ECT 300 - Educational Technology - Elab Notes PDF

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ke
DRAFT
KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING
ECT 300
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
NDICHU GITAU
LORDVICUS W. OLANGA
DAVID OLUDHE
COLLINS O. OGOGO
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION

AND TECHNOLOGY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LESSON ONE 1
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 1
Overview ............................................................................................................................ 1
Assessment......................................................................................................................... 1
Educational Technology in Focus...................................................................................... 2
Activity 1.A........................................................................................................................ 6
Activity 1.B ........................................................................................................................ 7
Activity 1.C ........................................................................................................................ 8
Examples ............................................................................................................................ 9
Activity 1.D...................................................................................................................... 11
REFERENCES................................................................................................................. 13
LESS0N TWO 14
VISUAL LITERACY 14
LESSON THREE 20
SYSTEMATIC PLANNING FOR THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA.

20
LESSON FOUR 40
PRINT AND NON-PRINT MEDIA 40
LESSON FIVE 56
EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING 56
References ........................................................................................................................ 65
LESSON SIX ................................................................................................................... 66
COMMUNITY RESOURCES FOR LEARNING .......................................................... 66
LESSON SEVEN 71
TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONAL MEDIA 71
LESSON EIGHT 79
DISTANCE EDUCATION 79
Question 8.1 ..................................................................................................................... 80
Question 8.2 ..................................................................................................................... 81
Question 8.3 ..................................................................................................................... 82
Question 8. 4 .................................................................................................................... 84
Question 8.6 ..................................................................................................................... 86
Question 8.7 ..................................................................................................................... 86
Question 8.8 ..................................................................................................................... 88
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Question 8.9 ..................................................................................................................... 89

FURTHER READINGS................................................................................................... 89
LESSON NINE 90
MANAGEMENT OF LEARNING RESOURCES 90

ACTIVITY 9.B.................................................................................................................... 95
ACTIVITY 9.D ................................................................................................................... 98
ACTIVITY 9.E .................................................................................................................. 102
REFERENCES............................................................................................................... 103
Activity 12.C................................................................................................................... 109
Activity 12.D................................................................................................................... 110
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 111
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LESSON ONE
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
1.0 Introduction
This LESSON briefly discusses the process nature of communication and its
effects in learning. We are saying that the quality of classroom instruction is
directly related to the quality of the teacher’s communication with the learners.
The LESSON defines educational technology, looks at the application of that
technology from the point of view of putting more humanity in that use and
delineates the communication barriers in classroom situations. The LESSON
gives some research findings about learning and argues that the nonverbal
elements of classroom communication are more important than the verbal
elements.
Overview
One of the trends within education is learner-centred instruction. All too often
however, when learner-centred-instruction is applied to educational technology, it
is translated to mean leaner-machine-interaction. We want to make it clear that,
instead, we see relationships among three components in the teaching-learning
context: student-content-interaction, student-equipment-instructor-interaction and
student-student-equipment-interaction.
This course aims at imparting technological literacy on learners through all the
three components. We want to find ways and means of making explicit, different
pedagogic applications using equipment and resources to bring about effective
learning.
The course’s locus therefore is a mediated multichannel learning approach where

the available media are used creatively and interactively to connect with learners’
drive for knowledge and skills. We however wish to rationalize too, that this
course is about education not just technology. Hence, the application process is
emphasized through the use of both human and non-human resources to bring
about effective learning.
Simple but practical approaches towards the use of locally available resources for
instance, are included. The inclusion helps to open up various innovative
possibilities for teachers and students alike.
Since the design and use of resources are integral to teaching methodologies,
there are media practical tutorial sessions to serve as points of connection to
module content. Those tutorial sessions focus on planning, designing, selecting,
production and the techniques of utilizing technology-based audio-visual learning
formats.
Assessment
Activities, exercises, assignments and food for thought questions are provided
throughout this module in an attempt to make the learning process dialogical and
thought-provoking. New terms are explained and references given, the aim being
to make the module more user-friendly, and the learning more practical.

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Sample examination questions are provided at the end of the module to acquaint
the learner with the terrain that he/she should expect to encounter.
Educational Technology in Focus

Research has shown that we learn through our senses with each sense accounting
for a different percentage of that learning (Sampath et al., 1981:15). Through the
skillful use of audio-visual recordings and other instructional media, we can bring
the world to the classroom. We can make the past come alive either by
reconstructing it through the use of educational technology or by using dioramas,
models, objects, specimen and realia to stimulate experiences that are not readily
available for classroom instruction.
The use of educational technology in the teaching and learning process heightens
motivation to learn. Ideally then, learners should have available, combinations of
audiovisual experiences which reinforce one another so as to provide the most
efficient path for possible mastery of understanding and concepts.
1.1 Objectives
On completion of this LESSON, you should be about to:
• Define educational technology
• Define communication.
• Describe the notion of process as it relates to communication and
learning.
• Understand the conceptual foundations of technology-based learning.
• List three major categories of barriers to effective classroom communication.
• Differentiate between field and discipline.
• Enumerate five basic things we need to know about classroom
communication.
1.2 The Conceptual Foundation of Technology Based Learning

The perceptions of what constitutes educational technology have evolved over a
period of 50 years. This evolvement has resulted in some confusion as to what
educational technology is or stands for. To most people, the term at best implies
computers or computer-based learning (CBL). At worst, the term tends to put
them off precisely because of the pervasive ambiguity that surrounds its many
definitions. But for us, there is a need to keep good sense alive in this module.
Specifically, the term is often associated solely with the technical equipment and
media of education such as projections, televisions, films, tape-slide programmes,
audiocassette recorders and even computers. Other people take the view that
educational technology involves a systematic studio analysis of the entire
teaching and learning process whereby use of the machines is maximized almost
to the exclusion of teaching methodologies. Indeed, proponents of this latter
view have sometimes been accused of taking a ‘machine approach.’ A machine
approach in teaching has failed to lead to improved levels of educational quality
because it runs contrary to the tutorial principle that demands more humanity in
student-teacher relationship.
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Part of the reason for the machine approach is due to the fact that the bulk of
media research had been directed to investigating the nature of a single approach
or medium instead of establishing how various approaches and media could be
combined to create a multi-media learning environment. This single medium
approach has been the major cause of the confusion in perceptions.
Today, we can speak of two different perceptions of educational technology

(Percival and Ellington, 1988) namely;
i. Technology in education and

ii. Technology of education.
1.2.1 Technology in Education

Technology in education is one very important aspect of educational technology.
Indeed, in many developed countries, many of the universities’ and college based
Education Technology Departments evolved from LESSONs which were
previously called ‘audiovisual aids LESSONs’ (Percival and Ellington, 1988).
The argument then, for starting those departments was that by making
appropriate use of hardware along with suitable software, it was possible to
improve the efficiency or quality of learning in a given situation.
One of the earliest phases in the evolution of educational technology was

therefore the ‘hardware phase,’ in which a great deal of work was done in
developing effective instructional equipment. Let us nonetheless examine this
concept in more specific details. Technology in education:
• Embraces every possible means by which information can be presented.

• It concerns itself with the gadgetry of education and training such as:
− Television
− Language laboratories
− Various projected media such as audiovisual aids.
• Audiovisual aids themselves comprise two related but distinguishable
components namely;
− Hardware and
− Software
• Hardware are the actual equipment such as:
− Overhead projectors
− Slide projectors
− Opaque projectors
− Film projectors
− Video cassette recorders
− Computers, etc.
• Software are the various items used to accompany the hardware, examples
being:
− Transparencies
− Slides
− Audiotapes
− Films
− Video and audio cassette recordings
− Computer programmes, etc.
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Technology in education is sometimes referred to as the ‘machine approach.’

The machine approach occurs when the teacher first identifies an equipment and
then finds a suitable problem for it. Such an approach is
mechanistic/reductionistic in nature. It focuses on particular technologies and
ignores the educational processes or outcomes. The proper approach is one
where the teacher identifies the problem first and then looks for a suitable
equipment to solve that specific problem.
1.2.2 Technology of Education

As we have pointed out in 1.2.1 above, when hardware eventually became
generally available, it was found that there was a shortage of suitable software to
use with it. That situation necessitated a subsequent ‘software phase,’ in which
particular attention was paid to the development of suitable learning materials
and programmes, often based on the contemporary theories of learning and
perception.
The main thrust of educational technology hence changed from hardware to the
development of suitable software for use with the machines. That change
consequently led to a new and broader interpretation of educational technology as
the entire ‘technology of education’ rather than merely as the use of technology
in education. We can therefore say that, ‘technology of education:’
• Concerns itself with the intangible aspects of education for instance, the
techniques of teaching and learning rather than the hardware itself.
• Recognizes that the principal role of educational technology is to help
improve the overall efficiency of the teaching/learning process.
• Technology of Education was developed as a result of three realizations:
i. That there was much more in education than simply the use of machines
(technology in education).
ii. A mere use of machines in teaching and learning does not guarantee the
efficacy expected using resources.
iii. Teaching and learning could be improved by thinking more carefully about
all aspects of design, selection, and application of teaching strategies where a
change in one will impact on the whole either positively or negatively.
A ‘technology of education’ approach to educational technology thus involves a

systematic, scientific approach to a problem. The ideal position is to view
educational technology as technology of education.
Within this view, changes are not made to a system for their own sake, but for
good educational reasons that are generally based on research findings.
At the heart of technology of education therefore is the ‘systems approach’ where

a system is seen as a collection of interrelated parts that together constitute a
larger whole. These component parts, or elements of the system are intimately
linked with one another either directly or indirectly. And any change in one or
more elements may affect the overall performance of the whole system either
positively or negatively (Romiszowski, 1974).
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Technology in education on the other hand is one of the possible means to an

end. It emphasizes on the selection and designing appropriate hardware and
software to back up a particular strategy so as to achieve a given set of
educational aims or objectives.
1.3 Definitions of Educational Technology

We have so far looked at different perceptions of educational technology from
three viewpoints. These are: technology in education, technology of education,
and technology from the general systems approach. We now want to specifically
focus on some of the definitions of educational technology so that we can link
these definitions with the classroom discourse or classroom communication
between teacher and pupil.
(a) Definition One

• Educational technology is the development, application and evaluation of
systems, techniques and aids to improve the process of human learning.
Source: Council for Educational Technology for the United Kingdom (CET).
(b) Definition Two

• Educational technology is the application of scientific knowledge about
learning and the conditions of learning to improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of teaching and training.
In the absence of scientifically established principles, educational
technology implements techniques of empirical testing to improve learning
situations.
Source: National Centre for Programmed Learning UK.
(c) Definition Three

• Educational technology is a systematic way of designing, implementing and
evaluating the total process of teaching and learning in terms of specific
objectives, based on research in human learning and communication, and
employing a combination of human and non-human resources to bring about
more effective instruction.
Source: Commission of Instructional Technology USA.
Note:
Each of the three definitions above emphasizes the primary function of
educational technology as improving the efficiency of the process of
learning. But as we discussed earlier, the tutorial principle entails more of
the human element in classroom communication than the non-human
(technology) to bring about effective learning. In the next paragraphs then,
we want to pay special attention to the human element to see how the
quality of classroom teacher communication affects the quality of
instruction.
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Activity 1.A
Differentiate between technology in education and technology of education.

Find out which approach is more prevalent in the schools around your area.
What do you understand by the term the ‘machine approach?’
1.4 Communication in the Classroom

There are four major problems that have hindered our understanding of classroom
communication. According to Budd and Ruben (1979), these problems are:
(a) Its ubiquitousness. Being everywhere even in our own dreams, we find
that as such we cannot not communicate even if we tried not to.
(b) Lack of discipline. Communication is a field rather than a discipline.
Fields are less rigorous than disciplines and they also draw
knowledge/ideas from disciplines. The fact that communication draws
ideas from fields creates for us a problem of understanding because it has
no theories of its own. It borrows theories from fields and different fields
define communication differently.
(c) Familiarity. Communication is a very familiar term to most people.
Familiar terms like slogans tend to loose their vigour and vitality
whenever they are overused. For example, the meaning of the word
democracy depends on the person defining it. Communication is that
kind of a term.
(d) Approachable both operationally and Scientifically. Communication
can be approached either as an operational or as a scientific phenomenon
or both. That is, communication is not only something that can be
studied, it is something most of us do.
1.5 Things we need to know about classroom communication

i. Information is not communication. Information can be defined as that which
reduces uncertainty in the learners. When a teacher dictates notes, for
example to students he/she has only transferred information from his/her
notes to the students’ exercise books. In that sense, we cannot say with
certainty that he or she has communicated.
ii. Not all information is relevant or useful. In other words, the learner must be
able to make use of the information as intended.
iii. Communication is incomplete unless it is received and understood. The
implication of this in teaching and learning is that the learner must be able to
use the information passed on to him/her to:
− Do something with it;
− Perform a task after appropriate help from the teacher.
iv. We do not communicate meanings. Meanings are in us or are generated from
within each individual learner depending on the way he/she
understands/interprets the information passed on to him/her.
v. All classroom communication is verbal and nonverbal, situation dependent
and interdependent meaning what I do affects you and what you do affects
me. But neither of us determines the other’s behaviour or feelings.
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Interdependence does not mean linear causality. Therefore, my poor teaching

does not cause a specific response in you. I cannot for example, make you angry.
You choose to be angry on the basis of the things I have done to you. In the final
analysis, you have many options open to you.
1.6 Communication Defined

In this sub-section, we want to recognize the fact that there are many definitions
of communication. This is because every practitioner defines the term in a
manner that is appropriate to his/her discipline. The definition we have given
below is relevant to classroom teaching and learning.
Communication is a process through which we are constantly offering definitions
or images of ourselves and responding to definitions or images of the others
through a multiple of feedback mechanisms. That process is ongoing in the sense
that it has no beginning or end. We only arbitrarily assign those beginnings and
ends. That process is verbal and non-verbal, interpersonal unless intrapersonal,
irretrievable, irreversible, situational or situation specific and transactional.
The key word in our definition of communication is process. A process has no

tangible attributes in the sense that you cannot see it or feel it. Communication is
that kind of thing. Learning too, is a process and through that ongoing process,
the teacher is constantly defining himself or herself both verbally and non-
verbally in relation to the students.
Activity 1.B
• Approach your colleagues and request them to define

communication for you.
• Compare the differences in their definitions and explain why
there are variations.
• Why is the traditional concept of communication as the transfer
of ‘meaning’ untenable?
1.7 Verbal and Nonverbal Aspects of Human Communication

In offering definitions of others, we find that the non-verbal elements of teacher
communication are more important than the verbal elements because learning is
basically a visual activity.
Research has indeed shown that we learn through our senses with each sense
accounting for a different percentage of that learning as follows:
Taste accounts for 1%
Touch accounts for 1½%
Smell accounts for 3½%
Hearing accounts for 11%
Sight accounts for 83%.
The onus is therefore on the teacher to try and reduce those barriers so that
learning can take place.
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Note:
• In all statistics of this nature, there is always a margin of error of plus
or minus three percentage points.
• Nature does compensate those learners like the visually impaired and
physically challenged, who are not able to utilize all their senses.
• A mere utilization of the sense of sight will not automatically
guarantee one the attainment of the 83% learning efficiency because
every classroom communication situation has its own unique barriers
otherwise referred to as noise.
Activity 1.C
Discuss the notion of process as it applies to classroom communication.

What are the implications of viewing classroom communication as a
process of offering definitions of selves and responding to definitions of
others?
1.8 Barriers to Effective Classroom Communication

In dealing with communication barriers, the first thing is to recognize that
communication does not occur in a vacuum, rather, it always takes place within a
context or situation. Moreover, each situation comes with its own unique barriers
which affect the quality of the communication transaction.
We generally speak of three broad categories of barriers which affect both verbal
and nonverbal communication.
(a) Physiological Barriers. These include all kinds of illnesses such as

headache, toothache, heartburn, hunger pangs, etc.
• Since these illnesses are confined in the learners, the teacher is limited
in the extent to which he/she can control them.
• It is nevertheless important for the teacher to recognize that those
barriers exist in any classroom and that they do affect teaching and
learning.
(b) Physical Barriers. Physical barriers are influential non-verbal cues and
they are of two types, namely:
• Those that use mostly teacher created such as physique or body
appearance, teacher’s general attractiveness and even body odours. We
may also add to this list fatigue and stress which may be in either the
teacher or his/her pupils.
• The second kind of physical barriers are those that are environmentally
determined such as:
− Furniture (desks) arrangement.
− Lighting in the room
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− Lack of ventilation or stuffiness in the room.

− External noises.
It is the responsibility of every teacher to try and eliminate any physical
barrier that may emanate from him/her or the classroom environment.
(c) Psychological Barriers. The psychological characteristics of a situation

exist in the mind of the teacher or pupil and can be controlled because they
are external to the learning situation. Some examples are attitudes,
anxieties, mental anguish, strong opinions of any land, prejudices, etc.
Like physiological barriers, psychological barriers too, are mostly confined inside
the teacher or learners. Unless they are spoken or written they remain primarily
nonverbal in nature.
The important thing for the teacher to do is to be aware that psychological

barriers exist and can affect teaching and learning if not alleviated. Being aware
means more than knowing what is around us. It means being aware of our own
awareness:
• Being able to question the consequences of our own choices.
• Being reflective.
• Being able to empathize with the learners and
• Being an active listener.
• Active or emphatic listening is motivational in nature. A teacher should
motivate learners by giving them positive reinforcements.
• Teacher reinforcements can be verbal, nonverbal, positive and negative.
1.8 Types of Teacher Reinforcements

One basic assumption in writing this LESSON is that the quality of each student’s
learning is directly linked to the quality of the communication he or she
experiences. If in the process of teaching and learning a learner is constantly
bombarded with disparaging remarks from the teachers, the net effect will be
reflected in his/her poor performance. The reverse is also true that teachers’
encouraging comments are related to learners’ improved performance. Powell in
Stewart (l982:7) puts the same idea in simpler terms.
What I am, at any given moment in the process of my
becoming a person, will be determined by my relationships
with those who love me or refuse to love me, with those I
love or refuse to love.
Our thesis here is that the things we do and say to one another affect people’s lives
either positively or negatively. Let us then look at the four types of reinforcements
mentioned above.
(a) Positive Verbal Reinforcements. These include statements a teacher

makes to the learner that serve to reinforce the later positively.
Examples
− Good, very good
− Right, great
− Good trial/attempt
− Excellent
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− That is correct
− Well done, etc.
(b) Positive Nonverbal Reinforcement. Since these are nonverbal, they are
not verbalized, rather, they are made through body language or kinesic
behaviour.
− Nodding affirmatively
− Smiling
− Eye contact
− Writing the learner’s answer on the board
− Moving closer to the learner
− Giving positive hand gestures, etc.
(c) Negative Verbal Reinforcements. These come about when we

disconfirm others. Disconfirmation means communicating as if the other
person does not exist. There are two ways through which we disconfirm
others namely;
• By being impervious. Imperviousness in communication means

speaking for the other person. It comes when we assume that we know
what the leaner is thinking or feeling. Imperviousness also comes with
some accompanying statements like:
− You are disappointing;
− Where were you when I taught this?
− You are wasting your parents money.
• By Disqualification. This is responding in a manner that is totally
irrelevant to the other’s prior utterance. It is refusing to respond or
acknowledge the learner’s statement. Once a teacher disqualifies a
learner through this behaviour he/she is denying the legitimacy of the
learner’s contribution to the learning process. He/she is in a sense
communicating rejection.
(d) Negative Nonverbal Reinforcements. This is the situation where a

teacher refuses to audibly express his/her feelings but does it nonverbally
albeit negatively. It includes behaviours like:
− Deliberate lack of eye contact.
− Grimacing of the face (frowning).
− Silence or failure to reinforce.
− Ignoring the learner’s contribution in class.
1.10 Consequences of Negative Reinforcements

The fundamental fact of classroom discourse is that something is continually
happening between teacher and learners. The reason is because human beings as
such cannot not communicate (Stewart, J & B. Angelo, G., 1980). We are
constantly interpreting the behaviours of others towards us. Hence, the
perceptions learners forming of their teachers affect them either positively or
negatively.
One basic assumption then about teacher-learner interaction is that the quality of
learning is linked to the quality of the communication. This assumption underlies
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everything we have said in this LESSON about the process nature of

communication and its effect in learning. When a teacher constantly discourages
his/her learners through negative reinforcements the consequences are that he/she
creates:
− non-listeners.
− the impatient types.
− the negative personalities.
− the know-it-all types of learners.
1.11 Suggestion for an Effective Teacher/Communicator

(a) Listen to confirm.
− Both verbally and non-verbally by saying I may not agree or accept your
point of view, but I care about what you are saying – I care about your
learning.
(b) Listen to understand.

