CHAPTER 5

APPROXIMATE SOLUTIONS:
THE INTEGRAL METHOD

5.1 Introduction
x Seek approximate solution when:
x Exact solution is unavailable.
x Form of exact solution is not suitable or convenient.
x Solution requires numerical integration.
x The integral method gives approximate solutions.
5.2 Differential vs. Integral Formulation

x Example: boundary layer flow, Fig. 5.1.

x Differential formulation, Fig. 5.1a: the basic laws are formulated for a differential
element dx u dy.
x Solutions satisfy the basic laws exactly (at every point).
x Integral formulation, Fig. 5.1b: the basic laws are formulated for the element
dx u G .
x Solutions satisfy the basic laws in an average sense (for section G ).

5.3 Integral Method Approximation: Mathematical Simplification

x Reduction in the number of independent variables.
x Reduction of the order of the governing differential equation may result

5.4 Procedure
x Integral solutions are obtained for the velocity and temperature fields.
x The following procedure is used in obtaining integral solutions:
 2

(1) Integral formulation of the basic laws:

x Conservation of mass, momentum, and energy.
(2) Assumed velocity and temperature profiles:
x Several options. Polynomials are used in Cartesian coordinates.
x Assumed velocity and temperature profiles should satisfy known boundary
conditions
x Assumed profile contains an unknown parameter or variable.
(3) Determination of the unknown parameter or variable:
x Integral form of the basic law gives the unknown parameter or variable.

5.5 Accuracy of the Integral Method

x Different assumed profiles give different solutions and accuracy.
x Errors are acceptable in many engineering applications.
x Accuracy is not very sensitive to the form of an assumed profile.
x No procedure is available for identifying assumed profiles that will result in the most
accurate solutions.
5.6 Integral Formulation of the Basic Laws

5.6.1 Conservation of Mass

x Boundary layer flow over porous plate of

porosity P with mass injection.
x Conservation of mass for element G u dx ,
shown in Fig. 5.2 and enlarged in Fig. 5.3,
gives
dm x dme
dme dx  dmo (a)
dx
ª G ( x)
º G
d «
U u dy » dx  U v o Pdx
dme
dx «
¬«
³
0
»
¼»
(5.1) mx mx 
dmx
dx
dx

x dme is the external mass flow rate into

element. dmo

Fig. 5.3
5.6.2 Conservation of Momentum

x Application of the momentum theorem in the x-direction to the element G u dx

¦ Fx M x (out )  M x (in ) (a)

x Axial velocity u varies with x and y.

3

x Pressure p varies with x only (boundary layer approximation).

dp
(p ) dG Vf ( x)Gme
2
G d G dM x
pG pG  ( pG )dx Mx Mx  dx
dx dx
dx dx

W o (1  P)dx
(a) forces (b) x  momentum
Fig. 5.4
x M x = x-momentum, given by

G ( x)

Mx
³ 0
U u 2 dy (c)

x W o is wall shear, given by

wu  x,0 
Wo P (d)
wy
x Equation (a) gives
G ( x) G ( x)
dp wu  x,0  d d
G
dx
 P 1  P 
wy dx ³0
U u 2 dy  Vf x 
dx ³ U u dy  V
0
f x U Pv o (5.2)

NOTE:
(1) Equation (5.2) is the integral formulation of conservation of momentum.
(2) Equation (5.2) applies to laminar as well as turbulent flow.
(3) Although u is a function of x and y.
(4) Evaluating the integrals in (5.2) results in a first order ordinary differential equation with
x as the independent variable.
Special Cases:

(i) Case 1: Incompressible fluid

x Boundary layer approximation gives
dp dpf
| (4.12)
dx dx
x The x-momentum equation for boundary layer flow is
 4

wu wu 1 dp f w 2u
u v  ǎ 2 (4.5)
wx wy U wx wy
Applying equation (4.5) at y G
dp dp f dVf
|  U Vf ( x) (5.3)
dx dx dx
Substituting (5.3) into (5.2) and noting that U is constant
G ( x) G ( x)
dV wu  x,0  d d
G Vf ( x) f  ǎ 1  P 
dx wy dx ³ 0
u 2 dy  Vf  x 
dx ³ 0
u dy  Vf  x  Pvo (5.4)

