible panels on coaches and light trains.
Table 15 Typical properties of a glass-fiber/polyester pultruded profile.
Fiber: E-glass
Matrix: Polyester
Fiber format Mixed (rovings + mat)
Process route Pultruded
Orientation x direction taken as along the profile axis, which is also the direction of the UD
rovings
Elastic properties
ExxT (GPa) 31.2 ExxC (GPa) 31.2
EyyT (GPa) 9.36 EyyC (GPa) 9.36
nxy 0.29
nyx 0.10
Gxy (GPa) 3.2
Strength properties
sxxT (MPa) 483 sxxC (MPa) 409
syyT (MPa) 34.9 syyC (MPa) 92.2
txy (MPa) 73.3
2.05.4.5.2 Properties que tubes, etc. Pipe diameters can vary from
20 mm, or less, to 2000 mm, or greater. Fila-
The properties of the solid rods and square ment winding can also be used to produce gas
sections are extremely anisotropic as they are cylinders, either fully wound or overwound on
normally based on aligned rovings with some a metal inner. The more versatile multiaxial
transverse reinforcement due to the style of the winding machine can be used to produce non-
roving. These rods are most suitable for use as uniform components, such as a car wish-bone,
tie-rods under tension loads. although these are not production items.
The pultruded profiles are normally analyzed
as thin-walled structures, which often fail by
flange or web buckling rather than by material
fracture. Compared to the solid sections, pro- 2.05.4.6.2 Properties
files have relatively low properties along the
axial or process direction (see Table 15). The The properties can be high due to the con-
transverse properties are correspondingly tinuous fibers present, providing allowance is
higher to ensure that the section has sufficient made for the mixture of fiber angles used (e.g.,
all-round strength to suit their use in bolted +558 in most pipe constructions; see Table 16).
applications. EN 13 706 describes quality as- The primary design criteria in these applica-
pects such as defect acceptance level and dimen- tions is the first failure mode associated with
sional tolerances. microdamage or debonding of fibers orientated
transversely to the applied stresses, as this will
result in a weepage failure in an unlined pipe or
vessel. Voidage can be a problem, as with all
2.05.4.6 Filament-wound Materials wet process routes, unless care is taken during
manufacture.
2.05.4.6.1 Description
These are mainly based on thermoset resins
and unidirectional ªrovingº reinforcements, 2.05.4.7 Unidirectional/Multidirectional
although fabrics and tapes are also used. Gen- Preimpregnates
erally, the resin is applied wet during the wind-
ing process although filament winding of 2.05.4.7.1 Description
thermoplastic tapes has been undertaken
using localized heating touches such as for a These materials use unidirectionally aligned
large-scale pressure vessel. fibers impregnated with a ªB-stagedº thermoset
The technique is used to prepare filament- resin supported by a thin backing sheet. These
wound pipes, vessels, rocket motor cases, tor- plies, minus backing layer, are stacked in
Table 16 Typical properties of a filament wound/epoxy material.
Fiber: E-glass
Matrix: Epoxy
Fiber format Continuous
Process route Filament wound
Orientation x direction taken as the longitudinal axis of the cylinder
Elastic properties
ExxT (GPa) 11.2
EyyT (GPa) 18.3
nxy 0.43
nyx 0.71
Gxy (GPa) 10.8
Strength properties
sxxT (MPa) 80
syyT (MPa) 230
txy (MPa) 190
required orientations prior to consolidation is equivalent to the weepage strain discussed

and cured at an elevated temperature. The ma- previously), followed by failure of the next
terials have traditionally used autoclaves for highest fiber angle layer. Although there is
consolidating under pressure at temperatures nominally complete freedom in the choice of
up to 120 8C for higher performance applica- fiber angles, practical reasons drive the designer
tions. However, vacuum or hydraulic pressure to standardize on a restricted number of angles
can also be used together with low temperature (e.g., 08, +458, 908). These practical considera-
cure systems to reduce costs. Alternatively, in- tions include avoidance of confusion and waste
creasing interest is being shown in the use of for hand cutting and lay-up based on preim-
resin transfer molding (RTM) using resin im- pregnate 5600 mm wide and standardization
pregnation into a dry preform and resin film especially for NCF preforms on a +458 com-
infiltration (RFI), whereby dry fabric is inter- ponent of the stitched preform for ensuring
leaved with resin film so that impregnation and adequate shear and bolted joint performance.
cure occur sequentially during the same process The standard structural tests of compression
cycle. The thermoset resins used would nor- after impact, pin-bearing, open/filled hole com-
mally be an epoxy resin although commodity pression, and open-hole tension all use quasi-
polymers (e.g., polypropylene) are also being isotropic lay-ups. The above ªstandardº angles
marketed and used. provide the designer with a reasonable degree
of flexibility. Use of an automatic tape lay-up
machine would encourage the use of other and
2.05.4.7.2 Properties more angles to optimize the materials ªdesignº
as well as overcoming the above handling lim-
When the fibers are laid only in the 08 direc- itations.
tion these materials have the highest anisotropy These GRP materials have high in-plane
both in-plane and through-the-thickness. The strengths depending on the fiber lay-ups, but
use of lay-ups with other angles in addition to low through-the-thickness properties, even for
08 decreases the anisotropy in-plane, with little stitched material. Consequently, it is difficult to
effect on through-thickness properties. For propagate a crack transverse to the plies, but
some cases requiring higher through-thickness easy to propagate a crack in the plane of the
properties, there is interest in stitching, pinning, laminations, which has given rise to Mode I
and stapling through the thickness, which is (double cantilevered beam ISO 15 024) and
most easily accomplished using the resin trans- Mode II (four-point end notched flexure) meth-
fer process. ods for interlaminar fracture energies. Typical
On loading composites with off-axis (i.e., mechanical properties are given in Tables 17
nonzero) layers, failure occurs in the ply with and 18 for an epoxy and polypropylene matrix,
the lowest failure strain (i.e., the 908 layer, that respectively.
Table 17 Typical properties of a unidirectional glass-fiber/epoxy laminate.
Fiber: E-glass
Matrix: Epoxy
Fiber format Continuous
Process route Autoclave
Orientation x direction taken as the direction of the unidirectional fibers (i.e., the 1-direction)
Elastic properties
ExxT (GPa) 47.0 (+2.7) ExxC (GPa) 45.4 (+1.6)
EyyT (GPa) 16.4 (+0.8) EyyC (GPa) 15.9 (+1.0)
nxy 0.28 (+0.01)
nyx 0.08 (+0.01)
Gxy (GPa) 6.0
Strength properties
sxxT (MPa) 1139 (+124) sxxC (MPa) 759 (+103)
syyT (MPa) 63 (+5) syyC (MPa) 213 (+13)
txy (MPa) 107
Table 18 Typical properties of a unidirectional glass-fiber/polypropylene laminate.
Fiber: E-glass
Matrix: Polypropylene
Fiber format Continuous, unidirectional
Process route Autoclave
Orientation x direction taken as the direction of the unidirectional fibers (i.e., the 1-direction)
Elastic properties
ExxT (GPa) 21.5 (+1.2) ExxC (GPa) 26.5 (+1.0)
EyyT (GPa) 3.6 (+0.1) EyyC (GPa) 4.3 (+0.5)
nxy 0.31 (+0.03)
nyx 0.05 (+0.01)
Gxy (GPa) 1.34 (+0.01)
Strength properties
sxxT (MPa) 425 (+11) sxxC (MPa) 272 (+16)
syyT (MPa) 11.0 (+0.5) syyC (MPa) 53 (+4)
txy (MPa) 50 (+2)
2.05.4.8 Fabric Reinforced Laminates tropy of in-plane properties is particularly

valuable for bolted joints. Tapes of limited
Fabric reinforcements can vary from fine width (e.g., 100 mm) and unidirectional fabrics
aerospace types at a weight of 200 g m72 to with a very lightweight weft component are also
heavy weight woven rovings of 1200 g m72. available.
The reinforcement can be utilized in a wide
range processes from hand lay-up using wet
resin to autoclaving as an preimpregnate. The
process route will influence the degree of com- 2.05.4.8.1 Properties
paction and voidage present. Fabrics can be of
different styles but in all cases where the fabric Due to the warp and weft construction, the
is balanced (i.e., similar warp and weft weights) properties (see Table 19) in the orthogonal
properties more or less equal in the two princi- directions are fairly balanced, yielding a pseu-
pal directions are demonstrated. The near iso- doisotropic material. Fabrics are often added to
Table 19 Typical properties of a glass-fiber fabric/epoxy laminate.
Fiber: E-glass
Matrix: Epoxy
Fiber format Fabric, square weave balanced
Process route Hot pressed
Orientation x direction taken as the direction of one set of the principle fiber directions
(e.g., warp or weft).
Elastic properties
ExxT (GPa) 25.2 ExxC (GPa)
EyyT (GPa) [25.2] EyyC (GPa)
nxy 0.14
nyx [0.14]
Gxy (GPa) 4.41
Strength properties
sxxT (MPa) 317 sxxC (MPa) 303
syyT (MPa) [317] syyC (MPa)
txy (MPa) 57
[ ] = assumed values based on material symmetry.
unidirectional plies to give local reinforcement example, if a design requires a CSM material
around holes. Under flexure loads the speci- with properties towards the top end of the
mens are likely to fail in compression as the range, then it is clear that the best fibers, best
waviness introduced by the weaving in the fi- resins, best coupling agent, best impregnation,
bers will under axial load be less effective in and best compaction are necessary. If all these
resisting compression loads. factors cannot be completely controlled, which
is unlikely, it is preferable to consider the use of
a fabric-reinforced system or a combination of
mat and fabric reinforcements.
2.05.5 COMPARISONS OF PROPERTIES
FOR GRP MATERIALS
2.05.5.1 Introduction 2.05.5.1.2 Property prediction
2.05.5.1.1 Property ranges Even allowing for the improvement at the