− The key characteristic of listening to understand is that it is primarily
verbal. As a teacher you must verbalize your positive
feelings/reinforcements.
(c) Listen to diminish defensiveness.

− Defensiveness occurs when a teacher perceives threat.
− Such a teacher therefore listens not to understand but to prepare
himself/herself to tear down the learner’s argument – to belittle the
learner.
Activity 1.D
Conduct a classroom observation of a colleague in your school for one working

day. Make a minute-by-minute account of what he or she does. By the end of
the day, group the types of communication barriers you observed if any.
• How many of those barriers were teacher-created that is, psychological, how
many were contextual (environmentally determined) and how many were
physiological in nature?
• Pay special attention to teacher’s kinesic behaviour (body language). How
much did it seem to reinforce the message either positively or negatively?
• Was there any evidence of a multisensory approach to teaching and learning
in this class?
1.12 Summary
In this LESSON, you have learnt a new definition of communication which
relates specifically to teaching and learning. You have been introduced to the
process nature of communication and helped to delineate barriers to effective
classroom communication. The conceptual foundations of technology-based
learning is highlighted and a distinction made between technology in education
and technology of education.
We have argued that although ‘technology of education’ involves a systematic

and scientific approach, the tutorial principle that advocates more humanity in the
use of technology be emphasized as a means of bringing about effective learning.
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This is unlike in the mechanistic and reductionistic approach found in technology

in education whereby the use of machines is maximized to the exclusion of other
methodologies.
Communication is revisited and the problems that have prevented our

understanding of the process enumerated. More significantly, we have said that
all classroom communication is verbal, nonverbal, situation-dependent and
interdependent-meaning that what a teacher does or says affects learning but
neither the behaviour of the teacher nor that of the learner cause the others
behaviour or feelings.
After examining the barriers to effective classroom communication, you realize

that it is not what we say to our learners that matters but how we say it
(paralanguage). Finally, we posit that the nonverbal elements of classroom
communication are more important than the verbal elements because we learn
through our senses with the sense of sight accounting for the highest percentage
of that learning.
1.13 Definition of Terms

Computer-Based Learning (CBL). A term used to embrace all the present
forms of educational computing.
Diorama. A static display employing a flat background and three-dimensional
foreground to achieve a lifelike affect.
Hardware. The physical equipment that makes up any audiovisual or computer
system.
Kinesic or Kinesic Bahaviour. Body motion which typically includes gestures,
movements of the body parts namely; limbs, hands, head, feet and
legs, facial expressions (smiles), eye behaviour and posture.
Machine Approach. A situation in teaching and learning where a teacher
identifies an equipment first and then finds a suitable problem for it
instead of letting the lesson objectives dictate the type of machines to
be used. In the machine approach, the gadgets only serve as marginal
aids to teaching – something peripheral or on the borderline of
teaching.
Mechanistic. A way of looking at issues or processes from a mechanically
determined perspective whereby we isolate issues into their
constituent parts for the sake of analysis.
Mediated Learning. Learning where a technical instrument is utilized for
message transmission.
Paralanguage. Paralanguage deals with how something was said rather than what
was said.
Reductionism. A view that all living things must be seen in terms of interacting
wholes that cannot be reduced to their constituent parts for the
purposes of analysis. Under this view, one looks at issues holistically
rather than isolating parts.
Software. Control instructions such as computer programmes and audiovisual
materials plus accompanying documentation stored in diskette or tape
cassette recordings. It also includes slides and transparencies when
written on.
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Ubiquitousness. Existing or being everywhere at the same time: constantly

encountered.
REFERENCES
Bertalanffy, Von Ludwig (1995). 12th Ed. General System Theory. George Braziller.
New York.
Budd, R.W., and B.D. Ruben (1979). Interdisciplinary Approaches to Human

Communication. Hayden Book Co., Inc. Rochelle Park, New Jersey.
Commission on Instructional Technology, U.S.A
Council For Educational Technology for the United Kingdom (CET).
National Centre for Programmed Learning UK.
Percival, F., and Ellington (1988). A Handbook of Educational Technology 2nd Ed.
Kogan Page, London/Nichols Publishing Co., New York.
Romiszowski, A.J. (1974). The Selection and use of Instructional Media: A Systems
Approach. Kogan Page, London.
Sampath, K., A. Pannirselvan and S. Sauthanam (1981). Introduction to Educational

Technology. New Delhi, Sterling.
Stewart, J. (1982). Brigdes Not Walls. Addison, Wesley Publishing Co., Reading,
Massachusetts.
Stewart, J. and Gary D’Angelo (1980). Together, Communicating Interpersonally.

Addison -Wesley Publishing Co., Reading Massachusetts.
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LESS0N TWO
VISUAL LITERACY
2.0.Introduction
When we think of literacy, the ability to read and write words quickly comes to mind.
There are, however, other forms of literacy besides reading and writing words. For
instance, the term computer literacy has become a catchword in recent years. Another
form of literacy is visual literacy. In this lesson, we shall concern ourselves with visual
literacy.
2.1 Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

Explain the significance of visual literacy in everyday life and in the learning
process.
Identify the skills of visual literacy
Suggest methods by which the skills of visual literacy can be developed.
Distinguish between the kinds of pictorial formats that people prefer to look at and
those that are more effective for communication and learning
Make correct selection between visuals preferred by learners and visuals that are
more effective for learning based on specific classroom situations
2.2. The Concept of Visual Literacy and its Relevance to Everyday life and
Learning
Interest in the concept of visual literacy is fairly recent. Interest in this area only
came into prominence in the mid-1960s when it became apparent that specific skills were
required for one to be able to “read” and “write” visual messages in much the same way
that specific skills are usually required to read and write words. Like the skills of reading
and writing words, it was recognized that the skills of visual literacy did not evolve
naturally as a consequence of maturation; they were acquired through some kind of
exposure like even direct teaching. It is with this in mind that experts in education have
since advocated the need to purposely attend to the development of the skills of visual
literacy.
Why should we bother to develop visual literacy? One reason is that visual
messages of all kinds confront us every day; thus the skills of visual literacy have
become indispensable to every-day life. Examples of visual messages we are likely to
encounter in our day-to-day lives include pictures in books, newspapers and magazines;
adverts in the print and electronic media; directions on how to use a variety of products
ranging from chemicals to machinery and tools.
Increasingly, there is a worldwide trend towards the use of visuals or pictorial

communication. This is because visuals are a form of Esperanto. In other words, they are
a universal language, likely to be understood by all throughout the world.
But why is worldwide communication important? In a world of free-flow of ideas,

products and people- a universally understood medium of communication is necessary.
So far, no spoken or written language or any other means of communication exists that is
as efficient, universal and direct as visuals.
Some of the information often communicated visually bear to our safety; for example,
the ability to “read” (interpret the meaning of) the various colours of the traffic lights.
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Another kind of information usually presented visually and one that relates to our safety
is direction on how to use a wide variety of products ranging from pesticides, machinery
and tools. In each of these cases inability to “read” the visual messages can well mean
risk to limb or life.
Besides everyday living, visual literacy is also important from an instructional viewpoint.
First, a large number of instructional media such as graphic materials, films and slides
have a visual component. They make use of the sense of sight. Second, research on
learning invariably reveals that the sense of sight is indispensable to learning. This
sensory channel contributes overwhelmingly to learning, much more than any other
sense. It is essential, therefore, that the sense of sight should be engaged if effective
learning is to be realized.
Note
In light of the importance of visual literacy in everyday life and in the learning process,
it is the responsibility of schools to ensure that learners do not leave school visually
illiterate.
2.3 How Visuals Convey Meaning
Visuals communicate meaning more readily than the written and spoken word.
This is because visuals are much more concrete and direct. Words whether written or
spoken are arbitrary symbols; they usually neither look like nor sound like the objects or
things that they represent. Visuals, on the other hand, resemble things or objects and are
thus able to communicate information much more directly.
Although visuals are suited for communication, not all visuals will communicate
information to the same degree. Different visuals present different degrees or levels of
efficacy in as far as communication is concerned. One of the major determinants of
efficacy in communication is the degree of realism presented in visuals; in other words
the extent to which a visual resembles the thing or object it represents.
It is conceivable that visuals could be arranged on a continuum according to their degree

of realism. On one extreme we would have the highly realistic visuals; and on the other,
the very abstract visuals. In-between the two extremes there would be a lot of shades of
realism. The crucial question, then, is: what degree of realism is likely to be the most
efficient communication-wise? To most people, the highly realistic visual is likely
to be thought of as the most efficient with the argument being its close resemblance to
the object or event it represents. Further, its level of detail would be seen as likely to
make interpretation much easier. Despite this, however, research seems to contradict this
view. Research shows that under certain circumstances, realism can in fact interfere with
communication and the learning. For example, the ability to sort out relevant from
irrelevant details in a visual depends on age and experience. Thus, a wealth of detail may
distract rather than enhance communication and learning. Too little detail (abstraction)
may also be disadvantageous to communication and learning; it is difficult to understand
a visual that presents too little content.
But these observations cannot be applied wholesale. The right degree of realism in a
particular lesson will depend on factors peculiar to lesson contexts. Three (3) major
factors affect the right degree of realism for instructional purposes. These are:
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The age and level of the learners. Clearly, age and experience determines a learner’s
ability to discriminate between relevant and irrelevant details. A young learner may
be overwhelmed by too much detail making “reading” of a visual difficult.
The purpose of the lesson. If say the objective of a lesson were that the learner is to
discriminate relevant from irrelevant information, then, the visual presented for study
would have to be very realistic (contain a wealth of detail).
Learners’ picture preferences. The interest of learners cannot be ignored if

successful learning is to be achieved. This is because learners’ interests always relate
to issues of motivation. In this regard, then, a teacher planning to use a visual needs
to take into account what is likely to appeal to learners’ interests.
All in all, however, the most effective visual is usually that which presents
moderate degree of realism. Not too much or too little detail, something in-between.
The graph below illustrates the relationship between amount of learning and the
degree of realism presented in a visual. From the graph it is evident that the greatest
amount of learning will be achieved when a visual presents moderate realism.
Activity II A
Examine the graph below and comment on phenomenon happening in the points
labelled: A, B, and C. In what ways does event in position A differ from that in
position C?
B
AMOUNT OF LEARNING
High
C
A
Low
Very Highly
Abstract Realistic
DEGREE OF REALISM
2.4. The Skills of Visual Literacy

To become visually literate, one must be able:
1. to “read” visuals and,
2. to create visuals.
The ability to “read” visuals is usually referred to as the decoding skill. To decode a
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visual, one must be able to accurately “read” visuals; in other words, to translate visual
messages into verbal messages. The second ability is usually referred to as the encoding
skill. To encode visuals, one must be able to create visuals as a tool for communicating
effectively with others.
The development of the two skills, decoding and encoding skills, requires
practice over a long period of time using the right tools and in the right environment.
These conditions must prevail where mastery of any kind of skill is required. Take for
example the skill of riding a bicycle; here, the learner must practise (as opposed to
listening to a lecture or explanation) with the right tool (a bicycle) in the right
environment (a flat terrain).
Each and every subject in the school curriculum can contribute towards the development
of the two visual literacy skills. Indeed, the skills are usually developed inadvertently. By
being aware of his/her contribution towards the development of such an important
ability, a teacher will be better able to make a better job of the task. Here below are
insights into how the skills can be developed in various subject areas.
To develop the decoding skill, learners need ample opportunities to examine and study
visuals. But seeing visuals does not always guarantee understanding it or learning from
it. To this end, therefore, a teacher must ask probing questions to find out what the
learner is seeing. This will ensure that the learner is properly studying and interpreting
the visual. The learner should subsequently get into the habit of looking at visuals more
intensely and learning to interpret visuals appropriately. Examples of learners’ tasks that
can lead towards developing the ability to decode visual include: examining, study or
analyzing diagrams, drawings, photographs, maps, charts, graphs, and so on.How one
decodes is, however, affected by two major factors. One is the age and level of the
learners and the other is the learner’s cultural background. As regards age and level, it
should be noted that young children particularly of age six and below tend to decode
visuals section by section; whereas, older learners and adults are able to see a visual as a
whole, summarize it and give a conclusion about its meaning. People who have little or
no exposure to visuals (whether they are adults or not) will generally interpret visuals the
way young children do.
Culture, on the other hand, provides a screen against which visuals are
interpreted. Take, for instance, the quality- colour. Different cultural groups attach
different meanings to different colours. Thus, when a picture is dominated by a particular
colour, this may affect the way a person interprets the picture. A colour, say black may
elicit different emotions depending on one’s cultural background. To Westerners, the
colour is usually associated with negative emotions such as death; but to an African,
black being a strong colour may elicit positive emotions such as strength, power and
success. Thus, two persons from different cultural backgrounds may actually be reading
slightly different things from a picture presented to them.
Finally, the best way to develop the encoding skill is to encourage
learners to present their ideas visually. This can be done by providing for activities such
as observational drawing, making of maps, charts, graphs, among others.
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Activity II B
Take a topic from one of your teaching subjects and list as many learning activities
as you can that could lead to the development of each of the skills of visual literacy.
2.5. Pictures Preferred by Learners and Their Effectiveness

From the outset, it must be emphasized that the kinds of pictures or visuals people prefer
are not necessarily those from which they learn most. Whereas it is important that a
teacher tries to incorporate in his teaching the interests of his learners, s/he needs to also
consider that which is effective. If it so happens that the visual selected is that which will
appeal to learners and at the same time prove to be effective for learning then this should
be perfect. However, in some instances a teacher will need to either strike a balance or
choose one or the other. A good teacher will always strive to make the best judgment that
suits his/her circumstance.
Why do we need to consider the learner’s interest? The preference or interest of learners
relates to issues of motivation. When motivation is lacking, then we should not expect
any meaningful learning to take place.
2.5.1 Guidelines to Preferred Visuals and Effective Visuals

Research findings reveal the following points in respect to preferred visuals on
one hand and effective visuals on the other. We, here, below examine the following
pictorial qualities of visuals in respect to learner preference and effectiveness:
Coloured and black and white visuals
Most people prefer coloured visuals over black and white. However, studies
show that there is no significant difference between these visuals in as far as
learning and communication are concerned; except where colour is an important
part of what is to be learnt.
Photographs and drawings
Whereas most learners prefer photographs, in many situations drawings are more
effective. This is because drawings tend to emphasize important details.
Highly realistic and very abstract representations

Although most people prefer very realistic (detailed) visuals as opposed to
abstract representations, moderation tends to be the guideline for instructional
purposes and communication.
Simple and complex illustrations
Young children prefer simple visuals, older children, and adults- complex
visuals. Nevertheless, simple visuals are more effective irrespective of age.
2.5.2 Questions
What kinds of visuals and pictorial qualities do your learners prefer to look at?
Are these visual /pictorial qualities the most effective for learning purposes? Why? Explain
your response to the question above.
2.6. Summary
Visual literacy is the ability to create and accurately interpret visual messages. It
involves two skills- the encoding and the decoding skills. Visual literacy skills are
important in everyday living as well as in instruction and learning; accordingly, it is
essential for teachers and schools to pay deliberate attention towards the development of
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the ability. In this lesson qualities that make visuals ideal for communication and learning
are highlighted; the skills of visual literacy and strategies for developing the skills are
delineated; factors affecting how people decode are discussed; and the visual qualities
preferred by learners as well as the efficacy-level of the qualities are detailed.
2.7. Definition of Key Terms
Visual literacy The ability to create and accurately interpret visual

messages.
The decoding skill The ability to “read” visuals; in other words, to translate
visuals into verbal; messages.
The encoding skill The ability to create visuals as a means for communicating
effectively with others.
2.8.Further Reading
Brown, W.J. AV Instruction: Media and Methods. McGraw-Hill Bk. Co., 1973.
Erant, M.(Ed), The International Encyclopedia of Educational Technology.
Pergamon Press, 1989.
Unwin, D. and Rav McAleese (Eds). The Encyclopedia of Educational Media
Communications & Technology. The MacMillian Press Ltd., 1978.
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LESSON THREE
SYSTEMATIC PLANNING FOR THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA.
3.0 Introduction
The ASSURE Model analyzes the learner's general characteristics, their
specific entry competencies, learning styles, stating the objectives, selecting
media and materials utilizing media and materials, require learner's participation,
and evaluation and revise all that you have done with the learners. Much later in
this model, we are going to go through all these steps one by one to cover the
different aspects of the model. The model has been stated in a systematic manner
to help you learn in a systematic and more coherent manner. But since the
ASSURE model is covered within the ambit of instructional technology, you are
obliged to know as part of your training the meaning of the term instructional
technology, and its concepts thereof. We are therefore going to start by stating
what you are going to cover as part of your learning objectives.
3.1 Instructional Objectives
By the end of this LESSON, the learner should be able to:
Define the term Instructional Technology
Define the concept of Instructional Technology
Define the term media
Apply media and technology as dynamic learning processes.
Identify different general uses of media.
Identify some flaws and confusions in the application and use of
media technology
Suggest different ways of avoiding such flaws and confusions.
Identify some of the most common teaching media commonly
being used in our classrooms today.
Describe six procedures (steps) in systematic planning for the use
of media. (The ASSURE MODEL).
State the criterion for the selection of the most appropriate media
Identify at least three characteristics necessary for media
selection procedures.
3.1.1 Definitions of Instructional Technology
The term technology is a systematic application of scientific or other organized
knowledge to practical tasks. Instructional technology may be defined as the
application of our scientific knowledge about human learning to the practical
tasks of teaching and learning. It is a systematic arrangement of teaching and
learning events designed to put our knowledge of learning into practice in a
predictable and effective manner to attain specific learning objectives.
Instructional technology also involves the learners' application of different
learning styles. Learning style is a cluster of psychological traits that determine
how the individual learner perceives, interacts with and responds emotionally to
learning environments. They are also fixed patterns for viewing the world
(Bonham, 1988). The main purpose of learning style is to select information to
which the learner will organize, attend, and integrate what is to be learned in a
meaningful manner. Learning styles also control and effectively moderate the
learners' different aspects of personalities. The styles also enable the learners to
adapt to different situational constraints as imposed by the different learning
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tasks. Hence, instructional technology is the process by which instructional

problems are analysed and solutions sought through the application of
knowledge about learning, with the help of the learners and the use of media
resources.
Instructional technology is just but what it sounds like using computers, CD-
ROMs, interactive media, modems, satellites, teleconferencing, and other
technological means to support learning. Some educators believe the use of
interactive, computer-based technology is crucial to improving classroom
learning. These educators contend that advanced technology will fundamentally
change the learning process and structure. Other educators believe technology is
merely a tool that has minimal impact on the quality of learning.
3.1.2 Effects of Instructional Technology On Human Learning
Instructional technology may affect human learning in several ways. These are
through:
Curriculum
Instruction and
Assessment
3.1.3 Curriculum: Advanced technology has the potential to significantly expand the
breadth and depth of the curriculum. With the Internet for example, students can
access information far beyond the scope of their traditional textbooks. Curricula
can be individualized and adapted to students' specific learning styles.
Instructional technology therefore has the power to enhance overall knowledge
accumulation, instead of just focusing on content mastery.
3.1.4 Instruction: Advance technology could significantly affect the role of teachers,
as well as the structure of schools and classrooms. The use of instructional
technology also changes the teacher's role from an expert to a facilitator or
coach. For example, students can take courses from a global satellite feed or on
the Internet (the example of AVU at Kenyatta University). In this way, learning
can take place either at home, at place of work, or anywhere else that has the
capacity for a television, a telephone, or a computer i.e. distance or open
learning centers.
3.1.5 Assessment. Instructional technology focuses more and more on building

feedback loops directly into the learning process. Students can obtain frequent
and accurate feedback. They can also make corrections of their work on their
own and structure learning experiences around their individual needs. Offsite
instructors can monitor assessment, or it can be on going and cumulative.
Question
How does instructional technology affect learning?
3.1.6 Procedures of Instructional Technology