(ii) Case 2: Incompressible fluid and impermeable flat plate

x For boundary layer flow over a flat plate
dVf dp dp f
| 0 (e)
dx dx dx
For an impermeable plate
vo 0, P 0 (f)
(e) and (f) into (5.4)
G x  G x
wu  x,0  d d
v
wy
Vf
dx ³ 0
udy 
dx ³
0
u 2 dy (5.5)

5.6.3 Conservation of Energy

x Application of conservation of energy to the dEe
element G t u dx , neglecting changes
in kinetic and potential energy, axial
conduction, and dissipation: Gt dE x
x Based on these assumptions, Ex Ex  dx
conservation of energy for the dx
element gives
dE x dx
dE c dx  dE e  dE o (a)
dx
dEc dEo
dEe = energy added by external mass
dE o = energy added by injected mass Fig. 5.6
E x = energy convected with boundary layer flow

x Formulating each term in (a)

wT  x,0
dEc  k (1  P) dx (b)
wy
5

G t ( x) º
d ª«
dE e c p Tf
dx «
¬
³ 0
U u dy » dx  c p Tf U vo Pdx
»
¼
(c)

dEo U c pTo vo Pdx (d)

Gt ( x)
Ex
³ U c uT dy
0
p (e)

Substituting (b)-(e) into (a)

G ( x) G ( x)
t t
wT  x,0  d d
 k 1  P 
wy dx ³
0
U c p uTdy  c p Tf
dx ³
0
U udy  U c p v o P To  Tf  (5.6)

NOTE:

x Equation (5.6) is integral formulation of conservation of mass and energy.

x Although u and T are functions of x and y, evaluation of the integrals gives a first
order ordinary differential equation with x as the independent variable.

Special Case: Constant properties and impermeable flat plate

x Setting P 1 in (5.6)
Gt ( x)
wT  x,0  d
D
wy dx ³
0
u (T  Tf )dy (5.7)

5.7 Integral Solutions

x Flow field solution.
x Temperature field solution.

5.7.1 Flow Field Solution: Uniform Flow over a

Semi-Infinite Plate
x Integral form of governing equation:
G x  G x

v wu x,0 d d
wy
Vf
dx ³0
udy 
dx ³0
u 2 dy (5.5)

x Assumed velocity profile

u ( x, y ) a 0 ( x)  a1 ( x) y  a 2 ( x) y 2  a3 ( x) y 3 (a)
x Boundary conditions
 6

(1) u ( x,0) 0
(2) u ( x, G ) | Vf
wu ( x, G )
(3) |0
wy
w 2 u ( x,0)
(4) 0
wy 2

NOTE: The fourth boundary condition is obtained by setting y = 0 in (2.10x)

x Boundary conditions give the four coefficients. Thus
3
u 3§ y· 1§ y·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ (5.9)
Vf 2 ©G ¹ 2 ©G ¹

x Note that the assumed velocity is in terms of the unknown variable G (x).
x Boundary layer thickness. Use (5.5) to determine G (x). Substituting (5.9) into (5.5)
3 39 2 dG
vVf 1 Vf (b)
2 G 280 dx

Separating variables, integrating and noting that G (0) 0

G x
140 v
³ 0
G dG
13 Vf ³0
dx

Evaluating the integrals and rearranging

G 280 / 13 4.64
(5.10)
x Re x Re x

x Friction coefficient. (5.10) into (5.9) gives u as a function of x and y. With the
velocity distribution determined, friction coefficient C f is obtained using (4.36) and
(4.37a)
wu
P x,0
Wo wy 3v
Cf
UVf2 /2 UVf2 / 2 Vf G  x 

Using (5.10) to eliminate G (x)

0.646
Cf (5.11)
Re x
x Compare with Blasius solution:
7

G 5.2
, Blasius solution (4.46)
x Re x
and
0.664
Cf , Blasius solution (4.48)
Re x

x Note the small error in prediction C f .