end of the 1990s in the rationalization and
In this section the properties are considered harmonization of test methods, difficulty re-
across the range of GRPs to illustrate the effect mains in measuring the large dataset of aniso-
of different choices of constituents, weight frac- tropic properties of all composite materials,
tions, fiber formats, and process routes. For both existing and possible future formulations.
example, Johnson (1984) gave useful scatter Consequently, there has been continuing inter-
plots for both tensile modulus and strength, est in the use of predictive techniques. These
see Figures 4 and 5, for the major formats of can be at two levels: micromechanics based on
mats, fabrics, and unidirectional materials. predicting the properties of layers from the
These plots are particularly valuable as they constituent fiber and matrix properties; and at
are based on data obtained from UK industry the layer level using normally classical laminate
and include a wide range of resin and glass analysis whereby similar layers, or plies, are
suppliers, resin types, together with a range of stacked at different orientations. This stack
manufacturing and test personnel; the only may include the addition of a core material to
parameter used for the plots is the weight frac- form a sandwich laminate. Classical laminate
tion of E-type glass fibers. Thus, these plots give analyses are available in several software
a very good indication of the likely range of the packages (e.g., COALA, LAP) and within finite
properties achieved in practice, but do not indi- element analysis (FEA) packages. CoDA and
cate the scatter at any particular manufacturing CompositePRO are two of the few software
site. Although published in 1978, the data are packages working at both levels. CoDA inte-
still used by designers at the beginning of the grates these material property predictions fully
twenty-first century for their initial designs. For with simplified design procedures for panels
Comparisons of Properties for GRP Materials 21
Figure 4 Typical tensile strength for three main types of GRPs.
and beams structures, and has been extensively The ratio between fiber volume fraction (Vf)
validated (Sims and Broughton, 1999). In the and weight fraction (Wf) is given by:
following discussion some of these predictions
are shown. More detailed treatments are given
in several chapters of Volume 1. Wf = (Vf 6 rf)/{(Vf 6 rf) + (Vm 6 rm)} (1)
It should also be noted that although the
properties of GRPs are frequently quoted and Vf = (Wf/rf)/{(Wf/rf) + (Wm/rm)} (2)
predicted according to the volume fraction or
volume percentage of fibers present in the com-
where rf = fiber density, rm = matrix density,
posite, the actual production of GRPs is often
Vm is matrix volume fraction, and Wm = ma-
controlled by using a known weight of reinfor-
trix weight fraction. This relationship is plotted
cement. The resin weighed out will be used to in Figure 6. The weight fractions expected are
achieve full wet-out of the mat by the operator.
given in some product specification standards.
The range of weight/volume fractions achieved
For example, in EN13 121 for GRP pressure
varies with the type of fiber format, and to a vessels, the following data are given:
lesser degree the fabrication route, as it affects
the degree of compaction obtained. Frequently,
the composition will be referenced as a resin:fi- Weight Volume
ber ratio based on the weights of each compo- fraction fraction
nent (e.g., 3:1). This approach accords with the Chopped strand mat 0.25±0.45 0.09±0.27
use of ªunit propertiesº (i.e., load/unit width (CSM) laminates
per weight of glass fiber/unit area) in the design Woven roving (WR) 0.45±0.55 0.27±0.36
of GRP pressure vessels as in EN13 121, where laminates
the load is considered to be carried by the Filament wound (FR) 0.60±0.75 0.41±0.58
weight of glass fiber present. laminates
Figure 5 Typical Young's modulus for three main types of GRPs.
Figure 6 Plot of relationship between Vf and Wf for assumed densities of 2560 kg m73 and 1200 kg m73 for
fiber and resin, respectively.
Figure 7 Tensile elastic modulus as a function of fiber content for continuous mat and unidirectional
GRPs.
Associated with these ranges are default unit directions using orthogonal axes. The Young's
properties, which for the CSM are: modulus is important in its own right as it
controls the displacement/deflection, and thus
Ultimate tensile unit strength the strain in the material. In addition, as many
= 200 N mm71 per kg m72 applications of composites are based on thin-
walled structures (e.g., pultruded profiles, skins
Ultimate tensile unit modulus of sandwich structures), the Young's modulus
= 14 000 N mm71 per kg m72 is also important in controlling the ultimate
load for the commonly observed, buckling fail-
Equations (3) and (4) are given in the standard ures. For example, the Euler buckling load is
to provide a further predictive route to those given by
discussed previously. These equations particu-
larly reflect the practical industry approach but P = b (p2EI/L2) (5)
increasing computing capability is already mak-
ing more complex procedures readily available where b varies with the end conditions assumed
to the engineer, as illustrated by the CoDA PC (e.g., free, pin or fixed), L = column length,
software. The unit properties are given by (units I = moment of inertia, and E = Young's mod-
are N mm71 per kg m72 glass-fiber) ulus.
In Figure 7 are given plots of the predicted
Unit tensile ultimate strength for a woven roving in tensile modulus for swirled mat and unidirec-
the warp direction = 500 6 x (3) tional (both longitudinal and transverse)
materials, as representing extremes of fiber
Unit modulus for a woven roving in the warp format for continuous fibers. It is clear that
direction = 4000 + 24 000 6 x (4) the in-plane anisotropy varies with fiber
volume fraction for the unidirectionally rein-
where x = ratio of glass fiber in warp direction forced materials. For realistic fiber contents
as a proportion of the total glass fiber present. (i.e., 50±70%), the ratio of longitudinal to
transverse moduli is at a maximum value
equal to *4. The anisotropy will be greater
2.05.5.2 Short-term Properties in CFRPs as carbon fibers have higher axial
stiffness and lower transverse stiffness. CFRPs
2.05.5.2.1 Tension/compression modulus would typically have longitudinal and trans-
verse moduli of 140±200 GPa and 10 GPa,
Most design procedures whether simple or respectively.
sophisticated will be based initially on stiffness Indicative values of the tensile modulus for
data and will often for composite applications several classes of composite materials are com-
relate to strain or deflection limit design. Con- pared in Figure 8. It is noticeable that several of
sequently, Young's modulus values are nor- the ªvolumeº compounds (e.g., GMT, SMC,
mally required for the principal in-plane CSM) have little or no anisotropy. These values
Figure 8 Typical values of the tensile elastic modulus, GPa (gray bars = range, white bars = 0 and 908
values).
for the GRP material should be compared with and the reinforcement constant x is equal to 1.
an aluminum alloy and steel values of 70 GPa This leads to different absolute values, and
and 210 GPa, respectively, highlighting again different values for the ratios of the in-plane
the importance for their competitiveness of shear to in-plane tension. For unidirectional
the low density of GRPs/PMCs. CFRPs materials the in-plane shear values are close to
would have values of the order 10 GPa and the through-thickness shear modulus. It is im-
150±200 GPa for the transverse and longitudi- portant that the differences between the isotro-
nal directions, respectively. pic case and the anisotropic are recognized, as it
The compression modulus is normally as- can have a substantial effect on the deformation
sumed to be equal to the tension in both simple of beams in flexure if the load is offset, or for
design analysis and FEA. Differences have been buckling problems such as torsional buckling of
reported between tension and compression va- GRP lighting columns.
lues, but the user should exercise care in using In Figure 9 are graphs of the predicted in-
the data until it has been fully validated. For plane shear modulus for mat, cross-ply, and
example, the tension tests use a gauge length of unidirectional materials. Several GRP materials
550 mm, whereas the compression tests use are compared in Figure 10. These shear values
strain gauges 3 mm long strain gauges together can be increased by preferential alignment at
with the attendant difficulties of compression 458 to the principal axis, which is successfully
testing. employed for filament-wound torque tubes
used for power transmission applications.
2.05.5.2.2 Shear modulus 2.05.5.2.3 Poisson's ratio

For an isotropic material the relationship In common with the shear modulus values
between the stiffness parameters Young's mod- for GRPs, the Poisson's ratio values are also
ulus (E) and shear modulus (G) is given by anisotropic and can be very different than for
the isotropic material case, so that they need to
G = E/2(1 + n) (6) be known, measured, or predicted. The depen-
dencies on volume fraction for continuous fiber
whereas for an anisotropic material, the equiva-
mat and unidirectional materials (nb. axial in-
lent equation for the in-plane shear modulus
plane value, n12) are shown in Figure 11. For
G12 is
metals a value of 0.3 is often assumed to the
G12 1 xZVf extent that it is included in a design equation as
7 a constant.
Gm 1 ÿ ZVf
The range of values for several GRPs are
where shown in Figure 12. The end point of each
data bar are the axial and transverse Poisson's
G12f =Gm ÿ 1 ratios. Lay-ups of the +y8 variety can give
Z 8
G12f =Gm x0 values greater than the 0.5 value obtained for
Figure 9 In-plane shear modulus as a function of fiber content for a continuous mat and unidirectional
GRP.
Figure 10 Typical values of in-plane shear modulus, GPa (nb. CFRP for comparison).
Figure 11 Major Poisson's ratio as a function of fiber content for continuous glass fiber-reinforced epoxy
laminates.
Figure 12 Typical values of axial and transverse Poisson's ratio (gray bars = range, white bars = 0 and 908
values).
The damage occurring gives rise to a loss in