The procedures of instructional technology often result in the creation of new
instructional products or strategies. One major goal of the procedures is to
improve instruction by increasing effectiveness and efficiency through learning.
Since the application of instructional technology very often results in the creation
and use of media or both, all educators should have the knowledge and skills
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necessary to use it as a means of solving instructional problems. Some educators

known as media specialists do this on a full-time basis. It is therefore within the
dockets of a teacher to apply the principles of media and instructional technology
to meet their instructional needs whether in the schoolroom, private industries,
non-profit organizations, or in the universities.
3.1.7 The Concepts of Instructional Technology

The concept of instructional technology stresses the use and application of
instructional media in the teaching learning process. The concept relates how
media and technology interacts with human learning with respect to the following
areas:
Planning
Selecting.
Designing
Using and
Evaluating all types of media with respect to human learning.
The concept not only explains how each media can be applied in human learning,
but also describes the medium's inherent capabilities. The concept therefore,
assumes that whoever is dealing with the learner in the school, as a teacher must
have had a few teaching skills before getting a chance to go to the classroom.
Going to the classroom means that the teacher must have the ability to interact,
speak, and talk to the students. This is because:
• A great deal of instruction is based on talking.
• The interaction between the teacher and the student is often the main element
that binds them together with other components of teaching.
• The way in which the teacher presents verbal information provides the
foundation for other instructional events to take place during the lesson.
• Quite a great deal of teaching is done with the help of two media i.e. (the
teacher's voice and the chalkboard). Hence, these two media of
communication provide a starting point for any instructional strategy.
However, teaching by talking involves styles that require little activity on the part
of the student. Moving a way teaching and learning out of the realm of a
spectacular spot and into the arena of active involvement is the subject covered
within the perimeters of instructional technology.
3.2 MEDIA
3.2.1 General Uses of Media
Media can be used in many different settings for different purposes. Obtaining
abundant resources for improving human performance and promoting learning
requires the following:
A broad knowledge of different media.
Abroad knowledge of different methods for designing instructions and
A broad knowledge of factors affecting learning and media use.
However, the three general uses of media are:
For entertainment
For information and
For Instruction.
3.2.2 Media for Entertainment
This includes the use of media for recreation and enjoyment. Entertainment
media include fictional stories, and radio broadcasts of music, and movies which
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are typically shown in motion picture theatres and comedies, dramas, and
sporting events on televisions.
3.2.3 Media for Information
This is another common use of media. Through information, media increases the
level of awareness and present facts necessary for the user/consumer. Examples
in this categories are newspapers, news magazines, and their accounts on currents
events that takes place and eventually affects human balance with his natural
environment. Other print media give spellings and stock market analyses, news
broadcasts and documentaries on both radios and TVs. Computerized data bases
for information retrieval and advertisements in all media are included in this
category. Human learning at these levels are largely incidental and are not
necessarily the main intention of the senders or the receivers of information.
3.2.4 Media for Instruction
This is the third use of media. Whenever media are used for this purpose, usually,
programmes are designed intentionally to take the viewer and the listener from
the state of not knowing to one of knowing. It also takes the user or learner from
the state of poor performance to a state of competence.
3.2.5 Examples of Teaching Media Commonly Used in our Classrooms today
Blackboard, graphics, chalks, chalkboards, and text books. Yet, quite steadily,
there has been increased use of other sophisticated media technologies in our
classrooms today that we cannot enumerate all of them here. Some of these
media include.
Motion pictures, slides and slide projectors, film strips, records and
audiotapes still picture cameras and computers both hardware and software
gadgets.
The use of computers and TVs in our classrooms today increases day by day. At
the same time, the appearances of other new media technologies like videodiscs
and Liquefied Crystal Discs (LCD) have typically revolutionized our classrooms
and conferences today. The education system today is a welcome of innovations
in the education sector. Media which was originally intended as an entertainment
or information device can now be used as an instructional device with some few
adaptations and moderation where necessary. Such uses require some
adaptations, extra guidance, careful selection, planning, preparations, analyses,
utilization, learners' participation, and proper evaluation before it is put into
practice. Teachers of Literature or drama may require showing short cartoon
films or excerpts from motion pictures to illustrate a lesson on humour. Hence,
the effectiveness of the lesson will automatically depend on the teacher's careful
structuring of the most appropriate examples and class discussions to give a well-
intended output. Incorporating newspapers or reference books into lessons can
help to teach reading skills and improve language status of the learners. Such
media that the teacher incorporates with learning activities may enhance media
technology into mechanisms of learning.
3.2.6 Some Flaws/Confusions in the Application and Use of Media Technology
The adaptation of media, which is originally intended for a particular purpose, is
a good sign of practice when appropriately applied. However, problems, flaws
and confusions arises when:
The methods of creating entertainment and information programmes are
confused with methods of creating instructional programmes.
Contending every instructional programme with commercial televisions.
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Most programmes for teaching and training are presented in settings where
students or trainees are cumbered by distractions or by the learners that are
not highly motivated to learn.
Boring programmes are being used.
Entertainment in some programmes may interfere with learning, hence,
unnecessarily increases instructional time and expenses.
Activity III- A
Media which was originally intended as an entertainment or information
device can now be used as instructional devices with few adaptations
and moderation where necessary. Elucidate with reference to the
context.
Identify some flaws and confusions in the application and use of media
technology.
3.2.7 Different Ways of Avoiding Such Flaws and Confusions
Make instructions enjoyable but not at the expense of efficiency and
effectiveness.
The difference between the methods of creating entertainment and
information programmes should be clearly stated to avoid confusion
with the methods of creating instructional programmes.
Avoid contending every instructional programme with commercial
Televisions.
Most programmes for education and training should be presented in
settings where students and trainees are unnumbered/ bothered by
distractions and the learners who are not highly motivated to learn.
Promote interactive, interesting, but not boring instructional
programmes.
Avoid programmes which may unnecessarily interfere with learning or
increases instructional time expenses of the learner.
3.2.8 Definition
Media are the means (usually audiovisual Electronics) used for transmitting or
delivering messages. It includes such gadgets like:
Print Media
Graphics
Audio-Communications
TV sets and Monitors
Simulation and Games and
Computers.
Hence, media may be subdivided as Print and Non-Print Media having two main
components.
3.2.9 Components of Media
There are two main components of media. These are:
Hardware and
Software.
3.2.9.1 Hardware. This is the type of equipment needed to produce and present
information. It is also the machinery or device used to produce or present a
message.
♠ Examples of Hardware Devices
Film Projectors
Tape recorders
Over Head Projectors (OHPs)
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Transparency Projectors
Record Players
TV Monitors and
Computer Terminals
3.2.9.2 Software Devices

In software devices, all information is placed upon these materials. They are the
materials that are transmitted through Hardware.
♠ Examples of Software Devices
Films
Audio tapes
Transparencies
Records
Video tapes and
Computer Programmes
Activity III-B
Define the term Media.
What are the various components of Media
Identify the principles that influence the application, designing,
and use of media
Identify common results responsible for the application of media
and technology as dynamic learning processes.
3.2.10 Application of Media

The application of the principles for designing instruction and using media is
influenced by factors like:
Nature of the students.
Constraints of time and resources
What media and technology will be expected to accomplish.
How ready people are to accept innovations that might results and
How decisions concerning technology and media are made.
3.2.11 Application of Media and Technology as Dynamic Learning Processes
The application of media using knowledge to solve problems and implement
desirable learning outcomes involve procedures like:
Identification of appropriate theory and relevant resources to solve
problems involving learning and performance.
Prioritization (setting up) as to which problems are to be solved first and
Finding out Procedures and Techniques necessary for the application of
theory and resources.
3.2.12 Common Results Responsible for the Application of Media and Technology
as Dynamic Learning Processes
Common results responsible for the application of media and technology as
dynamic learning processes require knowledge of the capabilities and limitations
of different instructional media. Both teachers and trainers who contemplate to
develop and use mediated instructions should first find out what others have done
and how successful or unsuccessful they have been in similar circumstances. In
this way, they can benefit from other's experiences and avoid mistakes or
duplication. Perhaps, they may exchange information with similar persons doing
similar work. This may help avoid time constraints, financial limitations, and
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administrative problems arising from different opinions, ideas and opposing

attitudes from different managers and supervisors. However, a dynamic learning
process involve parameters like:
Acquisition of new knowledge that can often guide future applications.
Adoption and adaptation of existing products, methods and approaches and
Development of new products, methods and new approaches to teaching and
training.
Note
Other dynamic factors like Knowledge of theories and Knowledge of
resources are also responsible for the application of media technology.
The theories that practitioners who teach with media and technology use
come from researches conducted from many disciplines like
psychology, communications, evaluation, and economics. Theories have
great practical relevance in the field of education and training. Some of
the most important experimental psychologists who have contributed to
the field of education were people of great repute in this discipline. A
quick overview of their contribution has been stated hereunder.
Thorndike E.L.(1874-1949)-Fundamental Gulf Between Man and

Animal (The Law of Effect)
B.F.Skinner(1904)- Operant conditioning.
Guthrie E.R.(1886-1959).Contiguity.
Pavlov I.P. (11849-1936). Classical Conditioning.
Watson J.B. (1878-1958). Connectionist. The Nervous System.
Tolman E.C. (1886-111959). The Goal Theory-Adaptive, Creative and
Intelligence aspects of behavior.
Hull E.C. (1884-1952) - Systems Behavior.
Experimental Psychologists have discovered that behavior reinforced (Reward)
increases frequency of occurrence. Whereas that which is scolded (Punished),
decreases the occurrence. Thorndike's (1874-1949), Law of Effect maintains that
learning consists of strengthening of connections between a stimuli situation and
a response. If this connection is strengthened, (Reinforced), then, the response
has the effect of producing satisfaction to the animal and not weakened.
However, if the response has the effect of producing discomfort or an annoying
state of affairs, then, extinction occurs.
3.2.13 Educational Implication of the Theory on both Human and Animal

Organisms
Learning is an automatic process that builds a direct connection between
the stimulus and the response (S=>R) with animal awareness. This has
brought about improved performance over the trials.
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3.2.14 Educational Implications of the Law on Human Organism
Praise, Power, Recognition, and Success are all satisfying to human

organism. Human motivation depends upon certain characteristics of
each individual and the immediate circumstances.
However, one basic principle of Thorndike's Law of Readiness is that
particular states of affair will prove to be satisfying only to the extent
that the subject is ready for it. Food is a satisfier (Reinforcer) only
when the organism is hungry (Stimulus).
Evasive Case: However, if a certain state of affair may be an annoyer
just because of the momentary state of the organism, then, the organism
will adopt a conflict avoidance situation. Like in the case of an electric
shock.
3.2.15 Impact of Thorndike's Contributions

Learning depends upon the occurrence of particular events, which today
are termed as reinforcers.
All learning involves the formation of new (S=>R) connections.
Learning in human beings was supposed to involve the association of
ideas. However, Thorndike gave us a new alternative on human
learning.
The basic LESSON used for describing behavior was no longer to be an
idea or a nerve cell, rather, it was to be the S=>R connections.
Learning involves association, but it is S and R elements that are
connected.
This proposal was a radical departure from an earlier established
thinking.
Thorndike brokered the mentalistic-mechanistic, intelligence-instinct or
Man-Animal Dualism that had such a hold upon psychological thought
at the turn of the century.
He gave us the concept of reinforcement, the idea that learning occurs
when a response produces a particular kind of event like a satisfying
state of affair.
He introduced a variety of experimental techniques for studying human
learning and verbal behavior.
Note
Teachers and trainers can use reinforcement to improve performance.
Other reinforcements like prize giving, praise, gold-medals, giving free
time to school that perform better or well in school increases the
probability that high performance level will continue. Likewise,
employees who receive time off, bonuses and other incentives tend to
increase their workload and responsibilities leading to high productivity.
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Activity III- C
These activities are based on the discussions from the text: Answer all of
them:
What is the difference between technology of education and
educational technology?
What is Instructional Technology?
What is a software device?
What are the differences between a software device and a hardware
device?
Explain the meaning of Media and Instruction?
What are learning styles?
What are the educational implications of Thorndike's Law of Effect
on Human learning?
Explain into details the meaning of these statements:
∗ A particular state of affair will prove to be satisfying only to the
extent that the subject is ready for it.'
∗ Sometimes, merely making a particular response in a given
situation will strengthen the connection between S=>R'.
Identify common results responsible for the application of media and
technology as dynamic learning processes.
3.3 The ASSURE Model

All effective instructions require careful planning. The ASSURE Model is a well-
constructed procedural model designed to ensure effective use of media
instruction. It is also a guide for planning and conducting instructions that
incorporates media. Teaching with instructional media has become paramount.
Since the ASSURE Model is a procedural guide for planning and conducting
instruction that incorporates media. This subsection of the model assumes that
training or instruction really is required where students are to use a new
laboratory microscope or how to handle toxic materials. This LESSON further
continues to examine how to plan systematically for the effective use of
instructional media. The Model therefore focuses on planning surrounding the
actual classroom use of media.
Note
Suppose a teacher wants to teach Form -I students the following:
How to use and operate microscopes in a laboratory.
How to safely handle toxic materials or
How to operate a video camera, an OHP, a film projector etc.
The ASSURE Model through careful planning will help the teacher to focus on
how to handle such situations well in advance before the lesson begins. The
teacher will have to plan, on what materials to use, how to use them, where to get
them and decide on the cost effectiveness of the materials and their availability.
The model is less ambitious than other models of instructional development,
which are intended to guide the entire process of designing instructional systems.
Such processes are required to undergo other procedures like:
Needs Analysis
Product Design
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Prototype -tryout
System Implementation and
Evaluation and Assessment procedures.
These larger-scale instructional development procedures typically involve teams
of specialists and require major commitments in terms of time and money. Yet,
this long-term procedure is not within the purview of the model. Above all, the
model is meant for use by the individual teachers in planning everyday classroom
use of media. The model was the brainchild of Molenda, M.; Russell. J. D. and
Heinich. R R. (1989; 1993). The model therefore proposes six steps or procedures
in Systematic Planning for the Use of Media. These were given in the form of
Acronym ASSURE which means:
A- Analyse the Learners.
S- State the Objectives
S- Select Media and Materials
U- Utilize Media and Materials
R- Require the Learners Participation
E- Evaluate and Revise.
The six different steps of Systematic Planning for the Use of Media are discussed
hereunder.
3.3.1 STEP IAnalyse the Learners
The first step or procedure in planning is to identify the learners who may be the
students, trainees or members of any organization. As a teacher, you must know
your students thoroughly to enable you select the best media to meet your
objectives. The effective use of instructional media involves a match between the
learners' characteristics and the content of the lesson, and its presentation. The
first step in the ASSURE model is therefore the Analysis of the audience
(learners). Analysing the learners also involve knowing the learner's general
characteristics, their specific entry competencies, their learner's learning styles,
analysing more on their information-processing habits, motivational factors and
psychological factors as well. Psychological factors are more related to sex
differences, health and environmental conditions. These factors obviously
influence the effectiveness of learning. In specific entry competencies,
researchers have stressed more on the entry competencies through informal
means such as , in-class-questioning, out-of -class interviews, testing- with-
standardized or teacher-made-tests. Hence, entry tests are assessments, both
formal and informal, that determine whether or not the student possess the
necessary pre-requisites (entry-skills) which are the competencies the learner
must possess in order to benefit from the instruction.
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Note
In view of the above discussions, we may conclude this step by summarizing and
identifying several factors about the learners that must be considered for making
good and judicious decisions on media selection. These factors are as stated
below:
General Characteristics: whereby broad-identifying descriptions must be
identified. They include the following:
∗ Age factor, Grade Level, Job Positions, Cultural back -ground and Socio-
economic status of the learners: These are the factors that are not in
anyway, related to the lesson-content. They help the teacher to determine
the level of the lesson and select contexts and examples that are
meaningful to the audience (students).
Specification of the Entry Competencies: These include:
∗ Knowledge and skills that the learners have or lack. They are sometimes
referred to, as the (pre-requisite skills) needed by the leaner to start
instruction. Do the learners have the knowledge base required to enter the
lesson. Form I students must have undergone Standard VIII and
successfully passed K C P E.
∗ Mastery: Have they mastered some of the skills you are planning to teach?
∗ Attitude: Are there biases or misconceptions about the subject or the

teacher?
3.3.2 STEP II State the Objectives

This is the second step of the ASSURE Model. Objectives must be stated as
specifically as possible. They must be derived from a course, a syllabus stated in
a textbook, taken from a curriculum guide or developed by the teacher. Every
activity has an objective. Objectives are unifying statements for our daily and
future activities. Objectives may be imposed on or even offered to us by someone
and may even be of our own making. They may be conceived as points marking
the achievements of some effort, ambition, or accomplishment. All objectives rest
upon an assumption or underlying complex of value. They lie at the very heart of
a planning process. Planning objectives enables the teacher to command the
future rather than be commanded by it. Planning a head makes it possible
anticipate and hopefully avoid unforeseen classroom difficulties.
3.3.2.1 Importance of Stating Objectives

Stating the objectives require the teacher to analyse and understand the following
questions.
What do you hope to accomplish by the end of the instruction and how much
time do you need to present the lesson effectively and successfully? Above all,
limit your objectives and content on the available time.
As a teacher, you must know your instructional objectives thoroughly in order to
make the correct selection and judgments of media and methods to be used. Your
objectives will undoubtedly dictate your choice of media and the sequence of
learning activities.
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To create a conducive and relevant learning environment in which specific

objectives can be reached i.e. to solve quadratic equations correctly within five
minutes; to change a flat tyre within seven minutes. The learning environment
here must include a sum to be solved, time probably a stopwatch, and a car with a
flat tyre.
To help assure proper evaluation. The teacher will not know if the learners have
achieved the objective unless proper evaluation is done. Without explicit
objectives, students will not know what is expected of them.
Objectives must dictate the choice of media and the learning sequence (activities)
To enable teaching and learning environment become objectively oriented.
Before we conclude this step, it is imperative to say that a statement of objective
is a type of contract between the teacher and the learner.
Note
• Objectives state what learning goals each learner is expected to
reach.
• What new capability should the learner possess at the completion of
instruction. Thus, objectives are not statements of what the teacher
plans to put into the lesson, but, rather, of what the learner ought to
get out of the lesson. Hence, statements of objectives must be:
∗ Specific. The required responses must be acceptable as adequate.
Attempts to describe in the clearest term possible, exactly what a
student will think, act, or feel at the end of a learning experience.
∗ Measurable in Behavioural Terms: Must show details of desired
behaviour,
∗ Observable. Details of any limiting conditions under which the
responses will be gauged must be observed. and
∗ Achievable. Just like goals describe destinations or events, so,
objectives (specific) describes an activity that the learner will be
able to do in order to demonstrate mastery.
Relevancy. Objectives must demonstrate to be related to the real world
and to the problems at hand. Such abstracts, and isolated activities, which
are unrelated to human concerns, are likely to be regarded as irrelevant,
unless steps are taken to demonstrate their utility. Objectives therefore give
clarifications to the intentions for a learning situation.
3.3.2.2 Characteristics of a well stated objective

A well stated objective starts:
By naming the audience or the learners for whom the objective is intended. The
teacher must give major focus on what the learner is doing rather than what the
teacher is doing. In this way, learning is most likely to take place when the
learner is active, mentally processing an idea, and physically practicing a skill.
This is because, accomplishment of an objective depends upon what the learner
does, but not what the teacher do. All specific objectives must begin by stating
whose capability is going to be changed.
To specify the behavior or capability to be learned and the conditions under
which capability will be observed. Objectives must be stated in observable and in
behavioural terms. What will the learner be able to do by the end instruction?
Vague terms like understand, know, and appreciate do not communicate the aim
clearly. Behaviours, which denote observable performance, are Recall, Revise,
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Demonstrate, Generate, Define, Categorize, Apply, Plot, Select, Illustrate, Solve,