5.7.2 Temperature Solution and Nusselt

Number: Flow over a Semi-Infinite Plate

(i) Temperature Distribution

x A leading section of the plate of length xo
is insulated and the remaining part is at
uniform temperature Ts .
x Assume laminar, steady, two-dimensional,
constant properties boundary layer flow and
neglect axial conduction and dissipation.
x Determine G t , h(x), and Nu(x).
x Must determine flow field u ( x, y ) and temperature T(x,y).
x Flow field solution of Section 5.7.1 applies to this case, equation (5.9).
x Equation (5.7) gives the integral formulation of conservation of energy for this
problem
G t ( x)
wT  x,0  d
D
wy dx ³
0
u (T  Tf )dy (5.7

x Assumed temperature profile

T ( x, y ) b0 ( x)  b1 ( x) y  b2 ( x) y 2  b3 ( x) y 3 (a)

x Boundary conditions

(1) T ( x,0) Ts
(2) T ( x, G t ) | Tf
wT ( x, G t )
(3) |0
wy
w 2T ( x,0)
(4) 0
wy 2
 8

NOTE: The fourth condition is obtained by setting y 0 in the energy equation (2.19).
x Boundary conditions give the four coefficients. Thus
ª3 y 1 y3 º
T ( x, y ) Ts  (Tf  Ts ) «  » (5.13)
«¬ 2 G t 2 G t »¼
3

(5.9) and (5.13) into (5.7), evaluating the integral, gives

d ­° ª 3 § G ·2 3 § G t · º ½°
4
3 Tf  Ts t
D ®(Tf  Ts ) Vf G « ¨ ¸  ¨ ¸ »¾ (5.14)
2 Gt dx °̄ «¬ 20 © G ¹ 280 © G ¹ »¼ °
¿
x Simplification of (5.14). Note that
Gt
 1 , for Pr ! 1 (5.15)
G
It follows that
2
3 §Gt · 3 §Gt ·
¨ ¸  ¨ ¸
280 © G ¹ 20 © G ¹
(5.14) simplifies to
2
D d ª §Gt · º
10 Vf «G ¨ ¸ » (b)
Gt dx «¬ © G ¹ »¼
where
280 Q x
G (c)
13 Vf
Boundary condition
G t ( xo ) 0 (h)
Solution to (b)
1/ 3
Gt 4.528 ­°ª § x · 3 / 4 º ½°
o
®«1  ¨ ¸ » ¾ (5.17b)
x Pr 1/3 Re x 1/2 x
°̄«¬ © ¹ »¼ °¿

(ii) Nusselt Number. Local Nusselt number is defined as

hx
Nu x (j)
k
h is the local heat transfer coefficient given by
wT ( x,0)
k
wy
h (k)
Ts  Tf
Using (5.13) into (k)
3 k
h( x ) (5.19)
2 Gt
9

Eliminating G t by using (5.17b)

3 / 4 ½ 1 / 3
k ­° § x · °
h( x) 0.331 ®1  ¨ o ¸ ¾ Pr 1/3 Re x1/2 (5.20)
x °̄ © x ¹ °¿
Substituting into (j)
1 / 3
­° § x · 3 / 4 ½°
Nu x 0.331 ®1  ¨ o ¸ ¾ Pr 1/3 Re x1/2 (5.21)
°̄ © x ¹ °¿

(iii) Special Case: Plate with no Insulated Section

Set xo 0 in (5.17b), (5.20) and (5.21)
Gt 4.528
(5.23)
x Pr 1/3
Re x 1/2

k 1/2
h( x) 0.331 Pr 1/3 Re x (5.24)
x

1/2
Nu x 0.331Pr 1/3 Re x (5.25)

x Examine the accuracy of the local Nusselt number. For Pr ! 10 equation (4.72c)
gives Pohlhausen’s solution
Nu x 0.339 Pr 1 / 3 Re x , for Pr ! 10 (4.72c)

Comparing this result with integral solution (5.25) shows that the error is 2.4%.

Example 5.1: Laminar Boundary Layer Flow over a Flat Plate:

Uniform Surface Temperature
x This is a repeat of the Section 5.7.1 and 5.72, using assume linear velocity and
temperature profiles.
x A linear profile gives less accurate flow and heat transfer results.
x The procedure of the previous sections is repeated in this example.
x The following is a summary of the results.
x Assumed velocity
u a0  a1 y (b)

x Boundary conditions
(1) u ( x,0) 0
(2) u ( x, G ) | Vf

x Velocity solution
 10

y
u Vf (c)
G
x Integral solution to G
G 12
(5.26)
x Re x

x Assumed temperature
T b0  b1 y (f)
x Boundary conditions
(1) T ( x,0) Ts
(2) T ( x, G t ) | Tf

x Temperature solution
y
T Ts  (Tf  Ts ) (g)
Gt
x Integral solution to G t

12 ǎ
Gt
1
Pr 1/3
Vf
>
x 1  ( xo / x) 3 / 4 @
1/ 3
(o)

x Solution to local Nusselt number

 1/ 3
Nu x >
0.289 Pr 1/3 Re x 1  ( xo / x) 3 / 4 @ (5.27)

x Special Case: no insulated section, set xo 0 in (5.27) gives

Nu x 0.289 Pr 1/3 Re x (5.28)