stiffness in the system, which can appear as a
ªkneeº in the curve. The damaged material still
responds in a linear manner but with a lower
stiffness. The knee would be a sharp transition
if for a 08/908 cross-ply all the transverse fail-
ures occurred in the 908 ply at a single failure
strain. In actual materials the microcracks
occur over a range of strain giving rise to a
smooth transition at the knee, as shown in
Figure 13. However, this behavior is not a
form of plasticity or ductility, as related to
Figure 13 A typical tensile stress±strain curve for a yield behavior. The damage gives rise to lower
08/908 system. dynamic moduli and higher damping values.
The design strains used for long-term loads
rubbers that is taken as the normal limit, reflect this microdamage as the relevant failure
although the values are lower for GRP systems criteria where, for example, it allows weepage of
than for CFRP systems. the contained fluid in a process pipe or chemical
process vessel. The standard EN 13 121 pro-
poses a maximum design strain of 0.25% for
2.05.5.2.4 Axial strength long-term service, with limited excursions to
0.4% for limited upset or overload conditions.
GRPs are essentially elastic to failure, These values are well below the ultimate failure
although depending on the fiber format and strains for 08 unidirectional layers of >1.5%.
direction relative to the loading axes, there In Figure 14 are given several stress±strain
will be in some cases degrees of viscoelastic curves for different classes of GRP (Echter-
behavior for resin-dominated properties (e.g., meyer et al., 1996). From these curves it is
shear). In many materials, deviation from a possible to see the wide range of responses
linear curve occurs as the load is increased obtained in terms of initial modulus (i.e., stiff-
due to different modes of microdamage, princi- ness), ultimate strength (s), degree of nonli-
pally associated with reinforcement at 908 to nearity, energy or work to failure (i.e., area
the applied load direction and the associated under the curve), and failure strain through
strain concentrations. These damage modes in- using different fiber formats.
clude debonding leading to microcracking The anisotropy in aligned systems is higher
within fiber bundles and matrix cracking in for the strength properties than for modulus.
resin-rich regions. The effect is most pro- Unless the load is applied solely in the 08 direc-
nounced in 08/908 cross-ply systems loaded tion, it is clear that a multidirectional lay-up is
along one of the principal fiber directions, as required to take care of the off-axis loads, even
cracks can form along the full width and thick- though they may be of a secondary magnitude.
ness of the layer. Failure of well-prepared and well-made bonded
600
0° unidirectional
500
400
0/90 cross-ply
Stress (MPa)
300
Stiched mat + rovings
200
Mat + rovings
CSM
100
90° unidirectional
± 45° angled-ply
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Strain (%)
Figure 14 Typical tensile stress±strain curves for a different GRPs (after Echtermeyer et al., 1996).
Figure 15 Tensile strength as a function of fiber content for continuous mat and unidirectional GRP.
joints with thin adherends will occur in the rial does not failure under simple Euler buck-
composite along the weaker interlaminar inter- ling conditions (see Equation (5)). Normally, a
faces in the composite rather than in the adhe- short gauge length specimen is used to avoid
sives or interface. Many tests methods aimed at this failure mode, but failure can then occur by
providing more structural information than local buckling, including crippling or micro-
plain coupons on the effect of stress concentra- buckling failures. It is also important that fail-
tions (e.g., open hole tension, open/filled hole ures do not occur through bearing failures at
compression, pin-bearing strength) use speci- the end of the specimen under end-loaded con-
mens cut from quasi-isotropic material based ditions. It is agreed that although many differ-
on unidirectional fiber plies laid up at 08, 908, ent loading jigs are available, there remains
and +458 angles. In Figure 15 are shown doubt regarding the measured data as the
graphs of the predicted tensile strength for the opportunity exists to load nonaxially through
extremes of continuous fiber mat and unidirec- poor test machine/loading jig alignment and
tional materials (08 and 908). The tensile poor specimen preparation giving unsymmetri-
strengths of several GRP materials are com- cal specimens. The new harmonized standards,
pared in Figure 16. EN ISO 14,126 and ASTM D 3410, include the
The compressive strength of GRPs, as for all requirement to measure the back-to-back
composites, is difficult to measure uniquely. As surface strains to ensure that the specimen is
most composites are in thin sheet form, under a axially loaded. It is hoped that these methods
compressive load it is important that the mate- will lead in the future to more confidence in
Figure 16 Typical values of tensile strength, MPa (gray bars = range, white bars = 0 and 908 values).
Figure 17 Typical values of compressive strength, MPa (gray bars = range, white bars = 0 and 908 values).
measured compressive strength values and re- measuring the properties in all three shear
duced costs through the elimination of the need planes. It was noted that for several test
for suppliers to meet a range of compression modes and/or materials, failure was initiated
tests for different customers. These difficulties in compression or tension rather than by the
do not occur to the same degree for the less desired shear mode. The typical values for dif-
anisotropic molding compounds, which fail at ferent GRPs shown in Figure 18 illustrate the
lower loads. In Figure 17 are given indicative small range of values normally obtained. For
values for the compression strength of several torque tube designs fibers would be orientated
GRPs. at +458 to the tube axis to give higher shear
properties, both stiffness and strength.
2.05.5.2.5 Shear strength

2.05.5.2.6 Through-thickness properties
The shear strength (t) is one of the more
difficult properties to measure and several com- As thick composites are of increasing interest
peting methods are available that need to be and the design of thin membranes becomes
selected on a case by case approach as not all more accurate, a full three-dimensional data-
nominally shear testing modes give shear fail- base including through-thickness (T-T) proper-
ures. Broughton et al. (1996) reviewed available ties is required. Thick in this context probably
test methods as part of a research program on means greater than 10 mm, which is the limit for
Figure 18 Typical shear strength values, GPa.
Table 20 Through-thickness tensile (T) and compressive (C) properties.
Material Mode E33 (GPa) n31 n32 s33 (MPa)
CSM T 6.3 0.25 (+0.05) 0.21 (+0.05) 9.1 (+2.0)

C 6.2 (+0.3) 0.23 (+0.04) 0.23 (+0.04) 202 (+12)
Fabric/epoxy T 10.2 (+0.2) 0.17 (+0.01) 0.16 (+0.01) 61 (+5)
C 10.7 (+0.4) 0.17 (+0.01) 0.19 (+0.01) 509 (+22)
Disc. Inject. T 4.4 (+0.1) 0.27 (+0.04) 0.41 (+0.02) 69 (+2)
Thermoplastic C 4.2 (+0.1) 0.21 0.44 195 (+5)
GMT T 3.5 (+0.2) 0.16 (+0.04) [0.16 (+0.04)] 5.7 (+1.6)
C 3.3 (+0.4) 0.27 [0.27] 210 (+9)
( ) standard deviation. [ ] = assumed values based on material symmetry assumptions.
Table 21 Through-thickness shear properties.
Material Gxz (GPa) Gyz (GPa) txz (MPa) tyz (MPa)
CSM 1.64 (+0.09) [1.64 (+0.09)] 40.7 (+1.7) [40.7 (+1.7)]

2 6 2 Twill 4.12 (+0.14) [4.12 (+0.14)] 68.4 (+0.9) 68.4 (+0.9)
Fabric/epoxy
Discont. Inject. 1.68 (+0.06) 56.9 (+3.6) [56.9 (+3.6)]
Thermoplastic
GMT 1.04 (+0.2) [1.04 (+0.04)] 22.7 (+0.8) [22.7 (+0.8)]
[ ] = assumed values based on material symmetry assumptions.
many in-plane test methods. However, there are coupons to be prepared. Consequently, tension
cases where the data are required for the con- and compression specimens have been designed
ventional 2±5 mm thicknesses. For example, in that require only 10±20 mm thick material. At
lap joints of ªthinº material, failure of a cor- these thicknesses there is less concern for a
rectly designed and manufactured joint will be further artefact, namely that the material is at
frequently in the composite itself. a larger thickness than in the application so that
There are difficulties with the measuring the the cure, the voidage, volume fraction, residual
T-T data due to the availability of the material stresses, etc. may be different.
and the subsequent testing difficulties, particu- Data obtained during a recent test method
larly in tension. Material is not normally avail- development program are shown in Tables 20
able to allow the standard 250 mm long and 21 (Lodeiro et al., 1999). Some caution
needs to be applied to the use of the data as the sMAX/sUTS = 1 7 klog10N (9)
test methods have not finished their develop-
ment and been subjected to an interlaboratory where sMAX is the maximum applied load,
validation. sUTS is the ultimate tensile strength, and k is
the fractional loss in tensile strength per decade
of cycles. The value of k is typically 0.08 to 0.1.
GRP laminates can sustain loads for at least 106
2.05.5.3 Long-term Strength Properties
cycles at stress levels approximately equal to
2.05.5.3.1 Fatigue 25% of the ultimate tensile strength, measured
at the ªfatigueº loading rate.
Both glass and carbon unimpregnated fiber As the ultimate tensile strength has been
bundles exhibit excellent fatigue resistance shown (Sims and Gladman, 1978) to be rate-
under sinusoidal cyclic loading conditions. dependent (see Section 2.05.5.9), it is important
For a given tensile stress and comparable fiber that the normalization uses the strength mea-
volume content, composites composed of sured at a rate equivalent to that used in the
higher modulus fibers will exhibit superior fa- fatigue tests. The higher the rate of stress ap-
tigue resistance in the longitudinal direction. plication (RSA) or frequency, the higher the
The induced strain within the matrix will be fatigue strength, however, normalizing the
lower for these systems and as a result the rate S±N data in terms of the static strength at
of damage accumulation within the matrix and each RSA causes the S±N curves to superim-
at the interface will be reduced. pose (Sims and Gladman, 1978). This depen-
The fatigue strain experienced by unidirec- dence also has implications when the service
tional GRP laminates generally exceeds the frequency is much slower than the faster rate
fatigue strain limit of the matrix, whereas the used to minimize the time to obtain the labora-
maximum strain experienced by unidirectional tory data. Sims and Gladman (1978) used tri-
CFRP laminates falls well below this limit, even angular waveforms to set a single unique
at stresses approaching the ultimate tensile loading rate for both fatigue and ultimate
strength of the material. Unidirectional GRP strength tests. Small differences were only
laminates fail through progressive fatigue da- found at low cycles-to-failure between S±N
mage, whereas fatigue damage in equivalent data obtained using square, triangular, and
CFRP laminates is suppressed with only static sine waveforms.
failure being possible. R-glass fiber composites In Figure 19 data are shown for four glass-
have higher tensile strength and higher strength fiber/epoxy laminates with a range of ultimate
during fatigue than an equivalent composite tensile strengths. The data shown have been
reinforced with E-glass fibers, although the normalized as above and are shown to fit well
normalized S±N data is almost the same. Low scatter bands based assuming a constant rate of
stiffness carbon fiber composites can be ex- degradation and a width based on the coeffi-
pected to exhibit some progressive fatigue da- cient of variation of 3% measured for the UTS.
mage (reviewed by Wells, 1984). The wider scatter band more appropriate for a
A simple procedure that has been used to CSM material on the same basis predicts a life
represent several sets of data is the normaliza- variation of three decades, as observed, rather
tion of the fatigue data with respect to the than less than one decade for the fabric based
ultimate strength under identical conditions system.
(Mandell et al., 1981; Harris et al., 1990; Sims This rule of thumb applies to a wide range of
and Gladman, 1978). The normalized compo- glass fiber-reinforced plastics, with and without
site fatigue sensitivity was almost identical for holes or notches. Materials conforming to this
fiber volume fractions ranging from 0.15 to 0.50 basic rule include continuous unidirectional
% (reviews by Hancox and Mayer, 1984; Wells, and multidirectional laminates, woven fabrics,
1984). It was also found that the normalized and sheet and injected molded compounds. The
fatigue sensitivity (i.e., fractional loss in tensile tensile fatigue behavior (107 cycles) of most
strength per decade) tends to be similar in ten- GRP systems is fiber dominated. The higher
sion for R(sMIN/sMAX) ratios ranging from 0.0 the alignment, the higher the initial tensile
to 0.1, independent of matrix type, interface, strength and the higher the strength during
void content, filler and fiber content, and fiber fatigue for a given number of cycles.
format, length (provided the fibers are longer This relationship has also been reported for
than the minimum length to transfer load), and several injection molded glass-fiber thermoplas-
distribution. tic systems, and also for similar carbon-fiber
The normalized S±N data can be represented reinforced systems. The value of k in Equation
by a linear relationship as follows (Mandell (9) was found to range from 0.09 to 0.12. These
et al., 1981; Sims and Gladman, 1978, 1980): values are higher than usually observed but are
Mean result
140 95% confidence limits for C.V. = 3%
95% confidence limits for C.V. = 15%
Percentages of UTS (%)
120
– UTS = 408 MN/m 2
100 – UTS = 337 MN/m 2
– UTS = 365 MN/m 2
80
– UTS = 326 MN/m 2
60
40
20
0
10 –1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7
Cycles to failure
Figure 19 Illustration of predicted scatter bands and measured data for four similar glass-fiber fabric/epoxy
materials.
500 Test temperature (°C)