Devise, Categorize, Compute, Write, Describe, Devise, Label, and Classify etc
are action oriented. Hence, recommended for writing objectives.
Conditions: Any statement of the objective must include conditions under which
performance is to be observed. Given a political map of East Africa, the learner
will be able to mark the major coal mining areas without referring to the
atlas.(any library material, seeking the help of the teacher etc)
To specify the degree to which the new skills must be mastered i.e. the standard
by which, the capability can be judged. This is the final requirement of a well-
stated objective. It usually indicates the standard under which performance must
be judged. It also states the criterion which acceptable performance will be
fulfilled. To what degree of accuracy or proficiency must the learner display? (Be
judged?). Whether the criteria is stated in qualitative or quantitative terms, they
should be based on some real world requirements i.e. How well must a mechanic
be able to operate a lathe in order to be a productive employee? How much time
should the learner take to be able to solve quadratic equations? (5Minutes).
Activity III-D
After going through the second step of the ASSURE Model, you should try to
attempt the following activities stated below.
What is the importance of stating instructional objectives?
What are the major characteristics of a well-stated objective?
It has been established that a well-stated objective caters for the audience
or learners behaviour (capabilities), conditions, and degree or criteria by
which acceptable performance will be judged. Elucidate.
In any one of your teaching subjects, write at least five objectives that
include the learner's, behavioural outcome, and conditions (if appropriate)
and degree of mastery.
Write at least six objectives into the following domains and skills:
Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor Domains, and Motor and
Interpersonal Skills.
3.3.3 \STEP III Selecting Media and Material

A systematic plan for using media demands that media be selected systematically.
The selection process involves, choosing an appropriate media format and,
selecting, modifying, and designing specific materials within that format. There
are four main procedures involved in the selection, modifying, and designing
specific materials. Media selection usually takes different forms. Within these,
instructional situations may take different settings in the form of large group
format, small group, or self-instruction formats. Due consideration must take care
of other key players of learner variables such as reader, non-reader, or auditory
preference and the nature of the objectives like cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor domains and interpersonal skills. Selection of instructional media
must also give more preferences against the presentational capabilities of each of
the media formats e.g. presenting still visuals, motion visuals, and printed and
spoken words. Above all, selection of an appropriate media must give feedback to
both the learner and the teacher. There are certain procedures to be followed when
selecting an appropriate media. These procedures are:
Choose the Media Format,
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Obtaining Specific Materials,

Survey the Sources,
Modifying available Materials and
Design New Materials.
We can now discuss very briefly about these procedures to be followed when
selecting media.
3.3.3.1 Obtaining Specific Materials
As a teacher, having decided what media format suits your immediate
instructional objective, your main task now is to find out specific materials to
convey your lesson so that the learners can be in a position to learn effectively.
Obtaining specific and appropriate materials involve the following alternatives.
Selecting available materials. If materials are already available that will
allow your students to meet your objectives; then, the materials should be
used to save both time and money. Majority of instructional materials used by
teachers today is ready-made, available in most schools, districts, or Teachers'
Advisory Centers (TAC) and most of them are commonly found on the
shelves in the schools. It is therefore the duty of the teacher to source out
these learning resources and make sure that they are easily available in their
institutions ready for classroom use.
3.3.3.2 Modifying the available and existing materials. However, when the media and
the available material do not meet the requirements of your audience, then
modify them to suit your objectives and needs of the learners. This could be done
if as a teacher you survey some of the published media reference guides to get a
general idea of what is available or not. Modification of the media also comes in
when you cannot locate suitable materials and media in the shelves or at the
various resource centers nearer to you.
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3.3.3.3 Designing new materials. However, if no alternatives match your needs, then
design your own materials. It is much easier and less costly to use available
materials and media without modification than to start from the scratch.
Note
Certain basic considerations must be taken into account when designing new
materials. These are:
Objectives. What do you want your students to learn?
Audience.What are the characteristics of your audience/learners? Do
they have the pre-requisite knowledge and skills to use or learn from
the materials?
Cost.Is sufficient money available in your budget to meet the cost of
supplies (films, audio tapes, videocassettes and TV sets etc? If not,
then you will need to prepare the materials yourself.
Technical Expertise. Do you have the necessary expertise to design
and produce the kind of materials you wish to use? If not, will the
necessary technical assistance be available to you? Try to keep your
design within the range of your own capabilities. Do not waste time
and money trying to produce expensive materials.
Equipment. Do you have available the necessary equipment to
produce or use the materials you intend to design?
Facilities. If your design calls for use of special facilities for
preparation or use of your materials, are such materials available?
Time. Can you afford to spend whatever time may be necessary to
design and produce the kind of materials you have in mind?
Question
What are the basic procedures for selecting, modifying and designing
instructional materials?
Indicate when each procedure is appropriate.
List two general characteristics of the learners and two types of specific
competencies that could affect media selection.
Select a topic in your subject area and suggest two media that would be
appropriate for use in your teaching.
Discuss in your own words, how each of the above procedures may
effectively contribute to the selection of media and materials.
3.3.4 STEP-IV Utilize Media and Materials

This is the fourth step of systematic plan for using media. This step involves the
following procedures:
Preview of the Materials,
Practice the Presentations,
Prepare the Learning Environment,
Prepare the Audience/Learner,
Require/Seek for the Learner's Active Participation and Present the Material.
Let us discuss very briefly one by one all the five procedures involved in the
utilization of media and materials.
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3.3.4.1 Preview of the Materials

As we have discussed earlier during the selection process, you as a teacher, you
should have determined that the objectives and materials you are going to use in
your lesson are appropriate for your audience/learners. Before you go to class,
you must ensure that you have a full mastery of the materials to be effectively
used in your class. Previewing the materials in advance enables you to detect
some parts, which might be objectionable or distract the class participation. It
also enables you to eliminate some sensitive sections or if need be, discuss with
them in advance those portions which might cause ripples in the class. This will
let the learners be aware of what is to take place in advance and avoid classroom
embarrassment.
3.3.4.2 Practice the Presentation
Previewing the materials leads us to actual practice of some important portions of
the presentation. It is advisable for the teacher to go through the presentation at
least once well in advance and then to review your notes just immediately before
the presentation. During this reviewing process, you should avoid over practice.
Depending on the nature of the available resources you have, you should always
try to get some feedback during practice time. Some teachers prefer using
mirrors, others like to have a colleague/friend around to provide feedback.
Usually, and depending on its availability, always try to use media to provide you
with feedback. The type of media can be audiotape, or video recorder, which can
give an accurate replay while practicing the presentation. These two types of
media will not only let you hear what you said but see yourself presenting. This
will definitely make you improve and correct yourself where you went wrong.
Note
It is important for us to tell you that you should observe the following:
That during the practicing time, the newness of the material, the
importance of the presentation, and the amount of time available will
automatically determine how many times you should practice.
Always try to use a real mirror, a friend, an audiotape, or a video
cassette recorder for immediate feedback.
That the importance of practice cannot be overstated. Do not just walk
through it in your mind but you should actually stand up and practice it.
3.3.4.3 Prepare the Learning Environment

Depending on the place where presentation may take place, always remember to
consider the following factors, which might make delivery of instruction become
more comfortable.
Consider the seating plan of the class.
Adequate ventilation.
Suitable lighting.
A good conducive classroom climate.
Many media require a darkened room, a convenient power supply, and access
to light and switches. Ensure that all these facilities are available at the right
time before you begin your lesson.
As a teacher, you should always check if the equipment is in good working
order.
Always try to arrange the facilities in such a way that the learners, audience
can see and hear properly whatever is going on in the classroom.
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3.3.4.4 Prepare the Audience/Learner

Various researches conducted on human learning have concluded that whatever is
learned from a presentation depends highly on how the learners are prepared for
the presentation. Starting a lesson by giving a broad overview of the content and
its rationale. Telling the learner how the content is related to the topic being
studied. At the same time, giving motivating statements, which relates to the
content will definitely capture the learner's attention and interests. This is
sometimes termed as giving warm-up to the learner in preparation for the real
classroom presentation. Warm ups prepare the learners to have the need and urge
to know how they are going to profit from paying attention and provide cues
which directs their attention to specific aspects of the presentation.
3.3.4.5 Present the Material.
This is the most opportune time you have been preparing for. You are therefore
ready to show your learners that you really know your subject matter quite well.
You have to control the attention of your students during the presentation time.
You are therefore considered to act like a general showmanship that you are in
charge of the class. The success of the lesson will depend on how you present the
lesson and how you conduct yourself throughout the entire period.
ACTIVITY III E
Give examples of five basic procedures in Utilizing Instructional
Materials.
Explain how these five basic procedures may be used effectively to aid
teaching learning process.
Describe several methods for eliciting student response during and after
using media.
Justify the need for requiring the learner's response when using media.
3.3.5 STEP V Require Learner Response

The fifth step in the ASSURE Model is to provide opportunities for learners to
practice the capability of being taught. This is because active participation in the
learning process enhances learning. In order to enhance active classroom
participation, the teacher should incorporate topics, which promote more
classrooms activities. Such topics are, class discussions, short quizzes, and
application exercises. These may provide immediate response and reinforcement
during instruction. Follow-up activities may also provide further opportunities for
learning. At the same time, teachers' guides and manuals that accompany
instructions elicit a lot of learner's responses and reinforcement during
instruction. Since the utmost aim of the teacher is to provide learning, it is his/her
utmost duty to ensure that meaningful learning is actually taking place during
instruction. Several researchers and psychologists have realized that active
participation in the classroom learning process enhances meaningful learning.
Some of their contributions, which gave more emphasis on active learner
participation, have been highlighted hereunder.
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Note
Contributors of Learner's Active Participation
• In the early 1900s, John Dewey campaigned for the reorganization of
curriculum and instruction to make students participation a central
part of the teaching learning process.
• B.F.Skinner, a behavioural psychologist demonstrated that
instructions providing for constant reinforcement of desired
behaviour are more effective than instruction in which responses are
not reinforced.
• Cognitive theories of learning, more recently focused on internal
mental processes and have also supported the principle that effective
learning demands active manipulation of information by the learners.
• Gagne. R.M. (1985), concluded that there are several necessary
conditions for effective learning of each type of objective. Gagne
therefore asserted that:
∗ The one condition that pertains to all objectives is practice of
the desired skills.
∗ The most effective learning situations are those that require
learners to perform activities that build toward the objective.
The form of participation may include repetitive drill of new spelling or
vocabulary words, solving mathematical problems, rehearsal of a basketball
play, and creating an original product such as term paper.
3.3.6 STEP VI Evaluate/Revise

There is need for teachers to know the total picture of the entire instructional
episode being undertaken in any instruction. The teacher is the master and
essential player in the game of teaching learning process. He is the one in charge
of everything going on in the classroom. While in the classroom, the teacher's
duty is to facilitate meaningful learning. Evaluating and revising instruction
definitely makes the teacher aware of any loophole if any in his lesson. In order
to do this he needs to:
To get the total picture of the entire instructional process very clearly.
Ask himself, did the learners meet the objectives?
Did the media use help in assisting the learners reaching the objectives? and
Did all the learners use the materials properly? etc.
After going through this type of checklist, you are likely to identify some
discrepancies. Wherever there are discrepancies between what you intended to do
and what you actually attained, you need to revise your plan for the next attempt.
There are many different types of evaluating the learners. For proper evaluation
to take place, the teacher should try to evaluate the student's achievement, media
and methods used during instruction, and evaluation of the entire instructional
process.
One utmost question in the instructional process is whether or not the students
have learned what they were supposed to learn. Are they able to display the
capabilities specified in the original statements of objectives? When the
objectives were formulated in the initial stage, remember to include statements of
objectives criteria of acceptable performance which will be evaluated by the end
of instruction because you must assess whether the learner's skills meet that
criteria. The method of evaluating achievement also depends on the nature of the
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objective itself. Some objectives call for relatively simple cognitive skills, others
may call for process- type behaviour i.e. (operating a lathe machine, and solving
quadratic equations, and observing safety procedures in the laboratory etc).
Lastly, evaluating objectives must indicate that the learners have the capabilities
of the process, product, or attribute to solve problems. Evaluation must also show
that the learner by the end of instruction must display a behavior in action. This
means setting up a situation where the learner must demonstrate the new skills in
which instructional judgment can be based. Although attitudes are rather difficult
to evaluate at all time, setting up long time goals and observation may be required
to determine if the learner really attained the goals set. Depending on the
outcomes of your evaluation, you as a teacher will be free to Revise the
instruction. Revising and evaluation of instruction are essential elements that
determine whether or not the lesson is a success.
Activity III F
In view of the topic discussed in the last step of systematic planning
for the use of media, briefly discuss how you would
Evaluate media and the methods used during instruction.
Evaluate the learner's achievement
Evaluate his/her performance and attitude towards the instruction.
Evaluate the instructional objectives. Were the objectives very clear?
/Unclear? Dull?
Appraise the modules/content used. Was the lesson very interesting?,
Dull? Was the module difficult? Simple? etc.
Hints
The hints listed below are meant to enable you gain more confidence before you
go to class to meet your students.
Always Remember to Mentally run through the presentation to review
each idea in sequence.
Do a stand-up rehearsal of your presentation. Try to practice in the room
where you will be presenting or the one similar to it. Give a simulated
presentation, idea for idea (but not word for word) using all visual aids
and props.
Practice answers to questions you anticipate from the audience or
learners.
Videotape or (audiotape) yourself or have a colleague sit on your
rehearsal to give you immediate feedback.
Always Use Keyword Notes. Not a script. Print keywords on index
cards. Never Read from a script because written language is different
from spoken language.
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Summary
We have discussed at length all the six steps of systematic planning for the
use of media commonly known as the ASSURE Model. During our
discussions, we learned of the various stages under which the model can
help ASSURE learning. In our discussions, we learned that:
The first step of the model is Analyze Learners.
The second step is State the Objectives.
The third step is Select Media and Materials.
The fourth step is Utilize Media and Materials and
The fifth step is Require Learner Participation.
The sixth step is Evaluate/Revise.
REFERENCE
♠ Gagne R.M. (1985). The Conditions of Learning, 4th Edition (New
York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston.
♠ Gloria,F.(1981). The Educational Use of Mass Media. World Bank Staff Working
PAPER No.491.Washington D.C. 20433, USA.
♠ Lewis,J.Perelman, (2001). Schools' Out. Funderstanding Instructional
Technology.Sitemap. Engaging Kids about Curriculum and Instruction.pp1-2.
♠ Lumsdaine. A .A. and May. M. A. (1958). Learning From Films. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press.
♠ Pinckney,R.L. (1980). Syllabi for Educational Technology Courses and Selection and
Maintenance of AV Equipment. Ginn Custom Publishing, 191 Spring Street,
Lexington, Massachusetts, 02173.
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LESSON FOUR
PRINT AND NON-PRINT MEDIA
4.0 What this LESSON is about

Teaching and subsequently learning by nature is a complex process that cannot take
place in a vacuum and requires more than just the in put of the human resource namely
the teacher. The teacher and the pupil cannot interact on their own for effective learning
but needs the interaction between the teacher, the pupils and several other in puts. There
is always need for other players in the game of learning. The teacher must refer to and
use these inputs to increase the effectiveness of the teaching learning exercise. These in
put come in the form of learning resources. This lesson shall strive to take you through
some of these in puts that are in the form of print and non-print media. There will be a
deliberate attempt to bias you to have a proper mix of both print and non-print media to
reduce boredom, arouse interest and generally create the much needed link between
content and everyday life experiences.
Teachers today certainly do not produce all the media they use to support their teaching.
It takes a commitment of time, equipment, and interest to edit videotape, create
sophisticated transparencies, or write a computer programme. Teachers have a natural
interest in making media and often prefer to create materials because they are more
personalized. These materials are tailored to fit the teacher's students, subject area and
style. It is therefore assumed in this lesson that teachers- to- be have used media already.
Since both print and non-print media like books, newspapers, journals and magazines,
tape players, televisions, photographic equipment, and even computers etc are commonly
available in our schools today.
The lesson will in essence look at some of the resources that can be used to support
learning.
4.1 What you will learn in this lesson:

Define print and non-print media
State and describe the different varieties of print media.
Distinguish between print and non-print media.
Discuss the advantages of text books
Criticize the use of text books
Describe the criteria to be followed in the selection of textbooks.
Explain the importance of textbook utilization for maximum learning.
State and describe the different varieties of non-print media.
Explain the use of various non-print media to supplement print media.
Name some of the unique characteristics of both print and non-print media.
Name some of the unique steps that must be taken into consideration while
selecting and using print and non-print media.
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4.2 Variety of Instructional Media Available:

Instructional media are of different types and forms. Some of them are:
Print Media: Examples of print media include the following hard copy
(paper), microfilm, microfiche, questionnaires, handouts, forms, brochures,
manuals, pamphlets, written reports, newspapers, books, magazines of all
varieties and, braille.
Graphic Media: Over Head Projectors (OHP), transparencies, charts, mobiles,
graphs, models, dioramas, maps, globes and drawings.
Photographic Media: Prints, slides, film strips, motion pictures, multi-image,
etc.
Audio Media: Audio tapes, audio cassettes, records, telecommunications, etc
Television/Sets: Broadcast Televisions, Cable TVs, Micro Waves,(2500
Megaherts) TV, Video -texts, etc.
Computers: Maxi-Computers, Mini-computers Micro-computers
Simulation/Games: Board, Written, Human interaction, and Machine games
etc.
Let us now differentiate between print and non-print media. The differences are
as stated below.
Print Media Non-Print Media

Dominate ways of delivering Instructional delivery may occur
instructions without it.
Involves printed materials like, Do not require all these materials
papers, newspapers, journals, for meaningful learning to take
grating of stones etc. place.
Can be read by literate persons Their operations do not necessarily
only. require literate persons. Even
illiterates may use them to suit
their needs.
They often supplement visual Do not require print materials for
programmes. supplementation.
Documents may be displayed Some non-print materials do not
electronically. necessarily require electronic
devices to disseminate or impart
learning/instruction.
4.2.1 Selection and use of Print and Non-Print Media:

The principles of selection and use of both print and non-print media depends on
how well their unique capabilities accommodate instruction and how well they fit
the learning environment. These principles assumes that:
Instructional Goals and Objectives have been specified before selections
are made. The goals and objectives of the content must be covered. The
choice of the print and non-print media has to correspond to the objectives to
be achieved in the teaching learning process.
Relevance: We select only the materials that can make a distinct contribution
to carefully identified learning objectives. The media chosen must be relevant
to the content to be taught. Hence, clarity is of paramount importance.
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Choice: The choice of both types of media must be judiciously selected, and
related to the content, which is to be learned. We choose the best combination
of these and other teaching materials to achieve the best results.
We use these learning materials in the ways most likely to accomplish our
specific learning objectives, i.e. define the objectives; select the materials
accordingly; select the appropriate technology/material and use the best
combination to achieve the best results.
Print's Unique capabilities for providing instruction comes from the kind of
information it can present, i.e. its capacity for accommodating the learner
responses and its effects on the way instruction is sequenced and paced.
Planning: While planning to teach, the teacher must know the level of the
learners to help him/her in planning adequately on what type of media
(print/non-print) to be applied and at what time will it be used. So, adequate
consideration must be given to planning of both types of media to be used for
the purposes of delivering instruction.
Visibility: The media used must be easily visible by all the learners. The
symbols used must be correctly spelt, well written, and judiciously spaced for
easy visibility in the entire class. The learners must be in a position to see the
type of media being used in the classroom. They must also be able to utilize
the materials provided adequately. In the case of printed materials,
interpretations and readability must be ensured in the entire classroom.
Cost Effectiveness: Both types of media being used in the class must be
within the economic reach of the learners and must not be expensive to buy.
Literacy Skills: Printed media should be able to process the literacy skills of
the learners. Any print-media, which do not challenge the understanding
ability of the learners, should not be used in the process of teaching.
Accessibility: Any type of media selected for the purpose of parting
information to the students should always be accessible to all the learners.
Clarity: While selecting print and non-print media, the principle of clarity of
language must be applied. The type of language used must also be well
understood by all the students.
The following steps should be taken into consideration when selecting/using print
and non-print media.
STEP I: Obtain information about available print and non-print media.