Comments. Table 5.1 compares exact solutions for G / x and Nu x / Pr 1 / 3 Rex1/2 with integral
results for the case of a plate with no insulated section based on assumed linear and
polynomial profiles

x Note that the integral method gives more accurate prediction of Nusselt number than
of the boundary layer thickness G .

Table 5.1
G Nu x
Solution Re x
x Pr 1 / 3 Re1 / 2
Exact (Blasius/ Pohlhausen) 5.2 0.332
3rd degree polynomial 4.64 0.339
Linear 3.46 0.289
11

5.7.3 Uniform Surface Flux

x Plate with an insulted leading section of
length xo .

x Plate is heated with uniform flux q csc

along its surface x t xo .
x Steady, two-dimensional, laminar flow.
x Determine surface temperature and the local Nusselt number.
x Surface temperature is unknown.
Solution
x Newton’s law of cooling gives
q csc
h( x )
Ts ( x)  Tf

x Introducing the definition of the Nusselt number

q csc x
Nu x (b)
k >Ts ( x)  Tf @

x Need surface temperature Ts (x). Use the integral form of the energy equation to
determine Ts (x)
G t ( x)
wT  x,0 d
D
wy dx ³
0
u (T  Tf )dy (5.7)

x u ( x, y ) for a third degree polynomial is given by (5.9)

3
u 3§ y· 1§ y·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ (5.9)
Vf 2 ©G ¹ 2 ©G ¹

x Assume temperature T ( x, y )

T b0  b1 y  b2 y 2  b3 y 3 (c)
x Boundary conditions

wT  x,0 
(1)  k q csc
wy
(2) T  x, G t  | Tf
 12

wT x, G t 
(3) |0
wy

w 2T  x,0
(4) 0
wy 2
x Application of boundary conditions give the coefficients in (c)
ª2 1 y 3 º q csc
T ( x, y ) Tf  « G t  y  » (5.29)
«¬ 3 3 G t2 »¼ k

x Surface temperature. Set y 0 in the above

2 q csc
Ts ( x ) T ( x,0) Tf  Gt (5.30)
3 k
x (5.30) into (b)
3 x
Nu x (5.31)
2 G t x 
x Must determine G t .
x (5.9) and (5.29) into (5.7), evaluate the integral

d ­° 2 ª 1 G t 1 § G t · º ½°
3
D
G
® t «  ¨ ¸ »¾ (e)
Vf dx °̄ «10 G 140 © G ¹ » °
¬ ¼¿
x Simplify for Prandtl numbers larger than unity, G t / G  1

D d ª G t3 º
10 « »
Vf dx ¬« G ¼»

x Thermal boundary layer thickness. Integrating and use boundary condition

G t ( xo ) 0 , gives
1/ 3
ª D º
Gt «10 ( x  xo )G » (j)
¬ Vf ¼
x Use (5.10) to eliminate G in (j), rearrange
1/ 3
Gt 3.594 ª xo º
«1  x » (5.32)
x Pr 1/3 Re1/2
x ¬ ¼
x Surface temperature. (5.32) into (5.30) gives
1/ 3
q cc ª xo º x
Ts ( x) Tf  2.396 s «1  x » 1/3
(5.33)
k ¬ ¼ Pr Re1/2
x

x Local Nusselt number. (5.32) into (5.31) gives

13

1 / 3
ª x º
Nu x 0.417 «1  o » Pr 1/3 Re1/2
x (5.34)
¬ x¼

x Special Case: Plate with no insulated section, set xo 0 in (5.33) and (5.34)
q cc x
Ts ( x) Tf  2.396 s (5.35)
k Pr Re1/2
1/3
x

Nu x 0.417 Pr 1/3 Re1/2

x (5.36)
x Compare with differential formulation solution:
Nu x 0.453 Pr 1/3 Re1/2
x (5.37)