–150
Maximum stress (MN/m2)
400 –100
–50
300 +23 –20

+60
200 +100
100 +150
10 –1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
Cycles to failure
Figure 20 S±N curves at different test temperatures for a glass-fiber fabric/epoxy.
probably based on the normal UTS rather than narrow band (see Figure 21) with the fractional
the ªfatigueº rate data which would reduce loss in tensile strength per decade of cycles being
these values. approximately 0.1 (Sims and Gladman, 1982).
Glass fiber-reinforced laminates can sustain A reduction in the stress amplitude whilst
higher fatigue loads at low temperatures than at maintaining the same peak stress extends the
high temperatures as shown in Figure 20. The fatigue life of a composite laminate. The nor-
data was obtained for a glass-fiber/epoxy used malized S±N curves become flatter (i.e., reduced
in the electrical industry with negligible voidage rate of degradation) with increasing R ratios for
and low scatter (i.e., coefficient of variation for 0.014R41.0. Similarly, GRP has an improved
the tensile strength of 3%). The material is ideal fatigue resistance when subjected flexural load-
for studying the effect of different test para- ing conditions compared to tensile loading.
meters. The low scatter of the tensile strength A major concern when conducting fatigue
transfers directly to the fatigue response result- testing under compressive loading conditions
ing in less than one decade of scatter at any set is ensuring the test data is valid. Prevention of
stress level. In Section 2.05.2.6 is shown the vari- Euler buckling through the use of antibuckling
ation of the tensile strength over the tempera- devices can be expected to alter the fatigue
ture range ±150 8C to 150 8C. The fatigue data in performance and introduce uncertainty regard-
Figure 20 has been normalized with respect to ing how the much load is carried by the jig rather
the tensile strength in Figure 28 at the corre- than the specimen. Failing to prevent buckling
sponding temperature to give the normalized will compromise the fatigue performance.
data shown in Figure 21. Although the fatigue The published data suggests that the fatigue
data has a factor of four change in absolute strength of GRP systems degrade at a similar
magnitude, the normalized data falls within a rate (provided the rate of stress application and
Test temperature (°C)
Percentage of UTS (%)

100 150 – 20
100 – 60
80 60 –100
23 –150
60
40
= run out
20
0
10 –1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7
Cycles to failures
Figure 21 Normalized fatigue S±N fatigue curve for a glass-fiber fabric/epoxy.
Maximum stress (MN/m–2)
1000
100
10
10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 Year 10 8
Time (s)
Figure 22 Creep rupture data for CSM in distilled water.
R ratio are the same) and that the fatigue in tension parallel to the fibers with off-axis
strength (as with the static strength) is depen- loads encountering less resistance from the
dent on the fiber content, fiber format, and composite. Off-axis tensile tests have shown
maximum operating temperature of the matrix. that the creep behavior for 458 and 908 lami-
nates are nearly identical, and very similar to
the creep behavior of the matrix (Scott et al.,
2.05.5.3.2 Creep 1995). Creep resistance is also lower under
compressive and shear loads. Cross-ply (i.e.,
The creep resistance of unimpregnated glass 08/908) nonwoven laminates are relatively
fiber strands is relatively poor in comparison creep resistant to tensile loads, whereas the
with carbon fibers, which can sustain loads woven counterparts are more susceptible to
approaching the tensile strength of the carbon creep as fiber straightening contributes to over-
fiber bundle for an indefinite period of time in all deformation. Random fiber arrays (e.g.,
either air or water. The stiffer the fiber reinfor- CSM) are the least resistant to creep. The
cement the smaller the creep strain, hence car- creep performance of unidirectional pultruded
bon fiber composites have lower creep rates GRP is comparable with steel, but significantly
than their equivalent GRP counterparts. Re- worse than for CFRP. The rupture times at
duction in creep modulus (or stiffness) with equivalent stress levels are several orders of
time is greater for GRP. The creep performance magnitude greater for CFRPs compared with
appears to be comparable between different those for GRP. Aramid composites have creep
matrix materials (i.e., polyester, epoxy, or phe- rates orders of magnitude higher than GRPs. In
nolic resins). Differences can be expected for Figure 22 is shown creep rupture data obtained
tests at elevated temperatures or with exposure for CSM in distilled water.
to aggressive environments. The relative creep
performance will be dependent on the resis-
tance of the matrix to environmental factors. 2.05.5.4 Moisture, Water, Marine, and
Matrix softening occurs at elevated tempera- Weathering Resistance
tures (i.e., above Tg) causes a substantial in-
crease in the deformation of the system 2.05.5.4.1 Moisture and water effects
resulting in large and unusble deformations.
The most creep resistant combination is GRPs are used in many applications where
when continuous aligned materials are loaded exposure to moisture or immersion in water is a
Figure 23 Glass transition temperature for a moisture conditioned polyester resin.
major requirement. This may be as part of the will modify the changes in internal stresses.
general atmosphere, as for, for wind-turbines Composite properties dominated by matrix
and building cladding panels, when other as- characteristics (e.g., transverse tension, long-
pects of ªweatheringº such as UV exposure itudinal compression, and shear) are particu-
need to be considered. Other applications that larly susceptible. It is therefore essential that a
involve full immersion, with moisture also pre- resin-rich layer is present on the composite sur-
sent, include pleasure and work boats, mine- face to protect the glass fibers from moisture
sweepers, water piping, and potable water degradation. This is usually accomplished by
tanks. GRP laminates can absorb relatively the use of gel coats and surface veils.
small (typically 0.3±1.5%) but potentially da- For example, the Tg, as an indicator of the
maging amounts of water from the surrounding maximum service or operating temperature, of
environment. Consequently, care should be polyester resins is sensitive to absorbed moist-
taken to optimize the specification and manu- ure. Figure 23 shows the influence of moisture
facture of the GRP material to meet these content on Tg for a typical polyester. The Tg is
needs. reduced by approximately 15±20 8C for a 2%
The moisture absorption kinetics of polymer moisture weight gain, where the effect is not
systems differ widely and also change with dependent on the conditions used for water
physical aging. Although the process of moist- conditioning. However, the rate of moisture
ure absorption and desorption from the surface uptake and reduction in operating temperature
layers occurs immediately on contact with the is temperature dependent. The higher the tem-
environment, moisture flow into or out of the perature the more rapid the degradation pro-
interior of composite structures will be slow. It cess. At temperatures approaching the Tg of the
may take weeks or months of exposure to resin, there can be loss of organic materials
humid environments before a significant (e.g., additives) through leaching. Fick's law
amount of water is absorbed by the composite. will no longer apply in this case. GRP product
This particularly applies to GRPs with a thick- standards (e.g., Lloyd's Rules, EN 13 121)
ness of greater than 10 mm. The amount of require that the operating temperature should
moisture absorbed by GRP laminates is depen- be 30±40 8C below the Tg or DTUL tempera-
dent on matrix, temperature, exposure time, ture, so that these conditions should not occur
and mechanical loading conditions. The rate in service unless initial water absorption
of moisture uptake and hence degradation is reduces the Tg to the sensitive area or higher
accelerated under tensile loads. temperatures are used as a method of accelerat-
Absorbed water may produce a number of ing the testing for material properties.
adverse effects: (i) dimensional changes (swel- The influence of the absorbed moisture on
ling); (ii) reduction in the glass transition tem- the transverse and longitudinal flexural
perature Tg of the matrix; (iii) reduction of the strength of a continuous aligned glass fiber-
mechanical properties of the matrix and the reinforced laminate is shown in Figures 24
fiber±matrix interface; and (iv) chemical degra- and 25. The effect of increasing moisture is to
dation of the glass fibers. Moisture induced reduce the maximum strength of the material
effects are often reversible on drying the com- and reduce the maximum operating tempera-
posite (nb. measurement of Tg discussed in ture. The plots show that longitudinal strength
Section 2.05.3). In addition, absorbed moisture is less sensitive to changes in moisture content.
Figure 24 Transverse flexural properties of conditioned E-glass/epoxy laminate with temperature.
Figure 25 Longitudinal flexural properties of conditioned E-glass-fiber/epoxy laminate with temperature.
At room temperature, the transverse flexural strength retention or lifing of these materials
strength retention is only 50% compared with under natural weathering conditions. Weath-
the strength of the dry material, and falls ering encompasses the combined effect of
further as a percentage change at higher tem- temperature, moisture, and sunlight (i.e., ultra-
peratures. Figure 26 compares the deleterious violet radiation). The combined effect often
effects of moisture on the transverse flexural leads to hydrolytic and photo-oxidative degra-
strength of aligned glass and carbon fiber-rein- dation of the composite. The incorporation of
forced epoxy laminates dry and wet (approxi- UV stabilizers in GRP materials prevents this
mately 1 wt.% moisture) at room temperature problem occurring. An outer gel-coat or pro-
(23 8C) and 100 8C. The CFRP laminate is tective (e.g., polyurethane) paint will also pro-
affected to a far lesser degree than the GRP vide protection for the underlying substrate.
laminate. Research (Hale and Gibson, 1998) has shown
that after 4 years exposure in a temperate
climate (UK) or exposure in a marine (salt-
2.05.5.4.2 Weathering and marine water) environment, the strength retention of
environments CSM/polyester laminates remains relatively
unaffected (typically 95% of UTS). The effects
GRP laminates generally have good weath- on strength of the GRP materials when
ering properties, although there is limited real exposed, over the same period, to a tropical
life data published for comparative purposes on environment (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia) were
Figure 26 Transverse flexural properties of conditioned E-glass-fiber/epoxy and carbon/epoxy laminates at