STEP II: Get to know about the material in advance. The teacher must obtain some
prerequisite knowledge and skills about the print and non-print material. This
prior knowledge will encourage familiarization to determine various ways in
which such materials may be used.
STEP III: Survey students reading levels and interests. This will help in reading
guidance for teaching subjects where students may choose what they want to
read. Materials below the students reading levels may be boring to them while
those above their levels may be frustrating.
STEP IV: Prepare the learners. For students who already possess appropriate reading
skills, preparation for using print and non-print media is minimal. They will have
to be told how to obtain materials from the teacher, media centers and or public
libraries.
STEP V: Integrate prints and non-print materials. Students will perceive reading
assignments and other activities that do not contribute to course requirements as
irrelevant.
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STEP VI: Evaluate the results. Once print and non-print media are used, their
effectiveness should be evaluated.
Question
What are the various steps that must be taken into consideration while
selecting print and non-print media?
While selecting non-print media, the following precautions or procedures must be
taken into consideration.
Conduct an Inquiry in Advance: Find out the information about the non-print
media to be used for the purposes of imparting instruction.
Knowledge ability: The teacher must be knowledgeable about the use and
operations of the type of non-print media he/she is going to use during the lesson.
Accessibility/Availability: The non-print media must be easily accessible to the and
available to the learners as well as the teacher.
Age Factor: The teacher must consider the age of the learners who are going to
benefit from the material. The teacher must always try to use the correct material
keeping in view the learners' age.
Storage and Portability: These must be taken into consideration because some
materials are too heavy, rather expensive, and cumbersome to be used in the
classroom for a single lesson only.
Cost Effectiveness: This is quite relevant particularly when considering the
economy of scale and its application in the classroom particularly in the rural and
urban areas.
Durability and Size: Some non-print media are foreign manufactured with
instructions written in foreign languages. This should be avoided because starting
teaching using such materials may bring confusions.
4.3 PRINT MEDIA
4.3.1 Definition of Print Media

In the historical perspectives, print media have been a predominant way of
delivering information and instruction and remain to be so. The evolution of print
media dates back from the invention of the printing press in the 1450s. However,
the earlier forms dates back to the invention of paper and even before with
markings inscribed on stones or clay. Today, print is found everywhere in places
like billboards, buses, street corners, walls, posters, news magazines, news
papers, books, forms, questionnaires and regulations, menu, packages, and
restaurants etc. The word print may be defined in terms of symbols or in terms of
the surface on which symbols appear and therein lie a dilemma of symbolism.
Print media therefore may be defined as any surface having symbols. The
definition of print media based on surface has been criticized as troublesome to
some extent. Print media has also been defined as a paper. It is a giant paper sign,
which may be placed in the store, window, etc. It may also be a small piece of
paper containing only a sketch. Print media are electronic or photographic means
of storing and presenting documents. Where as non-print media does not
necessarily have printed materials on it.
Print media are usually opaque paper-based materials suitable for individual use.
They have characters, numerals, and words and may contain pictures and
illustrations. They include electronic and photographic means of storing and
presenting documents. Print media was introduced during the Renaissance period
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(16th, 17th, 18th and early 19th century). Since then, print media have been in use
in almost all-learning institutions as well as in other sectors as a convenient
source of information. For private use outside the school, the print media has
been very popular in such form as newspapers and magazines. In this LESSON,
we shall limit our discussions to written work and symbols. For convenience of
grouping, we therefore talk of written works and symbols.
4.3.2 Characteristics of Print Media:

Print media have the following characteristics:
They are usually on a paper surface. Note that even when printed documents
can be displayed electronically by computers or projected on films, they are
often also available in paper or 'hard copy' form.
Symbols in the form of characters, numerals, and words are arranged on an
area or surface called a page, which may include pictures and illustrations in
the form of sketches, photographs, charts, graphs, tables, or line drawings.
Although pictures and illustrations can appear a lone, (some printed reports
might consist entirely of charts graphs, and tables). They are usually
accompanied by some explanatory texts.
Print media have some mechanism for production. The most common being
the typewriter, computers, and word processors. Once created documents can
be produced in large quantities by use of machines such as photocopiers and
high-speed printing presses.
Most print media for instructional purposes are intended for use by a single
individual, even when printed documents are displayed electronically or
projected.
4.3.3 Advantages of Print Media
Print media have the following advantages:
They are convenient and powerful media besides catering for
individual working rates.
They provide useful and easy access to the messages contained and
facilitate easy revision.
They are highly portable and economical to buy and maintain.
They often contain outstanding visualization of concepts and
information with accompanying text to explain them.
Being literate enables the individual to communicate through print
media.
Print media is essential not only for survival, but also for self-
improvement, self-fulfillment, and self-satisfaction as well.
Companion print materials often supplement visual programmes and
when print media are the primary source of instruction, they can include
visuals to make them more effective.
4.3.4 Disadvantages of Print Media
Though print media are predominantly used in instruction, they have the
following advantages:
They are largely non-interactive.
Usually, their authors ignore the needs a of the audience.
If used as a class text (in the case of textbooks), it can mislead the teacher to
ignore the syllabus, schemes of work and even the lesson plan.
4.3.5 Types of Written Works and Symbols
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There are several types of written works. We shall now go a head and discuss
some of them in this lesson.
4.3.5.1 Textbooks: These are published in various forms to specifically serve certain
purposes. In classrooms, a textbook is the chief source of information for both the
teacher and the pupil. For it to be good use to the pupils, it should be attractive,
colourful, and well illustrated. The textbook can be in soft paper cover or hard
paperback covers. One main drawback in the use of textbooks is that with time,
they can become outdated and obsolete.
4.3.5.1.1 Functional Uses of Textbooks:

Some of the functional uses of textbooks are:
They can be used as teaching assistants. They allow the teacher to mention
the most important points only, and leave the rest to be covered in
assignments. They also act as source material for both the teacher and the
pupils.
They can be used to individualize learning through independent study
assignments. The pupils can use them to do assignments individually. The
teacher needs only to identify individual difficulties and attend to them
accordingly.
They can be used as the base on which content can be made come a live by
the use of appropriate accompanying media , taking field trips, arranging and
explaining displays or exhibits, listening to recordings and using other
suitable audio-visual media.
They help the learners to improve language and research skills through:
∗ Condensing the essence of several pages into a brief
paragraph.
∗ Comparing viewpoints of several books or of different sections
in the same book.
∗ Having pupils look up the meaning of new words and use them
in new ways.
∗ Teaching pupils to read footnotes and to use the library to
locate references.
Avail visual content use. The visual content of a textbook includes the
presence of items like: charts, maps, graphs, pictures, diagrams, etc. These
supplement the text and provide extra visuals. They also help the pupils to
develop and practice the skills of graphic interpretation. That is essential to
visual literacy.
4.3.5.1.2 Basic Consideration In Evaluating School Textbooks
The following criteria or schemes of evaluation can be followed in selecting
school textbooks for use in schools:
♠ Content: Is the author competent? Does the textbook interpret the curricular
objectives well? How is the textbook handling controversial issues? Does the
subject matter contained therein promote sound moral values?
♠ Content Treatment: Is the style adapted to the age level of the learners
(length of sentences, length of the paragraphs). Is the vocabulary suitable to
the grade? In addition, does the material cater for individual differences?
♠ Arrangements of the Content: Are the index and table of contents
complete? Is there a glossary for difficult words? Are there illustrations,
maps, sketches, tables, and graphs, to supplement print matter? Do the visual
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aids add interest to the textual matter (reality in colour, artistic, page
arrangement, and minimum irrelevant details). Are the suggested related
activities practical? Do well-organized summaries and overviews appear at
the end of each chapter/ lesson? In addition, do the bibliographies include the
most up to date materials?
♠ Mechanical Standards: Is the type clear? Is there good spacing between
lines for easy reading? Example For under 7years old--10 lines per 4 inches.
For 7-9 years old---20lines per 4 inches. For 9--12 years old--22 lines per 4
inches and For 12 years and above--24 lines per 4 inches. Are the lines of
proper length for easy reading (3 to 4 inches)? Is the paper of good quality,
weight and durability? Is the binding reinforced? In addition, are the pages
planned for easy readability?
Activity IV A
Evaluate the recommended class textbook for one of your teaching
subjects using the evaluation criteria as outlined above.
Does the book you are evaluating meet all the required criteria?
4.3.5.2 Encyclopaedia
Encyclopaedias are a set of source books that contain background information on
all aspects of learning to the learners. They are very useful to the learner as a
source book. They can be used to supplement information in textbooks, motion
pictures, film trips, and other media in exciting curiousity and desire for more
information. There are many different types and sets of encyclopaedias, but each
gives an opportunity to find, organize, and evaluate basic facts. It is important to
note that though they contain useful information, they stand the risk of being out
dated. Encyclopaedias are normally printed on paper of very good quality and can
last for longer periods. The main hindrance to their use is the unavailability in
most institutions and the cost as well as the lack of ease in updating them to make
them contain current information.
Activity IV B
Visit a nearby-established public library. With one of your teaching
subjects in mind, peruse through a set of encyclopaedia. Evaluate and
comment whether the set would be useful in teaching one of your subjects?
4.3.5.3 Newspapers and Magazines:

These are very good common sources of information for the general audience.
They may be subdivided into two categories:
Those published for general audience, and
Those published for school readers.
Newspapers are quite useful in the following ways:
They provide a study guide and analysis of current events taking place.
They provide background studies on important local, national and
international problems.
They provide practice in improving reading and discussion skills.
They may be used for analysing propaganda.
Provide best opportunities to study writing and editorial styles.
Foreign language training and bulletin board display material and scrapbook
collection items.
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Newspapers tend to have the latest and up to date information. This is mainly
because most of them are daily, weekly, or monthly publications. However,
because most of them are not necessarily well-researched before publication, they
may be in accurate at times. They are normally printed on cheap and low quality
paper and therefore cannot last very long or even withstand rough usage.
Newspapers also have the advantage of being relatively cheap compared to other
print media.
ACTIVITY IV C
Look through several newspapers / magazines and identify one with content
that could be used to teach a topic in one of your teaching subjects. Prepare a
lesson plan incorporating the newspaper / magazine clip.
4.3.5.4 Comics
A comic is a form of cartooning in which the same cast of characters enacts a story in a
sequence of closely related diagrams designed to entertain the reader. Unlike the cartoon,
the comic consists of continuing story situations. Most comic book series have turned
into straight picture stories in strip or pamphlet forms. The use of cartoons capitalizes on
the fact that young readers enjoy picture stories, the comic books employ the use of
visual materials possibly in colour . Most historical, scientific and literary subjects can be
represented well and accurately in comic book forms.
ACTIVITY IV D
Make a survey of comic book materials being sold at essential newspaper stands
in your neighborhood. Find which comics are best sellers, which are
objectionable and which are useful from an educational standpoint.
4.3.5.5 Programmed teaching and learning materials.

This is a kind of instructional format where information is presented in steps, the
presentation stimulus demands an active response by the learner, and the learner is either
told whether his/her response is correct or s/he compares them with the ones given in the
programme . The most important advantage of this format is that each learner can learn
at his/her own pace. These programmed teaching / learning materials can be used when
the teacher intends to:
Teach new knowledge and skills independently of other materials of
presentation
Enrich and complement the teaching programme
Review the teaching / learning materials
Assist poor pupils or those who have been absent to catch up with the regular
class work
Programmed materials have the following advantages:
They allow educators to organize their teaching materials into logical step by
step presentation
Offer flexible teaching / learning possibilities that can be used by groups or
individual learners in the classroom , in learning resource centers or at home
They give teachers a concrete and immediate feedback on a learners progress
They incite learners to become active
They reduce learner error by being more efficient in realizing specific goals
than are other forms of teaching / learning
They are normally pre-tested and revised to ensure validity and reliability
However, programmed materials have limitations, some of which are :
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They lack intrinsic motivation as the learners work in isolation

There is little provision in the programme for the learner to develop or to
express himself as creatively as an individual
They compartmentalize knowledge in a manner that makes cross-disciplinary
approaches to subject content difficult.
Major principles and concepts are at times lost in programmed teaching /
learning because knowledge is so broken down in small steps that the broad
aspects of the subject maybe lost.
4.3.5.6 Teacher prepared handouts
Handouts are normally prepared to :
Present some required information
Guide individual study and practice
Inform learners of objectives and evaluation procedures
Handouts give additional content not found in pupils textbooks but available in
rare textbooks available to the teacher only.
Question
How often do you use handouts in teaching your class. Are there
limitations in your plans when utilizing handouts?
4.4 Non-Print Media

This group includes audio (sound), visual, audio-visual media and teaching machines.
Audio media include radio, audiocassette, discs and the telephone. Visual media include
chalkboard, radio-vision, live lecture, silent film, overhead projector, filmstrips, slides
etc. Audio-visual media include television, videocassette 16-mm film, 8-mm film (with
sound), slides (with synchronized sound) etc. Teaching machines include computers and
microprocessors.
4.4.1 Audio Media
Audio media uses the sense of hearing. This is a very powerful sense as it accounts for
83% of what we learn. It is also known that we retain a substantial percentage of what
we hear. To utilize the hearing sense we use the ear. The human ear can respond to and
identify tones as low as 30 cycles per second (Hz.) to 15000 Hz. Speech maybe recorded
in the range 1000 to 2500 Hz. Musical events, drama, and panel discussions are recorded
in stereo to preserve the full dimensional quality of the original performance.
Audio materials constitute one of the most commonly used teaching / learning materials
in the classroom. The teacher can use ready made or design materials. The advantage of
making one's own materials are numerous but of importance are:
The teacher takes into account the objectives of the particular lesson
.The environment is taken into account
The needs of the learner are taken into account
The learners have a chance in collecting , assembling and manipulating parts
of the finished product
The urge to improvise locally available materials is highly encouraged
Audio materials are preferable because :
The materials are relatively cheap
The materials are readily available
The technical equipment required to record , edit or playback them are easy to
operate , they are portable , and can be used anywhere
They are open to improvisation , revision ,additions or omissions
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4.4.1.1 Radio
There is need to install a facility to produce radio programmes commonly known as a
studio . The studio must on the minimum have a mixer console , microphones for
presenters , record / disc playing decks also known as turntables , tape recording decks ,
editing facilities and monitoring facilities . Scriptwriters prepare materials for recording
as outlined in lesson ----- of this module.
4.4.1.2 Radiovision
This is a hybrid mode, which combines audio materials with visuals thus enabling multi-
sensory stimulation of the learner to take place. The audio materials can be combined
with textual materials, slides, or photographic materials. They are ideal for
individualized instruction.
4.4.1.3 Tape / Audio Cassette

When selecting a tape or cassette recorder for instructional purposes, we should bear in
mind portability and ease of use on one hand and ease of editing on the other hand . Tape
recorders also known as reel to reel provide for easy editing while cassette recorders are
portable and easy to use . Many portable tape recorders give reasonable performance for
special and popular music recording and reproduction although the frequency response
of cassettes is below the 15Khz audible by human beings.
4.4.1.4 Phono Discs , turntable / Record Player
These media were common and useful before the 1980's when the audiocassette
technology literally phased them out. They had the disadvantage of not being copied or
duplicated, although this was also good for copyright purposes.
4.4.1.5 Telephone
The telephone can be very useful as an instructional media especially for distance
education students. They can easily get in touch with their lecturers for individual
assistance. With good organization, it is also possible to network and carry out
teleconferencing. However, this is prohibited by the high telecommunication tariffs. In
addition, lack of infrastructure especially in rural areas makes it impossible to access
telephone facilities. The introduction of the cell telephone technology has slightly
improved accessibility though the cost is still prohibitive. The cell telephone has also in a
way opened new ways to phone-in participation, which are popular in most radio as well
as television programmes.
4.4.2 Visual Media
These instructional materials utilize the sense of sight only and normally require
to be accompanied by explanations from the teacher. They include the following
other items like chalkboard, and transparencies.
4.4.2.1 Chalkboard: This is the most common and widely used type of display media in
schools. Chalkboards may be used to give key words, outlines, diagrams graphs
and sketches. For an effective use of the chalkboard, the teacher should:
Plan to develop explanations on the board point by point as the lesson
proceeds.
Draw complex diagrams well in advance, cover them with a pull down
projection screen and remove only when ready to use. Always allow enough
time to the learner.
Use coloured chalk to make diagrams attractive and highlight important
information
Use templates made of plywood or heavy cardboard for tracing frequently use
shapes.
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4.4.2.2 Over Head Projector and Transparencies:

This is a useful visual aid to support mass instruction. It has largely replaced the
chalkboard despite its unavailability in most schools.
⇒ Advantages of Over Head Projectors (OHP)
The OHP has some advantages and these include the following:
The teacher can use it while facing the class unlike the blackboard.
It can be used to show prepared materials, which can be re-used repeatedly.
It is clean, quiet, and user friendly and requires minimum technical skills a
part from replacing the bulb.
It requires no room darkening thus, allowing pupils to take or make notes
simultaneously.
Note
♠ The Over Head Projector (OHP) is used to project transparencies that are
similar to large slides. I
♠ Over Head Projectors (OHPs) are capable of projecting large pictures in a
small screen.
♠ The transparencies can be visually used to present concepts, processes,
facts, statistics, outlines, and summaries to both small and large groups.
♠ A series of transparencies can be used systematically to present a well-
planned lesson.
⇒ Improving Presentations that Require the Use of an Over Head Projector
(OHP)
All presentations, which require the use of an OHP, may be improved by:
Using a pointer or lacer guided lights on the transparency to direct attention to
a detail.
Using a felt pen or a special pencil to add details or mark points on the
transparency during presentation.
Control the rate of presenting information by covering a transparency with
paper and exposing the data when you are ready to discuss each point.
Superimposing additional transparent sheet as overlays to add complexity to
the concept present in the base transparency.
Moving overlay sheets to rearrange elements of a diagram.
Simultaneously project other visual materials (on slides or in motion pictures)
that illustrate or apply the generalizations shown on the transparency.
⇒ Some Methods of Preparing Transparencies:
Some of the most common methods of preparing transparencies are:
Using felt pens.
On thermal film using a thermal copier, this is a good method of preparing
one coloured transparency from single sheets.
On electrostatic film using an electrostatic copy machine, the final product is
not as good as from the other methods stated above.
On diazo film using a diazo printer and developer. This is an excellent
method for preparing coloured transparencies. The method requires
translucent originals for it to work effectively.
Note:
While preparing transparencies, remember the following:
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Do not crowd the transparency with too much information.