room temperature and 100 8C.
far more severe. The strength retention was Osmosis) regarding the choice of resin, gel-
81% after 4 years exposure. The quality of the coats, working practice, etc. Improvements
gel-coat is important to ensure a reliable barrier are obtained from using isophthalic rather
to moisture ingress and preventing blister for- than orthophthalic resins, powder bonded
mation and osmosis, particularly for use in rather than emulsion bonded chopped mat,
marine environments. and properly cured systems.
Exposure to salt spray or salt water will
degrade glass fiber-reinforced systems with the
degree of protection depending on the perme- 2.05.5.5 Fiber Degradation
ability of the resin to diffusion of chloride ions
and the ability of the matrix and interface to This section deals specifically with the under-
resist premature cracking, which would allow lying mechanisms involved in degradation of
the environment to come in direct contact with the fibers themselves. As such it forms a primer
the fibers resulting in their corrosion. for discussion in Sections 2.05.5.4.1, 2.05.5.4.2,
The strength and impact strengths of un- and 2.05.5.7 on the effects of water and chemi-
stressed polyester and epoxy based GRP lami- cal environments.
nates will steadily decrease when exposed to The tensile strength of freshly drawn E-glass
one of the following environments: distilled fibers is typically 3.5 GPa. This strength can be
water, simulated sea water, simulated sun- fully realized, provided the fibers are carefully
light/salt spray, and actual sea conditions. A handled to avoid surface damage and are stored
flexural strength reduction of 14±22% over a in a dry environment. Exposure to humid air
3±9 month period has been observed (Hale and will compromise the load bearing capacity of
Gibson, 1998). Epoxy-based systems are intrin- the fibers, resulting in a loss of strength and an
sically more resistant to marine environments, increase in variability in strength. For these
undergoing a reduction in flexural strength of reasons, the variability in the tensile breaking
10±15% over a 12 month exposure period. A stress and strain for carbon fiber tows is notice-
reduction of 50% has been observed over a 6±9 ably less than for E-glass fiber tows.
month exposure period. The loss of tensile strength of E-glass fibers is
Osmosis causing surface blistering, although dependent on exposure time, temperature, and
primarily cosmetic, is a very common problem the degree of humidity. On initial exposure to a
that occurs in laminated structures that have humid/water environment, the rate of fiber de-
been immersed for long periods in aqueous gradation is relatively rapid, even in benign
solutions (e.g., marine applications). The phe- environments, such as air conditioned labora-
nomenon affects laminates contaminated by tories (typically 23 8C and 50% relative humid-
water-soluble impurities. Osmosis was first re- ity (RH)). The tensile strength is reduced to
cognized on GRP boats, and to a lesser extent approximately 3.0 GPa after 20 days exposure
in water tanks and swimming pools, but there is in air at 20 8C and 65% RH. Immersion in
now knowledge in the GRP industry that al- water at the same temperature results for the
lows the problem to be avoided providing the same period of time in a 30% strength reduc-
guidelines are followed (see BPF Avoiding tion (i.e., tensile strength of 2.5 GPa). Further
Figure 27 Stress rupture of E-glass fibers in air and water.
strength loss occurs with increasing exposure differences in corrosion resistance between the
time. After 100 days, the strengths in air and different fiber types to different acids and alka-
water are 2.6 GPa and 2.1 GPa, respectively lis are dependent on the reactivity of the fiber
(Ehrenstein et al., 1990). This process is par- chemistry to the agent. Each particular fiber
tially reversible. Exposure to boiling water in- chemistry bestows a certain resistance against
creases the loss of strength (*75% loss in 24 h). attack from a range of chemicals, rather than
As a result of the degradation that occurs to E- wholesale protection.
glass fibers, an in situ tensile strength of 2.0 GPa The process of corrosion is accelerated under
is often assumed when designing composite mechanical loads (i.e., stress corrosion) with the
laminates. long-term strength of glass fiber-reinforced
The loss in tensile strength of E-glass fibers is plastics under hostile environments being con-
associated with microcrack formation on the trolled by stress corrosion of the fiber reinfor-
surface and a decrease in the load bearing fiber cement. Static fatigue or creep rupture, which
diameter by ion exchange with the surrounding refers to the time-dependent failure of a mate-
media. Sizing of the fiber during the production rial when subjected to a constant load, is used
process provides protection, although this is as a measure of gauging the relative resistance
limited against a number of chemical agents. of a material (i.e., fiber or composite) to che-
As with moisture effects, acid and alkali degra- mical environments. The less resistant the fiber
dation processes are accelerated at elevated is to a particular environmental condition, the
temperatures. Compared with other glass fiber more rapid the drop in the rupture stress time
types (e.g., R, ECR, and C), E-glass is particu- curve. Figure 27 shows the detrimental effect
larly vulnerable to attack from mineral acids that water has on the ability of glass fibers to
(e.g., HCl and H2SO4) and alkalis (e.g., NaOH sustain load.
and KOH). Dilute mineral acids and alkalis are The normalised stress rupture curves for the
not only encountered in the chemical plant E-glass fibers when plotted on a linear-log plot
industry, but are also present in industrial ef- can be ªapproximatedº by a straight line fit as
fluent and sewage. A comparison of tensile follows
strengths for different glass fibers before and
after exposure to a 5% H2SO4 at 23 8C sAPP/sUTS = 1 7 klog tf (10)
(Figure 27) shows ECR- and R-glass fibers
having superior corrosion resistance to sulfuric where sAPP is the applied load (or stress), sUTS
acid solutions. is the maximum short-term strength of the un-
Significant improvements in the corrosion conditioned material, k is the slope, and tf is the
resistance of GRP structures to mineral acids time to failure. The more aggressive the envir-
are possible by using ECR-glass fibers. Using onment the larger the constant k. The similarity
ECR-glass fibers in preference to E-glass fibers of this equation to that shown previously,
can significantly extend the life of GRP lami- Equation (9), for fatigue is very significant for
nates by one or two orders of magnitude. The confirming the degradation rates.
Figure 28 Plot of ultimate tensile strength as a function of temperature.
2.05.5.6 Temperature Resistance 700 8C, respectively, with the heat resistance
of aluminum alloys typically between 150 8C
The matrix dominated properties such as and 200 8C.
compressive, flexural, shear, and transverse
properties are most affected by the temperature
dependence of the matrix. Depending on the
fiber format the tension properties are less af- 2.05.5.7 Chemical Resistance
fected. In Figure 28 is shown the dependence of
the tensile strength for the glass-fiber fabric/ Glass fiber-reinforced plastics are normally
epoxy laminate discussed previously over the resistant to degradation from mild acids, alka-
temperature range 7150 8C to 150 8C. The per- line solutions, and humidity. These materials
formance of epoxy and phenolic GRP is super- do not ªrustº and are comparatively corrosion-
ior to that of vinyl ester, which in turn offers resistant, hence the increasing use of these ma-
better elevated temperature performance than terials by the chemical and offshore industries
polyester. for storage tanks, reaction vessels, and pipes.
Oxidation is the primary degradation pro- Corrosion can occur, however, due to ingress of
cess at elevated temperatures with the rate of the aggressive media resulting in stress corro-
degradation increasing with the amount of sion cracking, and as a consequence a loss in
oxygen present. The primary path for oxygen stiffness and strength.
diffusion is through the polymer and along
the fiber±matrix interface, which can be rela-
tively rapid at elevated temperatures. Oxida- 2.05.5.7.1 Chemical and physical agents
tion can result in loss of strength and
discoloration. The effect of different classes on GRP lami-
Most GRP materials are generally unim- nates are briefly discussed below. As noted for
paired at subzero temperatures and in some water environments, the performance of the
cases short-term elastic and strength properties GRP is closely linked to the resin matrix per-
(e.g., polyester-based systems) are enhanced. formance. A full list of chemical agents and
Exposure to subzero temperatures as low as test methods for assessing the effects of chemi-
755 8C generally has no detrimental effect on cal exposure are given in ISO 175 and prEN
the stiffness and strength of continuous unidir- 2489.
ectional GRP laminates. (i) Acid and alkaline agents, as previously
The variation in the maximum operating mentioned, can degrade fiber, resin, and the
temperature for GRP ranges from approxi- fiber±matrix interface. The degree of degrada-
mately 90 8C (GMT) to 200 8C (continuous tion is dependent on concentration levels and
aligned epoxy). The heat resistance of GRP temperature. In general, epoxy resins are more
laminates is less than that for mild steel or resistant than polyester, while high-perfor-
stainless steel, but comparable with aluminum mance thermoplastics (e.g., polyetherketone)
alloys. Figure 29 shows typical heat resistance are virtually impervious to ordinary chemical
data for a range of GRP laminates and metals. attack. E-glass fibers are known to suffer stress
Mild steel and stainless steel have typical max- corrosion when exposed to acidic solutions
imum operating temperatures of 500 8C and (e.g., sulfuric acid).
(ii) Hydrolysis by hot water, aqueous alkalis, 2.05.5.8 Toughness Properties

and acids is a serious problem for polyesters
and polyamides. Strong alkalis are particularly Due to the layered structure of composites
harmful to polyesters, which can be completely and their intrinsic ability to deflect cracks, it is
destroyed. These same groups of chemical difficult in many GRPs to propagate a crack
reagents can also induce ion exchange reactions perpendicular to the plane of lamination. In-
in glass fibers, leading to flaw initiation and stead, crack growth studies have concentrated
propagation under mechanical load. on the interlaminar delamination modes. Intra-
(iii) Paint strippers combined with abrasion laminar mode I (opening mode) and mode II
techniques can cause irreversible material (shear or sliding mode) fracture toughness (or
damage. Marine and civil structures may be strain energy release rate) values are invariably
painted several times during their service life, higher for continuous unidirectional GRP ma-
and hence care is needed to ensure that this terials than for CFRPs. The higher strain en-
potentially highly destructive process does not ergy release rates GIc and GIIc for GRP can be
degrade the esthetic appearance and compro- attributed to poor fiber/matrix interfacial
mise material performance of the composite. bonding that occurs within these materials giv-
A majority of matrix resins are susceptible to ing an increased crack surface energy and fiber
oxidation by any one of numerous oxidizing bridging for mode I GRP specimens, which
agents (e.g., hydrogen peroxide and certain contributes significantly to crack growth resis-
bleaches such as hypochlorite, nitric acid, or tance (see Table 23). Both GIc and GIIc for GRP
sulfuric acid). Often, constituents such as fillers, laminates are rate dependent, increasing with
fire retardants, and curing agents are more increasing strain rate, whereas modes I and II
reactive than the resin or fiber reinforcement. strain energy release rates for CFRP remain
Formulators and users, although usually aware relatively constant with changes in strain rate.
of the potential durability problems associated
with these additives, often overlook the minor
constituents such as catalysts, hardeners, pig- 2.05.5.9 Impact and High Loading Rate
ments, and processing aids. Properties
Most of the resin systems identified in
Table 22 are generally far more resistant to Impact testing of composites originally
strong acids, salt solutions, and oxidative adopted the Charpy and Izod method used
agents than stainless steel or aluminum alloys. for metals testing, including the notched speci-
The excellent resistance to most chemicals and mens. These tests are less used nowadays, par-
heat, combined with high specific stiffness and ticularly the Izod method. In addition, the use
strength properties, enable glass fiber-rein- of the notched specimen is not allowed in the
forced epoxy or phenolic materials to compete Charpy standard, ISO 179, as failure occurs in
with aluminum alloys. many composites by delamination at the root
Figure 29 Heat resistance for a range of GRP laminates and metallic materials (gray band = range).
Table 22 Comparative resistance of polymers and metals against chemical classes (HÐHigh, MÐMedium,
LÐLow).
Strong Strong Salt Strong Aliphatic Aromatic

Resin acids alkalis Hot/Wet solutions oxidants solvents solvents
Epoxies M M-H H H L-M H H

Furans H H H H L-M H H
Nylons L-M H L H L-M H H
Phenolics H M H H L-M H H
Polyesters H M L H H H H
Polypropylene H H H H M H H
Polyimides M M H H H H H
Polyurethanes M M-H M M M M M
Vinyl esters M-H H H H H H H
Mild steel L H L L L H H
Stainless steel L H H L L H H
Aluminum L L H L L H H
Figure 30 Repeat tests for instrumented impact puncture of glass-fiber fabric/epoxy laminates tests using a
100 mm test span.
notch to leave a reduced width unnotched The data published on high rate properties is
beam. fairly limited. The techniques used include
These ªshort beamº test modes have been Hopkinson's Bar techniques and various
replaced by a ªpunctureº impact test of a cir- forms of high-speed testing using hydraulic
cular plate fully supported around its edge and other methods of accelerating the test ma-
loaded in flexure by a centrally impacting in- chine. In Figure 31 is shown the effect of rate on
dentor with a 10 or 20 mm diameter hemisphere the tensile strength of the glass-fiber reinforced
strike-face. There has been increased use of epoxy laminate.
puncture tests using falling weight instrumented
test machine at a standard impact speed of
4.4 m s72. Alternative techniques for applying
this displacement rate such as hydraulic rams
are also accepted. In Figure 30 are shown data
Table 23 Interlaminar fracture energies of thermo-
for repeat tests on the glass-fiber fabric/epoxy set based composites.
confirming the consistency of the material and
the test method. This test allows the elastic Material GIc (J m72) GIIc (J m72)
capability of reinforced and unreinforced plas-
tics for energy absorption prior to any perma- GRP
nent damage (yield or microcrack) to be Continuous aligned 500±1200 1000±1500
demonstrated. A mild steel panel for this same Woven fabric 1500±2000 2000±2500
application (i.e., automobile closure panel) CFRP
would be thinner and heavily dented at these Continuous aligned 60±250 500±1000
energy levels.
Loading rate (N/s)
10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7
380
Ultimate tensile stress (MN/m2)

360
340
320
300
280 Average Individual

= Standard specimens
260 = Half-size specimens
240
10 6 10 7 10 8 10 9 10 10 10 11
Rate of stress application (RSA) (N/m2/s)
Figure 31 Variation of tensile strength with loading rate.
Figure 32 Predicted coefficients of thermal expansion as a function of fiber content for continuous glass
fiber-reinforced epoxy laminates.
2.05.5.10 Thermal Conductivity and Expansion E-glass. In comparison, the thermal properties
Properties of carbon fibers are highly anisotropic with the
longitudinal and transverse CTEs for carbon
2.05.5.10.1 Coefficient of thermal expansion fibers typically ±1 6 1076 8C71 (almost zero)
(CTE) and 9±25 6 1076 8C71, respectively.
Coefficients of thermal expansion of fiber-
As for other properties, the thermal pro- reinforced plastics are dependent on the ther-
perties of GRPs are dependent on the fiber moelastic properties of the constituents, fiber
arrangement and the degree of matrix depen- content, fiber format, and fiber alignment.
dence. The coefficient of thermal expansion Figure 32 shows the effect of varying fiber
(CTE) of most resin systems is at least an volume fraction (Vf) on the coefficients of ther-
order of magnitude greater than that for glass mal expansion for typical continuous aligned
fibers. At room temperature, the CTE of and continuous random glass fiber-reinforced
E-glass is typically 5.0 6 1076 8C71 in both epoxy laminates. For practical fiber volume
the longitudinal and transverse directions, com- fractions (25±55%), the differences between
pared with the 100±120 6 1076 8C71 and the longitudinal and transverse coefficients of
40±120 6 1076 8C71 for polyester and epoxy thermal expansions for continuous undirec-
resins, respectively. The CTE for other fiber tional aligned GRP are large (i.e., CTE proper-
types (i.e., R, ECR, and S) are comparable to ties are highly anisotropic).
Figure 33 Typical range of coefficients of thermal expansion for GRP laminates (band = range, including
08 and 908 direction values).
Differences in the CTE between the longitu- is typically 2.4 W/m.K. Generally, resins used in
dinal and transverse directions can give rise to composite laminates have low coefficients of
differential residual stresses upon cooling to thermal expansion (0.1±0.2 W/m.K). The com-
room temperature. However, unlike CFRPs bination of glass fibers embedded in a poly-
which normally have higher cure temperatures meric matrix results in a composite with a low
and a greater anisotropy, there is less likelihood thermal conductivity. The coefficients of ther-
of thermally introduced microcracking (cf. mal conductivity range from 0.3 to 1.0 W/m.K.
mechanical microcracking in Figure 13). A typical value for an epoxy-based glass woven
Thermoplastic resins having slightly lower fabric composite is 0.27 W/m.K. The CTC for
CTE values than thermosets offer improved stainless steel and aluminum alloys are approxi-
dimensional stability. The CTE values for mately 1.4 W/m.K and 13.3 W/m.K, respec-
SMC, BMC, filament wound, and pultruded tively. The coefficients of thermal conductivity
GRP are similar in magnitude to CTE values for GRP laminates are relatively unaffected by
for commonly used metallic materials, such as changes in temperature, remaining constant
stainless steel and aluminum alloys (see over the entire operating temperature of the
Figure 33). GRP materials offer good dimen- composite.
sional stability properties. Thermal properties The low thermal conductivity of GRP can
are also sensitive to environmental factors, par- prove a disadvantage when machining GRP
ticularly temperature and moisture. Coeffi- laminates. These materials are slow to dissipate
cients of thermal expansion for GRP can be heat that is generated during cutting, routing,
expected to increase at elevated temperatures drilling, or other machining activities. A suita-
and as a result of absorbed moisture. ble coolant needs to be employed to avoid the
possibility of heat damage, which can compro-
mise the mechanical performance of these ma-
terials. This low conductivity creates problems
2.05.5.10.2 Coefficient of thermal conductivity also under fatigue loading at high frequencies
(CTC) and specific heat (>5 Hz) where autogenous (i.e., self-generated)
heating can cause large temperature rises with
Glass fibers have a low CTC (1 W/m.K). In commensurate decreases in performance. The
contrast, depending on the fiber type, the long- fatigue standard, ISO 13 003, contains a warn-
itudinal CTC of carbon fibers can be in excess ing regarding the effect of autogenous heating,
of 600 W/m.K, although their transverse value which depresses the performance and generates
an apparent ªSº shaped S±N curve (Sims and 2.05.5.12 Electrical Properties
Gladman, 1978), which is, in these cases, an
artefact of the test conditions. Extensive use of GRP is made in the elec-
The specific heat (Cp) of glass and carbon tronic and heavy electrical industries. The test
fibers are almost identical. Typical Cp values methods for electrical properties are well
for glass and carbon fibers are 840 J/kg.K and established and published by the International
710 J/kg.K, respectively. At room temperature, Electro-chemical (IEC). Most fibers, with the
the specific heat for both glass fiber-reinforced exception of carbon fibers, are electrical insu-
thermosets and thermoplastics closely match lators, as are all polymeric materials. Electrical
that for the unreinforced polymeric matrix. resistivity conductivity for glass fibers and
Typical values for both reinforced and unrein- unreinforced polymers (thermosets and ther-
forced resins range from 10 to 13 kJ/kg.K. moplastics) generally lie within the range
These values are approximately twice the Cp 1010±1015 O.m. These materials also exhibit
value for stainless steel (5 kJ/kg.K) and excellent dielectric properties with dielectric
slightly higher than the Cp value for aluminum strength ranging from 6 to 22 mV m71. GRP
alloys (9 kJ/kg.K). Heat capacity is tempera- is particularly suited for use as an electrical
ture dependent, increasing linearly with tem- insulation material, such as power distribution
perature. applications, although selection of a resin sys-
tem that is relatively impermeable to moisture
is needed to ensure that these properties are
not compromised under service conditions.
Johnson (1978) tabulated several electrical
2.05.5.11 Fire Performance properties for three composites (CSM, SMC,
The fire properties have been particularly and a fabric/epoxy)
important in the application of GRP. For
example, initially use offshore was not allowed
as GRP is combustible. This ignored the ben- 2.05.6 SOURCES AND TRACEABILITY
eficial properties such as low thermal conduc- OF PROPERTY DATA
tivity, which keeps the contents cooler than
for a metal container (e.g., vessel or pipe). The 2.05.6.1 Sources of Material Property Data
fires that have occurred in GRP minehunter's
engine rooms have been successfully contained There are several sources of GRP property
with no increase in temperature in adjoining data that the designer can access, including:
compartments. In a manner similar to burning (i) manufacturers' data sheets, which can be
timber GRP creates a charred surface which from a fiber, matrix, or molding compound/
prevents further burning. For GRP it is the preimpregnate supplier. The data are normally
exposed glass that provides the barrier, and obtained using standard test methods, which
the barrier is maximized by a high glass-fiber may or may not be quoted, but will increasingly
content. In addition interlumiscent paints, need to be stated for purposes of traceability
which are formulated to expand and create a and generating a higher confidence level;
carbon foam barrier, are applied. There are (ii) published scientific papers; often these
also available resin additions, such as alumi- will not be to an exact standard but normally
num trihydrate, which improve the GRP per- meeting the main requirements, although often
formance. insufficient information is given on the detail of
The fire requirements, and thus the fire data the test method (e.g., loading rate);
to be determined, are controlled by different (iii) product design standards may include
approval regulations such as IMO or in the default data that can be used in design or in
European Union by Directives such as the Con- some cases equations are included that are
struction Product Directives. Under this Direc- suitable for property prediction;
tive a seven-part fire Eurocodes has been (iv) standards also can be the source of data
created. Depending on the grade proposed for obtained in an experimental round-robin (RR)
approval, then the tests and data will vary. validation to obtain precision data, although
Properties of interest are: the actual data are normally not quoted in the
(i) fire resistance, standard (except as mean values) but either held
(ii) ease of ignition, by the standards body or published by the RR
(iii) surface spread of flame, organizer;
(iv) fire propagation, (v) textbooks, where there is a mix of man-
(v) fire penetration, ufacturers' data and published data;
(vi) smoke emission, and (vi) general reference handbooks, such as
(vii) emission of toxic and noxious fumes. Kaye and Laby (1995);
Sources and Traceability of Property Data 43
(vii) predicted by software based on micro- direct tensile and compression tests using
mechanics and/or classical laminate analysis, plain or tailored blocks. A standard has been
such as CoDA, LAP, COALA. CoDA published on a ªright-angledº specimen that
includes experimentally determined correlation develops a maximum transverse tension stress
factors arising from the validation stage of its at the radius when loaded by increasing the
development. internal angle (i.e., flattening the section). As
(viii) databases such as that provided in for other specimens loaded in basically a flexure
Military Handbook 17 and commercial data- mode, the state of stress is multiaxial so that
bases such as FUNDUS (M-Base). some interaction of the various stresses is pos-
The composites industry has been slow to sible. There is also concern that the specimen
establish standardized databases partly due to will be susceptible to fabrication difficulties and
the (unnecessary) duplication of test methods inconsistencies due to the small internal radius
and partly due to the range of materials avail- specified (i.e., 6 mm), unless this is the radius
able. However, this situation must change if occurring in practice.
composites are to win new applications and For these design oriented requirements, other
markets. There have been recent improvements databases are available such as M-Vision1
in the test method infrastructure by the pub- (MSC, 2000), whereby using a standards shell
lication of a new series of EN ISO standard test system, specialized databases can be developed
methods that have been extensively harmonized on the basis of a ªschema.º These are developed
with ASTM methods (Sims, 1998). This harmo- by the user, for example, CoDAT by NPL, or
nization has enabled a new database standard, by collaboration as in the group associated with
ISO 10 350-2, to be produced for plastics rein- the US Military Handbook organization. Data
forced by fibers, of initial lengths greater than in Military Handbook 17 is also available as
7.5 mm. database modules within the M-Vision product
The original standard, ISO 10 350, now range. The future developments are likely to be
10 350-1, covering unreinforced plastics and associated with the extensive ISO STEP initia-
short (less than 7.5 mm) fibers, has been extre- tive aimed at providing standardized proce-
mely influential in encouraging polymer suppli- dures for data transfer between different
ers worldwide to use ISO standard test methods electronic uses. These include in addition to
to generate comparable property data. Part 1 of materials databases, solid modeling software,
the standard was developed partly alongside computer aided design tools, numerically con-
the CAMPUS commercial database (M-Base). trolled manufacturing machines, and design
Part 2 relating to composites is expected to be software such as finite element modeling.
as influential as Part 1. In addition to the above standard for ªsingle
These database standards are aimed at tech- pointº data, a three-part standard (ISO 11 403)
nical data sheet requirements and identify the covers ªmultipoint dataº (i.e., properties mea-
recommended test methods to be used, includ- sured as a function of rate, time, or tempera-
ing any preferred conditions if options exist ture). The three parts cover mechanical, thermal
within the test method standard. ISO 10 350-1 and processing, and environmental properties.
gives numbered entry lines for each property,
with associated test method and units. For Part
2 additional lines were added to the structure
for Part 1 and nonrequired lines (i.e., proper- 2.05.6.2 Traceability of Property Data
ties) retained but left blank, so that the corre-
spondence is maintained between the two parts To demonstrate the validation of a design
(nb. a third part has been proposed covering (i.e., to regulatory bodies such as Lloyds or
polymer films), which may allow the parts to be FAA) or to meet the requirements of an EU
merged at a later date. The property subsec- Directive, a hierarchy of test methods and spe-
tions within the standard are: cifications are needed at several levels from
(i) rheological, constituent materials (fibers and matrices) to
(ii) mechanical, final products. As the need to demonstrate
(iii) thermal (including some fire properties), compliance with safety oriented EU directives
(iv) electrical, and increases, the pyramid of substantiation often
(v) other (density, etc.). quoted for aircraft certification will become
Ultimately there is a need to develop a design increasingly familiar in other application
orientated database (ISO new work item) that areas. A simplified ªchainº of validation show-
will require additional properties such as the ing the alternating need for each specification
through-thickness stiffness and strength prop- or product level to be based on appropriate test
erties. Following recent research, drafts have methods is shown in Figure 34. In addition,
been prepared for future standardization for product approval requires approved inspection
Figure 34 Chain of validation for composite products based on alternating specification and test methods
standards.
and repair procedures to ensure continued safe (i) by the same method,
operation of the product once in service. (ii) by the same laboratory,
(iii) by the same operator,
(iv) on the same equipment,
2.05.6.3 Precision of Property (v) within a short period,
DataÐRepeatability and (vi) using identical test material.
Reproducibility The reproducibility is similarly defined using
the same methods but
Together with the increased demonstration of (i) by different laboratories,
traceability is an increased requirement to de- (ii) by different operators,
termine the precision of test methods and the (iii) on different equipment,
uncertainty in measurements as a result of the (iv) using identical test material.
use of EN and EN ISO standards in supporting The repeatability and reproducibility stan-
legal aspects such as product liability and free dard deviations are the standard deviations
trade negotiations. These uses place increased giving the dispersion of test results obtained
importance on the reliability of the test method. under the respective conditions. ASTM E691-
Consequently, standardization bodies require 79 is similar to ISO 5725 except in its treatment
that new or revised methods are experimentally of outlying results.
validated and their precision determined. ISO In practical terms these definitions indicate
5725 provides detailed guidance on the running that for repeatability conditions two measure-
of an interlaboratory trial to determine the pre- ments should not differ more than once in 20
cision statement for inclusion in the published occasions by more than the stated amount for
standard. The precision of a test method is the same operator, etc. Correspondingly, for
determined from an assessment of both the reproducibility, not more than once in 20 occa-
repeatability (r) and reproducibility (R) of the sions should results in different laboratories,
method. Repeatability is defined in the standard etc. differ by more than the stated amount.
as ªthe value below which the absolute differ- Although these standards define the proce-
ence between two single test results obtained dure to be used to measure the precision, the
under repeatability conditions may be expected actual values r and R that are acceptable is
to lie within a probability of 95%.º Reproduci- decided by the expert committee responsible
bility is similar for between sites scatter. for drafting the standard in question. Essen-
Repeatability conditions refer to measure- tially, the precision of the test method should
ments made be commensurate with its intended purpose
Concluding Comments 45
Table 24 Precision data as recorded in ISO 15 310.