Make characters of suitable sizes (minimum 6mm in height)
Provide satisfactory space in between the lines of the text.
Make thick lines for easy reading.
Select the most appropriate colours while considering light intensity and
strong image during projection.
Question
Discuss problems you may face while using an Over Head Projector in
teaching learning process.
Explain into details how to overcome some of the problems you have
mentioned above.
4.4.2.3 Slides
These are simple forms of graphic presentations. The main item of cost is taking
the photographs, but the slides themselves are easy and cheap to make and put
together. Slides consist of frames of 35mm or similar films mounted in
cardboards, metal or plastic binders often between glass sheets for added
protection. Many slides can also be arranged to form a filmstrip.
⇒ Advantages of Slides:
Some of the major advantages of slides are:
They are easier to make, handle, use, and store besides being cheap.
They are useful for showing photographs, diagrams and other graphics.
One main disadvantage of slides is that they require the room to be darkened.
This means that the learners cannot take note as the lesson continues.
⇒ Check List to be Considered while making Slides, and Film Strips:
Express the idea and limit the topic.
Decide whether the program is motivational, informative, and instructional or
not.
Consider your audience.
Prepare the content outline.
Organize the content and sketch the storyboard to assist in visualizing the
content as well.
Decide whether you need a single slide or filmstrip to achieve your objective.
Prepare a scene by scene script as guide.
Consider the specifications necessary for your materials.
If need be, select other people to assist in the preparation.
Note:
If need be, the slides may be accompanied by recorded and synchronized
narration. If used this way, slides may fall under audiovisual materials.
⇒ Uses of Slides and Filmstrips:
They may be used as informal comments in the lesson.
Formal reading narration.
As recorded narration and other sounds.
Question
Briefly, comment on the frequency of use and the quality of slides you
have used in one of your teaching lessons.
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4.4.2.4 Bhuruka
The name Bhuruka is a traditional name quite unknown to many people. It looks
like a clay bottle with a long narrow and small neck. It has a wider opening at the
bottom. It may also be used as a companion of media to supplement visual
programmes. The visual programmes may either be print or non-print media.
Whenever print media are the primary source of instruction, they can include
non-print visuals to make them look more effective in delivering information.
Note
• The learner when faced with four pictures as stated below, needs to
understand to some extent the explanation of the concept and use his
visual imagination of the non-verbal cues to name a Bhuruka without
fail. He therefore needs to understand the following:
• Clay
• Bottle
• Neck
• Small
• Wider and
• Opening.
When the learner already have an idea or know the meaning of a word,
print media often can suffice for teaching by bringing learning closer to
the student. However, when the learner is lacking such concepts and
knowledge, then visuals can accompany the print text to aid instruction.
• While considering the above concept of unknown word (Bhuruka),
we want now to use visual imagination of non-verbal cues to identify
a concept. Below is an activity for you to answer.
Activity IV E
Which one of the objects below is a Bhuruka ?
Explain in your own words how non-print media can come to aid instruction.
A B
C D
4.4.2.5 Other Non-Print Instructional Media are computers, photographic materials,

cameras, duplicating machines, photocopiers, fax machine, electronic mails (e-
mail), and typesetting with printers.
4.4.3 Audio-visual Media
These are those materials that combine both sound and vision. They are more
useful in teaching and learning as they appeal to both senses. Audiovisual
technology plays the following roles:
They provide the teacher with the means to extend the student's horizon of
experience
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They provide meaningful information

They stimulate student's interest
They guide student's response
They overcome physical limitations
They stimulate problem solving
They provide diagnostic and remedial tools.
4.4.3.1 Television:
Televisions may come in several formats. These may be open circuit televisions
(OCTV), close circuit televisions (CCTV), Cable Televisions, One-way
televisions, and Two-way televisions (Interactive). Television is a hybrid mode,
which combines audio materials with visuals, thus, enabling multi-sensory
stimulation of the learner to take place. The audio materials may be combined
with textual materials, slides or photographic materials. They are ideal for
individualized instruction. Problems of cost and maintenance inhibit the use of
TV in many areas. Features of TVs are similar to those of radio, but the visual
element of it gives an added dimension. So, given a choice, people will often
prefer TV to radio as they find it more interesting and the TV makes it possible to
use broadcasting for visual presentation. Television is of course ideal for
communication with illiterates. Some evidence exists that illiterates listen
educational TVs less often than literate viewers do.
4.4.3.2 Video Cassette/Recorder and Video Camera:

The use of video camera to produce instantly on location has slowly diminished
the educational quality as well as reliance on the film. Through its use, it is
possible for the learners in the field excursions or listening to a guest speaker to
record the events for future reference. The use of video camera also allows for
immediate use of the product. Comparatively, it is cheaper to do this than to
shoot and produce a film. Unlike films, it is not sensitive to light. Both loading
and unloading the tape is much simpler and easier. Both sounds and pictures are
more easily recorded together. It is also cheaper than the film and can be re-used
many times. It requires little effort to operate because you only need a video-
camera, a microphone, a videocassette, and an operator. It is also possible to
make many copies of instructional material directly and retain your copyright at
the same time.
4.4.3.3 Film:
Films can be used to present information, describe a process, clarify complex
concepts, teach a skill, condense and expand time and affect attitude of the user.
Compared to video, films have high resolutions, better colour fidelity, wider
exposure latitude, and greater contrast range. Films also produce superior
projected pictures especially when enlarged for large group viewing. The films
format especially the 16mm and the projectors are standardized. Motion picture
cameras and projectors require less maintenance than video equipment. However,
today, more advanced technological high-resolution digital video cameras are in
use.
Question
Discuss the merits and demerits of a film, a video camera and a
videocassette recorder as used for instructional purposes.
4.5 Operating Audio-visual Equipment:
Since the classroom can decide to use instructional materials, at anytime, it is
necessary for the teacher to know how to operate a large variety of media
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equipment. It is wrong for the teacher to be over dependent on a technician, as the

institutions may not be endowed enough to afford the much needed technical
staff. Since the institutions may have various equipment, they should have copies
of the manuals of operating instructions for each model of equipment. The
manuals contain detailed features of the equipment, their operations and minor
repairs if need be. It is important that all users maintain a high standard of
performance in order to realize the following benefits.
The cost of equipment maintenance their repair and replacement may be
minimized if the users know how to operate and maintain them.
Equipment can be kept in good working order/ condition for a maximum
amount of time so long as the users are well versed with their operations.
While producing sound, proper care must be taken into consideration by
ensuring that it is similar to the original one because the quality of sound is
affected by:
∗ The type and quality of the equipment used/selected and
∗ The skill of the operator while using the equipment.
⇒ Factors That Affect the Quality of Sound Produced during Playback.
Characteristics of the original sound.
Environmental conditions during /and in recording/playback.
Capability of the playback system to reproduce programme material in full
frequency and without distortion.
Ability of the operator to maintain the equipment.
Matching all the components in an audio system should be of equal quality
and have similar performance characteristics.
Note
For operating most of the equipment, the teacher as well as the learners
must master the use of controls such as the normal play, record, fast
forward, speed selection procedures, pause, dubbing, and rewind and
stop buttons. In some cases, the controls may be manual as well as
through a remote controlled device.
4.6 Locating Sources of Audio Visual Materials:

Having discussed most of the audio visual resources, we have seen that some of
them could be designed and produced by the teacher and the learners as well. It is
therefore advisable to note that the following materials are also available at the
following locations:
The Kenya Institute of Education (KIE)
The British Council Libraries
Teachers Advisory Centers
The Kenya National library Services
Learning Resource Centers of any Local Teachers Training Colleges.
Community Media Centers.
Media Centers in Other Schools.
Community Resources available within the locality such as factories.
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Question
Visit one of the locations where instructional materials can be found.
Enumerate the broad groups of audiovisual materials that can be found at
the location.
FURTHER READINGS
1. Brown, J.W. Lewis,R.B. Hracleod. AV Instruction: Technology, Media and
Methods.
2. Gloria F.(1981). The Educational Use of Mass Media. World Bank Staff Working
Paper No. 49. Washington D.C. 2OO4, USA.
3. Heinich, Molenda and Russel. Instructional Media.
4. Postgate R.ET.AL. Low Cost Communication Systems for Educational Development
Purposes in 3rd world countries. UNESCO Paris, 1979.
5. SAMSON M.R and Volker R.P. (1984).Media Playing and Production. Charles
Merril Publications Company A.Bell and Howell Company.
6. Wittich W.A.,and Schuller,C.F. Audio Visual Material : Their nature and use.Harper
and Row Publishers.3rd Ed. New York 1962.
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LESSON FIVE
EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING
5 . 1 Introduction
This LESSON tries to give a historical overview of educational broadcasting ,the
broad purposes of broadcasting and discusses some of the teaching qualities of radio
( audio ) and television when used in classroom teaching . The LESSON will also
look at the limitations of using live transmissions besides giving hints on how to
handle a radio lesson effectively . Finally the LESSON will take the reader through
the steps of producing an audio lesson .
5.2 What will you learn in this LESSON
By the time you finish reading this LESSON you should be able to:
• Narrate the historical development of educational radio and educational
television
• Discuss the purposes of using broadcasts in general and in relation to
teaching
• State and discuss the teaching qualities of radio and television as instructional
media
• State and discuss the limitations of using live transmissions of radio lessons
• Explain the preparations a classroom teacher should make prior to using a
broadcast lesson
• Explain the roles of the teacher and the pupils before , during and after
listening to or viewing a broadcast lesson
• Explain the kinds of follow up work to be done after the listening or viewing
session
Distinguish between centrally produced programmes and
institutional productions
• Plan and write an audio script for a radio ( audio ) lesson
• Carry out editing of an audio script or of an audio recording
• Prepare for and record an audio program using locally available equipment
• Develop support materials for the recorded materials
5.3 Definition Of Broadcasting

The first question we are going to ask is , What is broadcasting ? This question
can be answered by analyzing the word broadcasting. The word is composed of
two parts namely broad and casting . Turned the other way round the word
becomes casting broad. Broadcasting can therefore be looked at as casting
broadly messages to some audience just as the sower in the parable of the Sower
as outlined in the Holy Bible. The audience is therefore not within reach of the
source. The source must therefore employ the use of some channel. The channel
can be in the form of radio or television
Broadcasting can therefore be defined as the transmitting and distributing to the
general public information over the radio or the television. Educational
broadcasting can therefore be defined as the process of transmitting and
distributing to schools and the general public educational information over the
radio or the television. Educational broadcasting is mostly for schools and
colleges but it can also serve individuals working on their own at home. The
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learning system must be designed in such a way that it has the required support in
the form of printed package . The printed package should include the broadcast
timetable , teachers’ notes / manual , posters, diagrams, maps and any other
teaching materials deemed necessary by the producers .
5.4 Historical Development Of Broadcasting

The idea of passing messages through wireless apparatus was mooted around the
1890’s. However the breakthrough was made by an American Reginald
Fessenden on December 24 1906 when his station in Massachusetts ( USA )
transmitted voice and music over a distance of 24 kilometers to ships and shore
stations . Broadcasting to homes began in earnest in 1920.
Educational broadcasting in America developed out of efforts by educators to
establish radio stations for purposes of technical research and development rather
than to establish a viable new form of education . However from these humble
beginnings educational radio grew very quickly to encompass 171 stations by
1925 . The British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC) had its first public radio
service in November 1922 , and proceeded to pioneer international broadcasting
in November 1927 .
School broadcasting was started by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)
in 1924 (radio), followed by Japan in 1931, Australia and New Zealand in 1932,
India 1938, and Canada 1941. It extended to the third world in the 1950's .The
educational television followed later in 1957 (BBC) and 1959 (Japan) , and
extended to the third world in the 1960's notably in Ivory Coast , Thailand and
Latin America . In the USA most of the radio stations were owned by colleges
and universities who aimed at offering educational programs in college work and
extension courses , presenting programs of a broadly cultural nature that were a
cut above what was usually available from commercial stations and using the
facilities to train students in the techniques of broadcasting .
Educators were drawn into this medium because of its potentiality to reach large
audiences with ease and instantaneously, its ability to enlarge the effect of
teaching resources and also because it was appealing and contemporary. School
broadcasts enriched the learning process by offering experiences of the world
beyond the classroom walls , tapping the pupil’s experience on the immediate
environment and in the process making learning interesting . It was also thought
that a well-organized broadcast could do much to offset a poorly trained or poorly
motivated teacher. The setting was however not meant to replace the teacher but
rather to supplement his / her efforts.
Due to rapid technological development , educational radio just barely survived
the 1920’s through to 1940’s only to be confronted by stiff competition by
another technological advancement namely the television . In the 1950's new
patterns of media development emerged in form of the television. During this
period the educational radio was extended to the developing world. The early
enthusiasm for radio produced a natural counter-reaction, that is the fact that it is
purely audial. To some extent producing a wide range of accompanying support
materials (visuals) offset this. The television came out to be a powerful medium
of communication as it could be used to broadcast visual impressions of reality
through space . The television with its wider range of audiovisual resources
seemed to offer a new solution . Both the radio and the television had one
advantage of stretching the scarce resources (i.e. teachers and specialists) to
benefits several millions of pupils.
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Britain had started regular television broadcasts in 1937 and was joined by the
USA after the second World war . Japan followed by setting up its first
television station for regular broadcasting through the Japanese Broadcasting
Corporation , also known as the Nippon Hoso Kyokai ( HNK) in 1953 . Australia
expanded the operations of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC) in
1956 .
In Kenya, the Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC) started a School's
Broadcasting Service (SBS) in 1963. The service aimed at beaming its programs
to primary schools. At this time KBC used to broadcast BBC produced programs
to teach Mathematics and English. In 1965, the SBS became a division in the
ministry of Education. Later in the early 70’s the SBS became known as the
Educational Media Service (EMS) and was transferred to Kenya Institute of
Education (KIE). This was to enable it integrate its materials production with
printed materials production and curriculum development which was already
underway at KIE. The KIE itself had been established by an act of parliament in
1968, to among other things prepare educational materials connected with the
training of teachers and development of education and training.
By 1975, the air time allocated to school’s broadcasts was six hours a day, the
British Council offered scholarships to nine professional teachers to train at the
Kenya Institute of Mass Communication (KIMC) on how to produce radio
programs and supporting visuals. In 1976, the World Bank granted a loan to
enable the EMS develop facilities for audio, video, film, tape, slides and
photographic materials. However the use of these equipment has not been
maximized due to lack of funds . By 1991 the EMS was still producing only radio
programs for broadcasts . Television and film facilities have not been fully
functional due to the high cost of production . The only audio-visual materials
produced by the EMS have been for the exclusive use of the teacher training
colleges.
Upto 1995, the EMS produced and aired radio programs to primary , secondary
schools , teacher training colleges and in-service teachers .The Kenya
Broadcasting Corporation halted the service due to non payment of air time by
K.I.E .Television facilities had also been installed but due to the high costs of
production have not been fully functional.
5.5 Purposes Of Broadcasts

Generally there is no one particular best medium for instructional purpose .
However radio and television receive a high rating . Both media can be used for
training purposes , for practical instruction in agriculture and health , for talks on
national policies and priorities , for correspondence schooling , for community
development action , for study groups , for literacy and in training and
development campaigns such as family planning as well as for general
entertainment ( Ingle : 16) . Educational broadcasts when used effectively can
serve five purposes .
The first purpose served by educational broadcasts is that of educating the
audience. Every broadcast whether intended for schools or the general public
should have some educational value . For instance if the program is intended for
farmers and is on good farming methods , the content should educate the
audience on why they should use a particular fertilizer for a particular soil type.
For school broadcasts the purpose served foremost is that of educating the pupils.
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The content should as much as possible connect their daily experiences with the
content so as to help them explain their environment better. This is the element
that makes an educational program different from say a musical one ( not
intended to teach music as a subject ) . In the musical program the listener just
needs to enjoy the music but not concern himself with the vocals , the moods of
the composer , the instruments used or even the message contained in the song .
The second purpose served by broadcasts is to inform the audience . To most

people the radio and the television are gadgets through which they get to know
what is happening elsewhere . Through them we are able to get first hand
information instantly. Besides broadcasting news bulletins they give
announcements for functions , meeting etc. Admittedly , these news items as well
as announcements will have some educative element but on the whole they are
predominantly informative .
The third purpose of broadcasts is to entertain the audience . This is mainly

achieved through musical programs , dramas , screening football matches on
television and films . Again though a program might be aiming at entertaining the
audience there should be a message in it and this will inevitably introduce the
educative element . Educational broadcasts should however have some
entertainment , possibly restricted to some 10% or less of the total duration .The
amount of entertainment will depend on the level of the target audience , a
program for primary two pupils may use music for up to 60% of its duration
while a program for form three pupils might only use music for 5% of its duration
. The inclusion of music will partly vary the stimulus of the audience and partly
ensure that the audience is tuned in for a longer period than when the program
has no music intervals or music bridges.
The fourth purpose of broadcasts is to motivate the audience. This is mostly

evident in commercials . The commercials aim at changing the attitude of the
audience towards the advertised product. If it is medicine then a serious attempt
is made to give the impression that taking the medicine leads to instant recovery.
This approach has been found to motivate the audience thus leading to higher
sales of the product.
The fifth purpose of broadcasts is to change the behavior of the audience. This is
evidenced as a result of the four purposes already discussed. After a program has
educated , informed, entertained and motivated the audience , the hope is that it
will motivate the audience to behave in some desired pattern . For example, in a
family planning program , the audience is exposed to situations where unplanned
families undergo hardships. Exposing the youth to such educative programs
motivate them to change their behavior and tend towards having small families.
To summarize this section , we recall the definition of learning as that which

involves a relatively permanent change in behavior or performance as a
consequence of practice or experience rather than other influences such as
maturation , fatigue or drugs ( Ellis H. C ) It is important that educational
broadcasts work towards achieving the five purposes namely that besides being
educative , they must inform , entertain , motivate and finally change the
behavior of the pupils . Only then will learning be said to have taken place.
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5.6 Teaching Qualities Of Radio

Educational broadcasts have both strengths and weaknesses. The classroom
teacher should bear in mind these strengths and weaknesses as s/he plans for
instruction and especially in selecting the media to support the teaching.
Sometimes the teacher might have to use complementary media to make up for
the weaknesses of the radio or television. Live transmission of radio programs
have the following advantages / qualities’
(i) Inexpensive
Both the radio and the television have the advantage of stretching scarce
resources ( human and material) to benefit millions of listeners / viewers
.Radio is the cheapest medium for courses with more than 500 listeners . This
is true if the cost of production and transmission are taken into account. This cost
is about one fifth that of producing and transmitting a television program (
Jenkins : 17). Radio programs can be produced cheaply and on short notice
implying that the producers can be flexible. Replies to listeners queries ,
complaints or suggestions or information about future events can be broadcast
with little delay . If the suggestions imply that a program is not meeting their
needs , then changes can be rapidly instituted . Radio can also reach a larger
audience is and therefore the cost per capita is low. The receiving equipment is
relatively cheap, portable and can be operated on batteries as well as solar panels.
Television though expensive than the radio is still cheap compared to other media
. For television the only problem is that very few institutions can afford to
purchase and maintain it.
(ii) Up to date and immediate

The second teaching quality of radio and television is that the content carried is
both up to date and immediate. Comparing these two media with textbooks, one
finds that the textbooks can be several years out of date, whereas the broadcast on
the other hand brings fresh and up to date ideas, more recent than even what
the classroom teacher knows. A radio program can be aired on the same day it is
produced besides the radio can bring an event instantly to the listeners like
FA Cup, World Cup e.t.c. The tone of the broadcaster communicates shades
of meaning more than the newspaper story. The voice gives an impression of
personal contact which reduces the feeling of isolation often experienced by
learners when they use other forms of media.
(iii) Leaping Barriers of Space and Time.

The third teaching quality of both radio and the television is that they can leap
barriers of space and time . By using them we can reconstruct and bring the past
to the present by use of drama. In this way we can also leap forward and
dramatize future events . Radio can also pass messages to places that are
otherwise inaccessible. It is common knowledge that the new millenium has been
ushured in with the fact that the world has become a small village . Thanks to the
introduction of modes such as e-mail , internet and mobile cell phones. This
implies that one can access events that are happening thousands of kilometers
away through a combination of these new technology .
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(iv) Emotional impact .

The fourth teaching quality of radio and television is that the duo are also able to
bring dramatic feelings into the classroom thus creating emotional impact on the
learners . Content in some of the subjects can be very ‘dry’. Reading a text from a
textbook can be very boring , but if the same content is passed across through a
radio / television program then the listeners will be able to identify with the
voices , benefit from the voice variations and be motivated generally to listen to
and respond to the program content .
(v) Authenticity and Realism.

Radio and television can be used to bring the voice of an authority into the
classroom thus making learning authentic and real. The two can for example be
used to teach language through the use of native speakers. This would go along
way in offsetting problems faced by most teachers in such areas as pronunciation,
intonation and idioms. Through these media we can interview and record the
ideas of professionals such as doctors, teachers, trade unionists, veteran
nationalists, religious leaders and opinion leaders. These can then be brought to
class and used to teach history or any other subject .
(vi) Fostering imagination of the listeners.

The sixth teaching quality of radio and television is that through them the
producers are able to foster the imagination of the audience. Through radio the
producer creates a visual scene for the play or story that is being told in the
program . However it is worth noting that radio is rated higher than television in
this respect as it is easier to dramatize historical concepts with imaginary scenery
in radio than to realistically create the past in motion pictures for television. To
enrich radio we can complement its use together with pictures, slides and
illustrated texts.
Radio is also extremely effective where creative thinking , effective learning or
an imaginative response is required. Ideas can be stimulated or issues raised
through dramatic presentations , personal accounts or debates . Dramatic
presentations have been particularly effective for teaching people with limited
educational background ( Jenkins:17)
5.7 Limitations Of Live Radio Broadcasts .

As mentioned earlier in this LESSON every medium has strengths and
weaknesses and it is therefore incumbent on the teacher to take this into account
every time s/he selects media to use in classroom instruction. The limitations
discussed in this section apply mostly to live radio transmissions. Live
transmission of radio programs have the following limitations ( or weaknesses ):-
(i) Concentrated attention .

Radio being an audial media requires a high degree of concentration from the
listener in view of its dependence on the aural sense (we learn only 11% through
the aural sense and 83% through the sense of sight). However it is advantageous
when teaching or listening to musical programs. This limitation forces the
producer to make the program presentation interesting so that the audience can
stay tuned . One way of doing this especially for young learners is to make the
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programs have attractive musical interludes that adversely reduce boredom.

Better still the length of the program should be appropriate , normally a 20
minute program is most suitable ( Survey : ).
Television on the other hand rates high on this point as it has both sound and
vision and is perceived by both the eye and the ear .
(ii) One way Communication .

The second limitation of both radio and the television is the lack of interactive
facility that is the listeners have no way of talking back to the presenter. In
normal teaching / learning there is need for the learner to be able to get back at
the presenter ( teacher ) through verbal as well as non-verbal reactions . This is
not possible when using radio or the television as the communication is one way
namely from the teacher to the learner . The classroom teacher and the pupils
have to simply receive the content and not interact with the station . The
classroom teacher should strive to bridge the gap through both the preview and
the review of the broadcast. The classroom teacher can explain the new words,
ideas, concepts before the broadcast as a way of preparing the pupils for listening
. Another way of encouraging participation would be to integrate activities
that would require the listener to respond while the radio teacher has given a
task and paused. The teacher can also arrange for serious discussion of the
broadcast content after each radio lesson.
(iii) Timing and scheduling.