The following materials were tested:-
Material 1 UD glass-fiber/epoxy
Material 2 SMC (glass-fiber/filler/polyester)
Material 3 Woven glass-fiber/epoxy
Material 4 Random glass-fiber/polypropylene (GMT)
Material 5 Injection molded glass-fiber/nylon
Material 6 UD carbon-fiber/epoxy
(a) Repeatability, reproducibility, and mean shear moduli

Material Repeatability conditions Reproducibility conditions Mean result (GPa)
Sr r SR R
1 0.164 0.459 0.302 0.846 5.85

2 0.137 0.385 0.184 0.516 4.30
3 0.106 0.296 0.307 0.859 4.39
4 0.096 0.269 0.098 0.274 1.78
5 0.061 0.171 0.165 0.461 1.16
6 0.200 0.559 0.309 0.865 5.17
(b) Repeatability and reproducibility values as percentage of mean values

Value as percentage of mean
Material Repeatability conditions Reproducibility conditions
Sr r SR R
1 2.80 7.84 5.41 14.4

2 3.19 8.96 4.29 12.0
3 2.42 6.75 7.00 19.6
4 5.38 15.1 5.50 15.4
5 5.28 14.8 14.27 39.8
6 3.87 10.8 5.98 16.7
(i.e., it should meet a fitness for purpose criter- 2.05.7 CONCLUDING COMMENTS
ion). Some standards already include these
data (e.g., ASTM). The validation data are The review in this chapter has highlighted
normally obtained by a responsible body several aspects:
(e.g., a standards body committee) planning a (i) the versatility of GRPs available through
series of tests to be conducted according to a the choice of material composition and manu-
draft standard by several establishments, nor- facturing route,
mally 10 or more. Interlaboratory or round- (ii) the different nature of properties, both
robin (RR) testing involves the supply of the anisotropy, which is less than occurs for
nominally identical material to all the partici- carbon-fiber reinforced materials, and the ratio
pants, or ideally the circulation of a single set of properties (e.g., tension, compression, and
of materials that are unaffected by the test shear modulus),
program conducted at each site, as for the (iii) the need when acquiring data to use
ultrasonic C-scan panels (Broughton et al., internationally agreed standard test methods
1998). For a destructive test the requirement to charaterize fully the test material.
for identical material cannot be met, conse- Greater materials understanding, improved
quently the repeatability and reproducibility databases through harmonized test methods,
values determined also include the material and increased maturity of the industry, as
variability. Precision data obtained recently in shown by the number of composite material
support of standardization of in-plane shear specification standards and product design stan-
modulus measurements using the plate-twist, dards being developed, support the advancing
ISO 15 310, are shown in Table 24. use of glass-fiber/resin composite materials.
2.05.8 REFERENCES Reinforced Plastics', NPL Report DMA(A)59, 1982,

pp. 179±183.
British Plastics Federation, Repairs to Blisters in Glass- G. M. Wells, `The Fatigue Endurance of GRP Outdoor
Fibre Hulls, 1984. StructuresÐA Literature Assessment', Report AERE-
W. R. Broughton and M. J. Lodeiro, `Cyclic Fatigue of R11 253 WN-4000, AEA Technology, Harwell, Oxford-
Continuous Unidirectional Polymer Matrix Compo- shire, UK, 1984.
sites', NPL Report CMMT(A) 249, 2000.
W. R. Broughton, M. J. Lodeiro and G. D. Sims, in
Èuropean Conference on Composite Materials-7', Lon-
don, 1996.
W. R. Broughton, M. J. Lodeiro and G. D. Sims, `Valida- 2.05.9 APPENDIX
tion of Procedures for Ultrasonic C-scan Inspection of
PMCs': UK Round-Robin, NPL Report CMMT (A) 179, 2.05.9.1 Bibliography
1999.
COALA, Laminate Analysis software, Cranfield Univer- G. Eckold (ed.), `Design and Manufacture of
sity, 1990. Composite Structures', Woodhead Publishing,
CoDA, Composites Design Analysis software, National
Physical Laboratory, 1997. Cambridge, UK, 1994.
CompositePro, Peak Innovations. L Holloway (ed.), `Handbook of Polymer
A. T. Echtermeyer, B. Engh and L. Buene, `Design of Composite for Engineers, Woodhead Publish-
Composite Structures Against Fatigue, Applications to ing, Cambridge, UK, 1994.
Wind Turbine Blades', ed. R M Mayer, MEP, Bury St.
Edmunds, UK, 1996, pp. 35±50.
F. R. Jones (ed.), `Handbook of Polymer±
G. W. Ehrenstein, A. Schmiemann, A. Bledzji and R. Fiber Composites', Longman Scientific and
Spaude, `Handbook of Ceramics and Composites', ed. Technical, 1994.
N. P. Cheremisinoff, Marcel Dekker Inc., Dordrecht, L. N. Phillips (ed.), `Design with Advanced
The Netherlands, vol. 1. Composite Materials, Design Council, 1989.
B. Harris, H. Reiter, T. Adams, R. F. Dickson and G.
Fernardo, Composites, 1990, 21, 30.
J. A. Quinn (ed.), `CompositesÐDesign
A. F. Johnson, Èngineering Design Properties of GRP', Manual, 2nd edn. 1998.
British Plastics Federation 1984. N. A. Waterman and M. F. Ashby, Èlsevier
LAP, Laminate Analysis software, Anaglyph, 1999. Materials Selector', Elsevier Applied Sciences,
`Lloyd's Rules and Regulations for the Classification London, 1992.
of Special Service Crafts', Lloyd's Registry, London,
1996.
N. L. Hancox and R. M. Mayer, `Design Data for
Reinforced Plastics. A Guide for Engineers and De-
signers', Chapman and Hall, London, 1994. 2.05.9.2 Standards
J. M. Hale and A. G. Gibson, J. Composite Materials,
1998, 32(6), 526±543. EN ISO 62, ªPlastics. Determination of
G. W. C. Kaye and T. H. Laby, `Table of Physical and water absorption.º
Chemical Constants', 16th edn., Longman, Harlow,
UK, 1995. EN ISO 75, ªPlastics. Determination of tem-
M. J. Lodeiro, W. R. Broughton and G. D. Sims, perature of deflection under loadº (3 parts).
Plastics, Rubber and Composites, 1999, 28(9), 416±424. ISO 175, ªMethods of testing plastics. Other
J. F. Mandell, D. D. Huang and F. T. McGarry, Com- properties. Methods of test for the determina-
posites Technology Review, 1981, 3(3), 96±102.
J. Morton, S. Kellas and S. M. Bishop, J. Composite
tion of the effects of immersion in liquid che-
Materials, 1988, 22, 657±673. micalsº.
D. R. Mulligan, S. J. P. Gnaniah and G. D. Sims, EN ISO 179, ªPlastics. Determination of
`Thermal Analysis Techniques for Processing and Per- Charpy impact strengthº (2 parts).
formance of Composites and Adhesives', NPL Good EN ISO 527 - Part 1, ªPlastics - Determina-
Practice Guide, 2000.
M-Vision Database, MSC Software, London, 2000.
tion of tensile properties - General principles.º
D. W. Scott, J. S. Lai and A. H. Zureick, J. Reinforced EN ISO 527 Part 4, - ªDetermination of
Plastics and Composites, 1995, 14, 588±617. tensile properties - Test conditions for isotropic
G. D. Sims, Reinforced Plastics, 1998, September. and orthotropic fiber-reinforced plastic compo-
G. D. Sims, Plastics, Rubber and Composites, 1999a, sites.º
28(9), 409±415 (initially presented at 4th Composites:
Testing and Standardisation Conference, Lisbon, 1998). EN ISO 527 - Part 5, Plastics - Determination
G. D. Sims, in `Proceedings of ICCM-12, 12th Interna- of tensile properties - Test conditions for uni-
tional Conference on Composite Materials', Paris, directional fiber-reinforced plastic composites.º
Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, UK, 1999b. EN ISO 1172, ªTextile-glass-reinforced plas-
G. D. Sims and W. R. Broughton, in `Proceedings of
ICCM-12, 12th International Conference on Composite
tics. Prepregs, moulding compounds and lami-
Materials', Paris, Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, nates. Determination of the textile-glass and
UK, 1999. mineral-filler content. Calcination methods.º
G. D. Sims and D. G. Gladman, Plastics and Rubber: ISO 1268, ªFiber reinforced plastics - Test
Materials and Applications, 1978, 1, 41±48. plates manufacturing methodsº (10 parts).
G. D. Sims and D. G. Gladman, Plastics and Rubber:
Materials and Applications, 1980, 3, 122±128. ISO 5725, ªAccuracy (trueness and preci-
G. D. Sims and D. G. Gladman, À Framework for sion) of measurement methods and resultsº.
Specifying the Fatigue Performance of Glass Fibre ISO 6603-2, ªDetermination of multi-axial
Appendix 47
impact behaviour by the instrumented puncture I interlaminar fracture toughness, GIc, of uni-
testº (2 parts). directional fiber reinforced polymer matrix
EN ISO 6721, ªPlastics. Determination of composites.º
dynamic mechanical propertiesº (10 parts). ISO 15 310, ªReinforced plastic - Determina-
EN ISO 7822, ªTextile glass reinforced plas- tion of in-plane shear modulus by the plate
tics. Determination of void content. Loss on twist methodº (1999).
ignition, mechanical disintegration and statisti- prEN 2833, ªGlass fiber thermosetting pre-
cal counting methods.º impregnates.
ISO 10 303, ªIndustrial automation systems prEN 13 121, ªGRP tanks and vessels for use
and integration. Product data representation above groundº (4 parts).
and exchangeº (multiple parts). prEN 13 677, ªReinforced plastic composites
ISO 10 350-1, ªPlastics-Acquisition and pre- - Specifications for GMTº (3 parts).
sentation of comparable single point data. Part EN 13 706, ªReinforced plastic composites -
1: Plastics.º Specifications for pultruded profilesº (3 parts).
ISO 10 350-2, ªPlastics-Acquisition and pre- ASTM D790, ªStandard test methods for
sentation of comparable single point data. Part flexural properties of unreinforced and rein-
2: Long fiber reinforced plastics.º forced plastics and electrical insulating materi-
EN ISO 11 357, ªPlastics. Differential scan- als.º
ning calorimetry (DSC)º (multiple parts). ASTM D 2344, ªStandards test method for
EN ISO 11 403, ªPlastics. Acquisition and apparent interlaminar shear strength of parallel
presentation of comparable multipoint fiber composites by short beam method.º
dataº(3 parts). ASTM D 3039, ªStandard test method for
ISO/DIS 13 003, ªFiber reinforced plastics: tensile properties of polymer matrix composite
Determination of fatigue properties under cyc- materials.º
lic conditions.º ASTM D 3410, ªStandard test method for
EN ISO 14 125, ªFiber-reinforced plastic compressive properties of polymer matrix com-
composites of the flexural properties.º posite materials with unsupported gage section
EN ISO 14 126, ªFiber-reinforced plastic by shear loading.º
composites - Determination of the in-plane ASTM D3479, ªStandard test method for
compression strength.º tension-tension fatigue of polymer matrix com-
ISO 14 127, ªComposites - Determination of posite materials.º
resin, fiber and void content for composites ASTM D 3518, ªIn-plane shear stress-strain
reinforced with carbon fiber.º response of unidirectional reinforced plastics.º
EN ISO 14 129, ªFiber-reinforced plastic ASTM D5528, ªStandard Test Method for
composites - Determination of the in-plane Mode I Interlaminar Fracture Toughness of
shear stress/shear strain, including the in- Unidirectional Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Ma-
plane shear modulus and strength, by the trix Composites.º
+458 tension test method.º ASTM D 5687, ªStandard guide for prepara-
EN ISO 14 130, Fiber-reinforced plastic com- tion of flat composite panels with processing
posites - Determination of apparent interlami- guidelines for specimen preparation.º
nar shear strength by short-beam method ASTM E691, ªStandard Practice for Con-
(1997). ducting an Interlaboratory Study to Determine
ISO 15 024, ªStandard test method for mode the Precision of a Test Method.º
Copyright # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. Comprehensive Composite Materials

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in any ISBN (set): 0-08 0429939
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic,
electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, Volume 2; (ISBN: 0-080437206); pp. 151±197
without permission in writing from the publishers.

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2.

2.05.5 COMPARISONS OF PROPERTIES FOR GRP MATERIALS 20

2.05.1 OVERVIEW the databases available, and the product design

Fiber Fiber length Composite Normal Typical

Milled 50.1 Molding compounds Injection molded Electrical

Table 3 Main classes of thermoset resins used for matrices.

Type Main characteristics and uses

Table 4 Main classes of thermoplastic resins used for matrices.

Type Main characteristics

Table 5 Main classes of fillers and additives used.

Table 6 Main classes of fiber surface treatments.

Type Main characteristics

Table 7 Main classes of prepared composite materials.

Material Constituents Comments

sections (e.g., rods or flats) are also of interest

2.05.3 CHARACTERIZATION AND

2.05.3.1 Material Anisotropy

Table 8 Properties and methods for initial characterization of GRPs.

Property Method Comments

Table 9 Standard test methods for property evaluation.

Standard number Title Similar ASTM standards

EN ISO 527-4 Tension ªisotropic materialsº ASTM D 3039

Figure 3 Micrographs detailing different reinforcement formats and volume fractions.

Table 11 Typical properties of a long discontinuous glass-fiber/nylon.

intended shear on the specimen neutral plane. 2.05.4.2.2 Properties

Table 12 Typical properties of a glass-fiber mat/polypropylene (GMT).

Table 13 Typical properties of a chopped-strand mat/polyester (CSM).

Table 14 Typical properties of a sheet molding compound.

Table 15 Typical properties of a glass-fiber/polyester pultruded profile.

Table 16 Typical properties of a filament wound/epoxy material.

required orientations prior to consolidation is equivalent to the weepage strain discussed

Table 17 Typical properties of a unidirectional glass-fiber/epoxy laminate.

Table 18 Typical properties of a unidirectional glass-fiber/polypropylene laminate.

2.05.4.8 Fabric Reinforced Laminates tropy of in-plane properties is particularly

Table 19 Typical properties of a glass-fiber fabric/epoxy laminate.

[ ] = assumed values based on material symmetry.

2.05.5.1 Introduction 2.05.5.1.2 Property prediction

2.05.5.1.1 Property ranges Even allowing for the improvement at the

Figure 4 Typical tensile strength for three main types of GRPs.

Figure 5 Typical Young's modulus for three main types of GRPs.

2.05.5.2.2 Shear modulus 2.05.5.2.3 Poisson's ratio

The damage occurring gives rise to a loss in

2.05.5.2.5 Shear strength

Figure 18 Typical shear strength values, GPa.

Table 20 Through-thickness tensile (T) and compressive (C) properties.

Material Mode E33 (GPa) n31 n32 s33 (MPa)

CSM T 6.3 0.25 (+0.05) 0.21 (+0.05) 9.1 (+2.0)

( ) standard deviation. [ ] = assumed values based on material symmetry assumptions.

Table 21 Through-thickness shear properties.

Material Gxz (GPa) Gyz (GPa) txz (MPa) tyz (MPa)

CSM 1.64 (+0.09) [1.64 (+0.09)] 40.7 (+1.7) [40.7 (+1.7)]

[ ] = assumed values based on material symmetry assumptions.

500 Test temperature (°C)

300 +23 –20

Percentage of UTS (%)

Figure 22 Creep rupture data for CSM in distilled water.

Figure 23 Glass transition temperature for a moisture conditioned polyester resin.

Figure 24 Transverse flexural properties of conditioned E-glass/epoxy laminate with temperature.

Figure 25 Longitudinal flexural properties of conditioned E-glass-fiber/epoxy laminate with temperature.

Figure 26 Transverse flexural properties of conditioned E-glass-fiber/epoxy and carbon/epoxy laminates at

Figure 27 Stress rupture of E-glass fibers in air and water.

Figure 28 Plot of ultimate tensile strength as a function of temperature.

(ii) Hydrolysis by hot water, aqueous alkalis, 2.05.5.8 Toughness Properties