The media service ( in our case the Educational Media Service ) follows a
timetable sent out to schools earlier that spells out the time and day for the
subjects to be taught through radio that year . These timetables reach schools late
with some not reaching their destinations at all . Again within schools, school
timetables do not agree with the transmission timetable with most of them being
out of phase with the broadcast timetable. Also the order of topics in the teachers’
notes may not synchronize with the school teacher's schemes of work. This lack
of harmony leads to schools ignoring the transmissions. One disadvantage of
using broadcasts is that unless there are repeat transmissions of each program the
classroom teacher must commit himself / herself to the series well in advance by
way of knowing exactly what its content and approach will be . In this regard the
media service or broadcasting station should avail timetables as well as
general information on the content and approach of the radio lessons as early as
possible ( seven months is fair ) . The information can be in the form of teachers’
notes giving a detailed program outline, suggestions for further work and
questions for further discussions on the broadcasts.
The class teacher should carefully integrate the broadcast content into his / her
daily lesson planning, otherwise students can become confused between the topic
of the broadcast and the topic they are studying during the rest of the class time .
One way of doing this is by using recorded materials instead of tuning in for the
'live' broadcast . The individual schools can make arrangements to copy these
audio materials at the Media service.
For students, if they are adults, a complete and clear statement of aims and a
detailed summary of the content to be learned should be availed, they should also
get information on program outlines, dates, times and station frequencies , the
notes should also include suggestions for reading or other preparatory work .
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In developed countries there is usually a station set aside for school broadcasts
but in developing countries this is a luxury and it is not uncommon to find the
same station beaming out educational material and at times catering for other
national needs such as presidential functions. The situation is worse in the case of
the television as it usually operates outside school hours (mainly late afternoon to
midnight) thus making it impossible for schools to benefit from the broadcasts.
This timing problem forces schools to ignore educational broadcasts.
(iv) Administrative problems.
The receiving equipment namely the radio set or the television must be well
maintained if the users are to benefit from it. The operation cost is sometimes
very high and this forces some schools not to use them. The equipment should
always be in an excellent operating condition , be properly tuned in on time and
be available when needed. Sometimes there maybe only one radio set in a multi-
streamed school. There maybe no large room where all the streams may listen or
view the program together. In such cases inevitably some pupils might have to
miss the broadcast. That is why there should be provision for repeat transmissions
of each program to cater for such cases. The ministry of education should in
conjunction with the media service organize for regional centres at district or
provincial level to repair and maintain the radio sets.
(v) Reception.
Reception of the transmission is yet another limitation. The electromagnetic
waves that carry the signals are often weak especially when they have to go
round mountains. Places far away from the transmitting station suffer from poor
reception. There is also lack of booster stations to strengthen the reception. In
Kenya, areas far away from Nairobi (where the transmission is done ) do not
receive the General Service well , yet it is through the general service that the
school broadcasts are aired out. The government of Kenya has over the years
made efforts to set up booster stations across the country to improve the
reception. When the reception is poor, the pupils will not be able to listen and
benefit from the radio broadcast. Poor reception can also be due to poor weather.
(vi) No pre-hearing and re-usability.

Radio and television have no provisions for previewing and reusability. Whereas
it is possible to revise a chapter in a textbook, ask a teacher to repeat a piece of
explanation, it is not possible to "turn back a page' of a radio program to review.
The pupils must be encouraged to make careful, concentrated use of the
broadcast while it is occurring. The class teacher should read and understand the
teachers' notes well before the broadcast to acquaint himself with the content.
(vii) Level of listeners .

During the production of the broadcast material, the script writer , producer and
media specialist assume an average listener. Therefore the product maybe too
advanced for some pupils and yet too low for some. The classroom teacher
should therefore make an attempt to bridge the gap in ability. The gap can be
bridged by preparing pupils in well in advance for the broadcast , conducting
them through the broadcast and finally during the follow up.
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5.8 Solutions To Some Of The Limitations .

Most of the limitations discussed above can be overcome by the use of recordings
instead of using the 'live' transmissions . The teacher must decide well in advance
how s/he wants to integrate the programmes into the schemes of work .
Sometimes it is advisable for the teacher to prepare to record the series and use
them at a convenient time , this is so because radio programmes are suitably used
when in recorded form . Once the materials are dubbed, the class teacher can :-
(i) Use parts of the audio lesson interpersed with the teaching, that is s/he can pause
the tape recorder/ audio cassette recorder and discuss a point before proceeding
with the listening.
(ii) Pause the equipment each time a response is called for, and allow pupils to
respond at their own pace.
(iii) Use the recording as and when the scheme of work allows and breathe a sigh of
relief from the tight schedule of the 'live' transmission.
(iv) Use the same materials for other streams at different times as well as use it in
subsequent years.
(v) He/she will have solved the problem of poor reception as s/he can use the audio
recording at any time and anywhere. S/he can also rewind sections to allow
pupils to listen again.
5.9 How To Handle A Broadcast Lesson.

The teacher should well in advance go through and understand the teachers’ notes
on the series s/he intends to use . At this stage an attempt should be made to
match the material with the schemes of work . The teacher must also be sure that
that s/he knows the transmission date and time and where possible adjust the
school timetable accordingly. The teacher’s role in the successful utilization of
broadcasts to schools can be accomplished in three stages :
(i). Just before the broadcast , the class should be seated about 15 minutes early.
The class teacher should spare enough time ( say 10 minutes ) to allow for
revision of previous related work and also introduce new words likely to come up
during the radio lesson . In case there are such new words or terms the teacher
should write them on the chalkboard and explain them well in advance. The
pupils can also prepare by reading appropriate printed matter , collect some realia
if required , do some writing , study some graphics and attempt related questions .
The teacher should display the required graphics or other materials if advised to
do so in the teacher’s notes . If the listeners are adults , the teacher can avail the
objectives and detailed summary of the lesson content , these can be used to set
induct the listeners .The teacher should decide on how to integrate the
programme into the daily teaching , otherwise the programme should be dubbed
and used when appropriate . Resource materials such as maps , charts , posters
and textbooks the programme would be referring to. Finally the teacher should
set the radio or television set taking into account the acoustics of the room in
particular in arranging pupils with hearing / viewing problems .
(ii). During the broadcast the class teacher must be physically present to listen ,
view and react to the programme together with the pupils , absorb the content
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and be completely tuned in . If the series is to refer to certain texts , the texts
should be made available well in advance , the reference pages for a particular
broadcast be communicated to the pupils in good time .. S/he should assist with
spellings , tracing routes on a map pointing at a graphic as and when they are
referred to by the radio teacher . The chalkboard may be useful for writing on
new words ( detailed in the teacher’s notes ) , drawing a map , diagram , or a
chart , or even projecting something using an opaque projector . S/he should
encourage pupils to perform learning activities as demanded by the radio teacher .
Pupils ( especially younger learners ) must be discouraged from note taking but
simply listen to the broadcast .
(iii). After the broadcast there should be no time gap ( even of hours ) between
programme transmission and follow up , it is often difficult to recapture the
interest aroused at a later date . The teacher can do follow-up by way of
discussion or assignment.
The class can break into small groups and hold discussion. The group leaders can
then report to the entire class, this is ideal for mature learners.
The teacher should summarize the main points, the pupils can do this under the
teacher's guidance. In other words the class teacher should reinforce the main
points of the lesson , expand on the new words ,allow for pupils questions and
follow up the radio teacher’s assignment . The assignment can be provided in
form of a project. This assignment should motivate the learner to listen to further
broadcasts .
References
1. Wittich W. A and Schuller C.F . Audio-visual materials . Harper and
Brothers . New York.
2. Standa , Patel and Ayot. Multi-media approaches for teachers .[ a
prototype ]. A project sponsored by UNESCO.
Regional office. Dakar. 1982.
3. Walter A.W & Schuller C. Instructional technology : Its nature and use
5th edition. Harper Brothers . New York .
4. Mukwa C.K Design and use of Educational Media in
primary education .Nairobi .
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LESSON SIX
COMMUNITY RESOURCES FOR LEARNING
6.0 Introduction
First-hand experience offers an opportunity for effective learning. Through first-hand
experiences learning becomes much more interesting, concrete and life-like. First-hand
experience also leads to the development of a wide range of important skills such as
creativity, observation and many social-relating skills. One way of involving learners in
first-hand experiences is through the use of community resources. This lesson will deal
with issues related to the planning for and effective us
of the various types of community resources.
6.1 Objectives
1. Define the term Community Resources.
2. Recognize different types of Community Resources.
3. Make good selection of Community Resources to suit particular topics in
specified subject areas.
4. Plan for the use of various types of Community Resources.
5. Recognize the benefits and limitations pertinent to the use of Community Resources
for learning.
Types of Community Resources

Community resources are common-place experiences that are found within a
community outside a school. Community resources can be used to enable the learner get
first-hand contact with the reality of issues to be learnt. Community resources can be
categorized into four groups; namely, people, places, activities and things.
6.3.0 How to Use Community Resources in Teaching and Learning

We shall examine below the various types of community resources with respect
to how best to use each for instructional purposes.
6.3.1 People
People as resources may be referred to variously as person, speaker, guest or even
visitor. Obviously, the term one opts for will depend on one’s particular context.
People as resources can be categorized into two groups; namely, the professional group
and the experience group. The professional group comprising persons with specialized
knowledge; in other words, they are professionals by training. They include teachers,
doctors, nurses, lawyers, among others. The experience group, on the other hand,
comprises persons who have gained knowledge and skills by virtue of length of service
or by virtue of having had some special experience or encounter. Persons in this group
include some ranks of civil servants, some politicians, farmers, traders, and so on.
Unlike the professionals, persons in the experience group are not usually
governed by specific rules and regulations; consequently, a teacher who plans to use
such persons ought to pay a little more attention to what they say. Persons in the
experience group may give as fact what is actually a personal opinion. This is not to say
that their contribution to learning is in any way lessened or diminished, it only means
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that there is a small chance that some part of information they may give may be
somewhat biased or may have been exaggerated in a bid to emphasize a point.
As teachers, we must be sensitive in ensuring that what the learner receives is correct
information; information that will allow the learners make valid interpretation of their
experiences. Any wrong or biased information must be corrected by the teacher at
earliest possible. Obviously, it would be disrespectful to voice criticism against the guest
and contradict him/her in front of the class. Thus, one must be diplomatic and tactful and
avoid any actions that may be embarrassing or demeaning to the guest while at the same
time paying attention to the need to correct mistaken impressions.
People as resources may either be visited where they work or live, or
invited to come to class- whichever is easiest.
Planning for the use of a resource person should take into account the following
considerations:
1. Specify the lesson objective.
2. Interact with the guest formally or informally to ascertain whether the person
meets your expectations.
3. Once you are convinced the person meets your expectations, then, invite
him/her formally and brief him/her well on the following issues:
(a) the learning objective for the class,
(b) the level of the learners,
(c) the learners’ expectations, characteristics, and interests,
(d) offer suggestions for the use of visual aids,
(e) let the guest know how much time s/he will have for
presentation, and
(f) finalize issues regarding the date and time for the lesson as
well as transport arrangements if needed.
4. On the appointed day and time, be on hand to receive the guest. You will need to
adhere to the following requirements during the lesson:
(a) briefly introduce the guest to your class before calling upon him/her to
talk to the class. You must remain in class throughout the lesson presentation and
lead any discussion that may arise,
(b) after the presentation and any other activities such as
discussions and questions, give a word of thanks. You may also find it useful to
have a volunteer student thank the guest on behalf of the class.
5. Finally, at an appropriate time or day after the
lesson, say the next lesson, provide learners with a suitable task to round up the
lesson. This activity or task is referred to as a follow-up activity. The activity could,
for example, be a discussion, a reaction paper, a project, practising a skill, and so on.
The use of persons as resources can have
many important benefits. One is that persons provide for the much needed role-
models or models of excellence in specific areas of the curriculum (science,
literature, art and so on); such models are needed to inspire and motivate the
learners. Further, exposure to leading lights in the community and the wider society
has a powerful influence on learners’ in terms of among other things future career
choices
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6.3.1 (b) Questions

Cast your mind to your school days.
Are there any adult persons that you admired?
If applicable, in what specific ways have these persons influenced your life?
Would you encourage the involvement of role models in school? Why or why not?
6.3.2 Places
Places as community resources can be variously referred to as: trips- (class, study, school
and field), excursion, journey or visit. There are many locations within a
community around the school that contain facilities that can be used to demonstrate
certain ideas and concepts. These include: factories, zoos, game parks, museums, art
exhibitions, railway stations, airports, market places, irrigation projects, health clinics,
training institutes, sloping fields, lakes, forests, and so on.
A visit to a place should of necessity start with a visit to the site by the
teacher. This is because places are not usually intended for learning purposes. By using
them for learning, we merely try to accommodate a function for which it is not
designated. It is necessary, therefore, to determine whether the visit will yield any
worthwhile outcomes in order to avoid any disappointments. Take, for example, a
biology class whose objective requires the learner to describe the movements of various
acquatic animals. This class is likely to be disappointed were it to visit a nearby pond or
river without prior confirmation of its learning possibility. In this lesson, the teacher
would have recognized the futility of taking the learners to the site because the chance to
observe the animals in murky waters is bound to be minimal. The teacher would have
been better advised to restructure the lesson by bringing to class an acquarium containing
the animals to be studied by the learners.
In some cases, initial visit to a place involves making prior
arrangements and seeking permission from a host. It would be foolhardy to expect to use
such facilities as factories or institutions without prior consultation, because such
facilities do not exist to serve educational functions. Moreover, it is courteous to do so.
Thus, to ensure the proper use of places as community resources, it is necessary that all’s
in place first before taking the learners to the site.
Aside from the involvement of the host, other
preliminary arrangements include:
(a) stating the lesson’s objective, and
(b) advising the learners to bring with them their note books.
On visiting a designated place, it is advisable to collect
literature and specimens for future use in class upon your return. Such
items may prove invaluable in conducting class discussions, performing
skills, and working on projects. It would also help to record the lesson on
photograph or video tape; of course, the permission of your host must be
sought first. Recordings may come in handy in subsequent years if it so
happens that your class is not able to visit the place for whatever reason
there may be. Upon your return to school, provide the
class with a suitable follow-up activity; such as, a discussion, a project,
and so on. It would also be a good idea to write a report for the school’s
administration specifying important information that may be useful to any
other teacher who may so wish to use the facility in future.
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6.3.2(b) Note
The use of any community resource should culminate in involvement of learners in a

suitable follow-up activity. This helps to round up everything by bringing to the attention
of the learners the expected learning outcomes. It ensures that the activity is not merely
recreational activity.
6.3.3 Activities or Events

Community activities can also be referred to as events. They include such activities as:
play performances, agricultural shows, farmer’s field days, festivals, religious
gatherings, among others. Special care must be taken when planning to use community
activities, because they are usually completely out of a teacher’s control. The teacher
usually has no control over the content of the activity, its timing, duration, and so on. For
this reason, therefore, it would help if the teacher were to familiarize with the activity
prior to taking the class. Familiarization may take the form of say: attending an earlier
show if the event happens to be running for more than one day; talking to the organizers
of the event and getting to know more about it; reading about the event in the
newspapers, brochures, and advertisements. Any information about the activity will most
likely go a long way in helping the teacher make the decision about whether to take
learners to the event or not.
In making the decision to attend an activity, the teacher will need to consider
such extraneous factors as costs (entry fees, travel and accommodation), the duration of
the activity, and so on. All these and other factors will be considered in relation to the
learning benefits. It may so happen that rather than take the learners to the event; it
would be prudent for the teacher to attend, collect any pictures, literature and specimens
and then mount a presentation for the benefit of the class. Another possible alternative
would be to record the event on video tape or tape recording (whichever is applicable)
for subsequent play-back to the class. Of course, the expressed permission of the
organizers of the event must be sought for reasons of copyright.
If the teacher decides to take learners to the event, then,
s/he needs to brief the learners well on what to look for, the etiquette to be adhered to,
and so on. Upon return to school, at an appropriate lesson, the teacher should provide a
suitable follow-up activity; say a brief report on what they saw or learnt, their
impressions, misgivings, anxieties, and so on.
6.3.3 (b) Activity
In one of your teaching subjects, list all the topics to be covered in a particular term by a
named form or class level. Under each topic, suggest the kinds of community activities or
events you could engage your learners in.
6.3.4 Things
Things can be variously referred to as objects, artifacts, real things and
specimens. In educational technology, the technical term usually used to refer to things is
realia. Things or realia are artifacts and other items found within a community
that can be used to illustrate, compare or clarify an idea or concept. The ranges of things
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that can be used to aid the learning of various topics in various subject areas are
enormous. Examples of some of these items include: animals (dead or alive), animal
parts, plants, tools, antiques, foods, art objects and so on.
It is good advice for a teacher to be familiar with the kinds
of items within the community that can be used to teach different topics in his/her subject
area. It would also be a good idea to involve the learners in collecting some of the items.
Collection of items should be done in a systematic manner involving planning, research,
preservation, mounting, labeling and displaying in interesting ways.
6.3.4 (b) Question
What is the purpose of each of the following actions involving collection and use of
things as community resources: 1. Research, 2. Preservation, 3. Mounting, 4. Labelling
and 5. Display
6.4.0 The Benefits of Community resources

There are no doubts that the use of community resources can lead to
meaningful and effective learning. Community resources provide the vital link between
abstractions taught in the classroom and appearing in textbooks and the world of reality
in which the learner lives. It is also well-known that real-life experiences tend to
stimulate learners’ interest in learning. This is perhaps because real-life adds more
meaning and authenticity to what is being learnt. Aside from capturing a learner’s
interest and bringing about effective learning, use of community resources also results in
mastery of important skills pertinent to individual and social development. Such skills
include creativity, observation, leadership, communication, among others.
Community resources can also help positively change a
learners attitudes towards the society in which s/he lives. It provides an opportunity for
exposure and the active participation in the real-life affairs of the community; thereby,
helping the youngsters to adjust and understand the problems faced by their community
and the wider society.
6.4.4 Limitations of Community Resources

As with all good things, there is none that has no limitation however rudimentary
the limitation may be. Happily, however, in the case of community resources the
limitations are few and can be minimized through a teacher’s ingenuity. Indeed, the
limitations are due mostly to teachers’ shortcomings than the resources themselves. One
limitation touches on the time factor. Some resources are likely to consume a lot of time;
for instance, a study trip may take a day or more. But it may well be that a day or more
taken in fieldwork may prove more productive in terms of effective learning than the
time spent sitting in a classroom. A prudent teacher may also find it useful to schedule
some of the trips for the school holidays. Another limitation concerns the cost factor.
Costs will be incurred in form of entrance fee, travel expenses, food and accommodation.
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6.5.0 Summary
In this lesson, we have seen that first-hand experience through the use of community
resources should result in effective learning because it is interesting, concrete and life-
like in its nature. In addition to this, involvement in community resources is likely to lead
to the development of a wide range of individual and social skills. Effective use of
community resources require careful planning by the teacher to ensure productive use of
time and meaningful learning.
6.6.0 Definition of Key Terms
Community resources These are common-place experiences within a

community outside the school. They enable the learner
get first-hand contact with the reality of issues to be
learnt.
First-hand experiences These are real-life learning opportunities involving the
use of people, places, events and things.
6.7.0 Further Reading

Brown, J.W., AV Instruction: Media and Methods. MacGraw-Hill Bk. Co., 1973.
Dale, E., Audiovisual Methods in Teaching (3rd Ed), The Dryden Press Inc., 1969.
Erickson, C. and D.H. Curl (Eds), Fundamentals of Teaching with Audiovisual
Technology (2nd Ed), The MacMillan Co. Ltd., 1972.
LESSON SEVEN
TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONAL MEDIA
7.0.0 Introduction
In this lesson, we shall concern ourselves with two and three-dimensional
kinds of media and some of the skills required to produce them. Essentially, 2- and 3-D
media (as they are often referred to) are separate media and as such we shall discuss
them in this lesson separately. We shall begin with 2-D and then follow with 3-D.
7.1.0 Objectives
1. Define 2-D and 3-D media.
2. Identify the different kinds of 2-D and 3-D media.
3. Discuss the special advantages of 2-D and 3-D media for instruction.
4. Produce 2- and 3-D instructional materials relevant for the teaching/learning of
specified topics for particular classes.
5. Critique 2-D and 3-D materials in terms of their suitability for learning.
6. Suggest a variety of methods for storing 2-D and 3-D materials.
7.2.0 Two- Dimensional Media or Graphic Instructional Materials

Graphic instructional materials or simply graphics are teaching/learning
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materials that use a combination of drawings, words and pictures to communicate facts
and ideas clearly and concisely.
Graphic materials have always been among the most useful and versatile aids at the
disposal of a teacher. Their general benefits are that:
1. They are relatively inexpensive and may be obtained at little or no cost,
2. They are easy to use as they require no equipment or hardware,
3. They are applicable to all subject areas in the curriculum and at different levels
of education.
Their benefits from an instructional view-point are that they help to:
1. Visualize ideas or concepts that would otherwise be difficult to understand if
treated only in words; they make abstract concepts and ideas a little more real.
2. Simplify complex concepts by highlighting features.

3. Summarize certain types of information and ideas such as statistical data.
4. Motivate learning in that the interest of learners is increased when the materials
are used.
7.3.0 Kinds of Graphic Instructional Materials

Graphic materials include: charts, diagram, graphs, posters, maps, and
cartoons and comics. Besides these six materials, we can also add pictures and
photographs. The boundary between one and another kind of graphic material is often
blurred; for example, where does a chart begin and a diagram end. Despite this, we shall
attempt below to define each of the six kinds of graphic materials.
7.3.1 Charts
A chart is a combination of pictorial, numerical or verbal materials
designed to present a clear visual summary of an important process or set of
relationships. A well-designed chart should communicate its message primarily through
the visual channel; the verbal material should only supplement the visual material and
not the reverse. Depending on the information presented on a chart, charts can be
classified into the following groups:
1. Classification charts, are used to classify or
categorize object, events and so on; for example, taxonomy of animals, parts of speech,
foods and the like. 2. Flow or process charts, show a sequence,
procedure or as the name implies the flow of a process. These charts are usually
presented on a horizontal format. 3. Relationship or organizational charts,
they show a chain of command in an organization; for example, a company or a
government department. 4. Tabulation charts, usually display
information in form of a table; for example a time table, a scheme of work and so on.
5. Chronology charts, show time
relationships or historical sequence of events. In addition to the above,
another form of charts is the flip-chart. A flip-chart comprises a pad of large sized paper
fastened together at the top. The individual sheets each holds/presents a limited
verbal/visual message that is arranged for a sequential presentation to a group of people.
7.3.2 Diagrams, Drawings and Sketches

Diagrams, drawings and sketches mean more or less the same things; in
general however, a diagram is a more finished representation than a sketch. A diagram
can be defined as a drawing illustrating the main features of an object, process or area.
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Generally, diagrams should be simple and bold.
7.3.3 Graphs
A graph is a visual representation of numerical data. It usually
allows people to grasp quickly and accurately the masses of statistical data. Forms of
graphs include: line graphs, bar graphs, circle graphs, or pie-charts. The form of graph
you choose will depend on the complexity of the information you wish to present and
the level of your audience.
7.3.4 Maps
A map is a flat representation of some or the entire earth’s surface on a
scale. Maps are tricky to use in front of an audience, because the features presented on a
map may be too tiny to be visible to an audience. Consequently, every effort must be
made to produce “readable” maps. Readable maps can be achieved by: matching
function to size of the map, avoiding irrelevant details, and making good use of colour.
Maps may be used to show many kinds of information; for
example, surface features, places and their directions and distances, scientific data such
as ocean currents, socio-cultural factors such as population and language patterns,
boundaries, and economic data.
7.3.5 Posters
A poster is a visual combination of bold design and colour and/or a brief
written message. It is meant to instantly catch attention and convey the message.
Usually, a poster deals with one idea at a time. It must also be clear and large enough to
be read from a good distance.
7.3.6 Cartoons and Comics

A cartoon uses satire, caricature or exaggeration to represent pictorially
ideas, persons, groups or situations. It is serious in intent and has the power to capture
attention and influence behaviour. Most cartoons have the following features: minimal
details, familiar symbols and characters and stereotypes that are quickly recognized and
understood. The message is usually crispy and clearly communicated.
Cartoons can prove to be very useful tools in a number of subject areas in the
school curriculum; particularly, languages and social studies. In social studies, for
instance, cartoons have proved to be an effective means of motivating current events
discussions and examining different political views. Valuable learning also results from
learners drawing their own cartoons. Note that cartoons can be an indispensable tool in
changing peoples’ attitudes; this is because people respond better to sensitive
information through this means as opposed to information that is written or spoken. A
comic is a form of cartoon in which characters enact a story in a sequence.
7.3.7 Questions
Distinguish between the following graphic materials:

1. A chart and a diagram
2. A map and a graph
3. A cartoon and a comic.
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7.4.0 Some Production Considerations

The effectiveness of any graphic material is largely dependent on its production
quality. It must be emphasized that like any skill, improvements in the production of
these materials can only be achieved through constant practice. Here below, an attempt
is made to provide some useful guidelines to improve production skills. The guidelines
are discussed under the three headings: composition/layout, lettering and illustrations.
7.4.1 Composition/Layout
1. Select appropriate size of working area. The area should be large enough to be seen by
the entire class/audience.
2. Consider whether the information is better suited with the working surface positioned
horizontally or vertically. Note that posters are almost always presented in a vertical
format; whereas tabulation charts are generally positioned horizontally.
3. Choose for presentation only the major points since only few points can realistically
be shown in a graphic material. Note that a graphic material deals with only one idea at a
time.
4. Use as much of the working area as possible, leaving only a reasonable margin
around the area.
5. Work out the general layout on the area faintly in pencil first before adding colour.
7.4.2 Lettering
1. Make use of horizontal guidelines drawn faintly in pencil. These should help mark the
heights of letters.
2. Lower case (small) letters when used together with upper case (capital) letters are
usually half the height of capitals.
3. Some lower case letters (with descenders) extend downwards and some (with
ascenders) extend upwards to heights equal to that of their bodies.
4. Ascenders and descenders could be vertical but all must be parallel to each other.
6. Lines between sentences should be far apart so that ascenders and descenders do not
touch.
7. Space between words should be about one letter space and between sentences about
two letter spaces.
8. Use simple and bold lettering style.
9. Use colour and if this is not available then underline for emphasis.
7.4.3 Illustrations
Illustrations could comprise photographs, drawings, paintings, diagrams,
maps or actual specimens.
1. Their quality will depend largely on their clarity and suitability for the intended
purpose.
2. Drawings and diagrams should be simple and bold.
3. Make use of colour, it adds realism as well as attraction to a given work.
4. Select harmonious and effective colour.
6. For accuracy, reduction or enlargement of pictures, make use of such methods as
grid, projection and templates if necessary.
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7.4.4 Activity
Choose a topic from one of your teaching subjects and produce a suitable graphic
instructional material to illustrate some aspect of the content.
7.5.0 Criteria for Good Graphics

A good graphic material should be:
1. Clear in that, its production technique brings out the message clearly.
2. Precise in that, the message is straight forward.
3. Accurate in that, the information presented is authentic in all respects.
4. Simple in that, it is not loaded with unnecessary details.
5. Bold in that, it is big enough to be seen at a good distance.
7. Readable in that, it can be interpreted by the intended audience.
8. Interesting in that, it is well made, attractive to look at, tidy and well-preserved.
9. 7.5.1 Activity
Take three graphic instructional materials that have been produced and used by teachers
in teaching their lessons and critique each of them using the above criteria of good
graphics.
7.6.0 Three-Dimensional Media

Types of three dimensional materials include:
1. objects, real things or specimens (Realia),
2. models in general, and
3. special types of models (Dioramas and Mock-ups).
We shall discuss each of the above media in respect to what they are and
how best to use them to enhance instruction.
7.6.1 Objects or Real Things

An object is a real thing. The technical term for objects in Educational
Technology is- realia. Specimens, on the other hand, are objects that are representative
of a group or class of similar objects. a specimen in Biology, for instance, would be say
an animal or plant used to exemplify say a species or a variety.
Real things are effective for teaching and learning because they make the
learning situation more concrete and authentic, interesting and provide for a more
detailed close-up study. Examples of things or objects that can be used for instructional
purposes include: rock collections, soil types, animals and plants whether whole or parts,
man-made items like traditional artifacts and machines, types of foods, and so on.
Some of the things normally collected as hobbies, such as coins
and stamps can be very useful as teaching aids for illustrating historical events,
architecture, philosophy, and so on. Other collectables that can be used for learning
include: pressed flowers, mounted insects and butterflies, recepies, rocks and stones,
pictures, postcards and photographs, and newspaper articles. In the case of pictures and
newspaper articles, a keen teacher will find it useful to open thematic files on a variety of
topics ordinarily covered in his/her subject.
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Although real things are sometimes accumulated in schools

in a random and unsystematic fashion; collection that involves careful planning,
research, classification, organization, mounting, preservation, storage and displaying in
meaningful and interesting patterns always lead to better learning outcomes.
7.6.2 Models
Models are related to objects in that they are 3-D impressions or
representations of things or objects. Models are 3-D equivalents of things and objects as
drawings and pictures are 2-D equivalents.
There are certain teaching/learning circumstances when the use of models is called for. It
may be that the real thing is difficult to acquire or come by because it is: too large (as the
case of the solar system), too small (as the case of an atom), poses some safety problems,
or does not provide for effective study of its interior view (as the case of the tooth).
Characteristics of models are that:

1. They are three-dimensional in that they posses height, length and width as opposed to
2-D which possess only height and length.
2. They can reduce or enlarge objects to an observable size.
3. They can provide an interior view of some objects.
4. They simplify complex objects and help in explaining them.
5. They accent or emphasize important features by say adding colour or texture to the
significant parts.
7. They can be made, if so desired, in a way that they can be assembled and
reassembled as the case of a model of the heart.
7.6.3 Mock-ups
A mock-up is an operating model usually at full scale designed to be
worked with directly by the learner for specific training. Mock-ups have many
applications in training such as in the training of pilots, first aid work, and so on. In such
cases as for others, there is a risk in the learner training on the real thing before s/he has
mastered the basics.
7.6.4 Dioramas
A diorama is usually se up on a miniature stage with a group of modelled
objects and figures in the foreground which is blended into a realistically painted
background. A diorama can be used by a teacher to for example teach how layout such
scenes as an ideal farm or a traditional African village. Dioramas are often used in
agricultural shows, in museums and by architects. They can be used in language teaching
to help learners construct sentences, or to teach traffic rules to driver-trainees, among
other uses.
7.6.5 Question
For each of the following special models suggest a learning activity that would lend itself
to its use: 1. Diorama and 2. Mock-up
7.7.0 Considerations for the Production of Models

Models can be made from a wide array of materials, most of which are in many
cases discarded. Models, therefore, should not be very expensive to produce. Examples
of materials for modelling include: carton boxes, package paper, wood scraps, pieces of
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cloth, coat hangers, papier mache, clay for pottery, plastic bottles, styrofoam, and many
others.
In addition to the above often discarded materials, some basic materials must be
purchased. These include: paints, glues, thinners, varnish and so on. One would also
need tools to work some of the materials; these include woodwork, leather work and
metal work tools.
It is important that whatever model is produced it ought to be well-made,
attractive, and durable and suit the purpose for which it is made. If a teacher feels
inadequate in terms of skill to produce a required model, then, by all means s/he should
engage someone more competent. Production of the items take time, effort and money its
worth the effort of a teacher to see to it that they are stored well for reuse in subsequent
year
7.7.1 Activity
1. Choose a topic from any one of your teaching subjects and produce a model
suitable for its teaching.
2. Write a lesson plan for a lesson in which the above model can be used. In the plan
indicate what for, how and when the model shall be used in the course of the lesson.
7.8.0 Storage of 2-D and 3-D Materials

The instructional materials discussed in this lesson cost time, money and effort;
consequently, they need to be durable and must be stored well for future use. Two-
dimensional media should always be stored flat in folders, shelves or drawers, or hanged
on racks. Models, on the other hand, can be stored on shelves, in labelled carton boxes or
on the floor depending on their size and durability of material from which they are made.
7.9.0 Summary
In this lesson, we have discussed the various kinds of 2-D and 3-D instructional
materials. We have also made suggestions on how to produce these materials. It has
emerged that for the materials to have maximum learning impact, they must be attractive
and well-made, and must be presented at just the right moment in the lesson. The
materials cost time, money and effort; consequently, they must be durable and must be
stored well for future use.
7.10.0 Definition of Key Terms
Two dimensional media: These are impressions of some object presented on a flat
surface such as paper, board and cloth. They include
drawings, diagrams, prints among others. Two
dimensional media are also usually referred to as 2-D
media, graphic instructional media or simply graphics.
Three dimensional media These are objects. They could be real things, objects or
models.
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7.11.0 Further Reading

Brown, J.W., AV Instruction: Media and Methods. MacGraw-Hill Bk. Co., 1973.
Mukwa, C.W. and M.M. Patel, Design & Use of Education Media. Kenyatta
University, 1986.
Faris, G. and J. Moldstad, Improving the Learning Environment: A Study of
Local Preparation of Visual Instructional Media, U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1973.
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LESSON EIGHT
DISTANCE EDUCATION
8. 1 Introduction
You are probably a student at Kenyatta University undertaking your degree or diploma
course at the Kenyatta University Institute of Open Learning (KUIOL). You are
registered for the program and for some reason you are receiving the instructional
materials through the teaching centre in your region, you benefit from lecturers / tutors
who visit the teaching centre from time to time and rarely visit Kenyatta University .It
was your choice to take the course in that form. In fact it is possible to take and finish a
given course without setting foot on the main campus of the university. The education
you are undergoing is known as distance education. This LESSON takes you through the
theoretical basis of distance education, its definitions, forms, methods of teaching, its
characteristics, the philosophy behind it, its advantages, limitations, problems and
constraints faced by distance education students as well as the institutions running the
program and the personnel required to effectively run the distance education program.
8.2 What will you learn in this Lesson
By the time you get to the end of this LESSON you should be able to:
1. Define distance education and explain reasons underlying the various definitions
2. Distinguish distance education from conventional / mainstream education
3. Explain the causes for the inception of distance education and its developmental
progress from its earliest times to the current state of the art
4. List and explain the characteristics of distance education while contrasting it to the
conventional / traditional education with respect to form, content, process, teaching
methods and means, provision of feedback, evaluation etc.
5. List and discuss advantages and drawbacks of distance education.
6. Trace the various media and technologies used in distance education from the earliest
times.
7. Discuss the problems of distance education , in terms of instructional / learning needs
, and available communication technology alternatives
8. Categorize the various methods of teaching at a distance
9. Discuss the roles of the various personnel involved in the day to day running of the
program.
8.3 Definition Of Distance Education

Distance education has existed for more than a century.
There are many definitions of distance education as there are experts in distance
education. Operationally we can look at distance education as “The teaching and learning
process in which a significant proportion of the teaching is conducted by someone who is
removed in space and / or time from the learner. Moore (1973) defines it as those
teaching methods in which, because of physical separation of learners and teachers, the
interactive as well as the proactive phases of teaching are conducted through print
mechanical or electronic devices. Otto Peters (1983) sees it as a method of
imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes which is rationalized by the application of
division of labour and organizational principles, as well as by the extensive use of media
especially for the purposes of high quality teaching materials thus making it possible to
instruct great numbers of students at the same time. He also sees it as an impersonal
mechanical and electronic process in which an artificially created message replaces
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educational communication. Borje Holmberg (1989) says that it covers various forms of
study at all levels which are not under continuous immediate supervision of tutors
present with their students in lecture rooms but which benefit from the planning,
guidance and tuition of an institution.”
From the definitions it is clear that the following concepts apply to distance education:
♦ It takes place at a distance
♦ There is separation between the tutors and the learners
♦ There is lack of face to face interaction
♦ The teaching is done through media and communication technologies
♦ It is open , under the control of the learner in terms of what to learn , when to
learn , how to learn and where to learn
In a nutshell distance education therefore means any system of teaching and learning in
which the students are at a distance from their teachers for most of their time they are
studying. It should include some face to face study, has some form of feedback and
reinforcement preferably through contact between students and teachers or between
students and fellow students. It can be concerned with elementary education, university
education, informal education, occupational education or professional study.
Question 8.1
♥Give your own definition of distance education bearing in mind the main features of the
open learning program that you are currently undergoing.
8.4 Forms Of Distance Education

There are various forms of distance education. It is worth noting on the outset that an
effective distance education program should be a good mixture of the forms.
The first form of distance education is correspondence education. Here learning
materials are mailed to students in their localities where they use the materials, do
assignments or projects and post back the work to the institution. This work is marked
and sent back to the learner with appropriate remarks / corrections and the instructional
materials for the next piece of work. This approach has been successfully used in
Pakistan for training under-qualified primary school teachers.
The second form of distance education is known as External studies. Just like in the first
form the learner use the instructional materials away from the college / university, but in
addition there could be teaching / learning centres spread over the whole country or
catchment area. Also there could be the possibility of occasional residential sessions to
give learners a chance to interact with their tutors.
The third form of distance education is through the use of educational broadcasts. This
form involves the use of radio, television and lately the internet in reaching the learners.
The learners receive support materials for the courses well before the broadcasts. They
go through the materials and wait for the broadcasts to facilitate learning. Again the
learners do assignments or projects and submit the same for marking and feedback from
the tutors. For successful use of this broadcasts there is need for thorough planning in the
distribution of the accompanying printed matter.
The fourth form of distance education is through In-service programs. This is useful in
situations where there is need to update workers who are already serving. Over a long
time this becomes necessary in order to acquaint workers with new skills; familiarize
them with modern ideas and technology. In some cases the workers might have been
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serving without any pre-service training and were learning on the job. Certification
should be the ultimate expectation of the trainees. This cadre of workers need to be
trained during spare time without necessarily withdrawing them from their work places
for significantly long periods .In service programs are ideal for untrained teachers,
agricultural extension workers, social, health workers etc.
The fifth form of distance education is through the organizing of Radio study groups .In
these form trainees listen to radio programs especially designed to equip them with
relevant skills and knowledge. The trainees are encouraged to listen to these programs in
their various groups and implement some of the knowledge acquired. This has been used
successfully in Columbia for adult peasants especially in areas such as health, social
work and agriculture.
The sixth and last form of distance education is Extension service. Governments the
world over pays special attention to small-scale entrepreneurs as they control a
significant proportion of the GDP. This could be in areas such as agriculture, business,
manufacturing etc. Extension service is also useful in health and other community related
services.
In summary, distance education programs should be a mixture of the forms named

above. For example at the Open university of the United Kingdom , 80% of the
instruction is done using printed materials ( correspondence ), 10% through broadcasting
(radio and TV.) and 10% through face to face.
Question 8.2
♥Examine the course you are undergoing , what forms of distance education make up the
course structure and in what proportions ? What recommendations would you make to
improve the organization of the program ?
8.5 Characteristics Of Distance Education

Distance education has the following characteristics:
The first characteristic is that there is physical separation between teachers and students
in time and space .This should be looked at with the background that it is generally
considered that the educational relationship between teacher and learner should be
dynamic and reciprocal. John BÅÅth made an important theoretical and empirical
contribution to the concept of two-way communication as a major defining feature of
distance education. This demonstrates the fact that distance education is not just self
study but that it is desirable to maintain a two way communication .BÅÅth emphasized
the role of the tutor in a distance education program as going beyond that of correcting
errors and assessing students progress but also promoting study motivation.
This characteristic notwithstanding it is important to note that learning is not simply a
matter of acquiring knowledge but is a constructive process that involves the negotiation
of meaning , which assumes the participation of others . To achieve this under distance
education there should be possibilities of occasional meetings in seminars or residential
session, or teaching at a distance with written comment, telephone use or audiocassette
material. Sewart (1980:177) recommends the implementation of an effective advisory
and supportive role in addition to the provision of a teaching package. He stresses the
importance of group learning as not only being supportive of the learning process in its
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potential interaction between students and course content , but also because group
learning offers a benchmark to the individual members of the group.
The second characteristic of distance education is the usage of a wide range of media
with print being the main type . Admittedly , the main type of media used in distance
education is in form of print . This comes in the form of reading materials such as
textbooks , handouts , brochures , worksheets and graphics . Other types of media are
recommended so as to compensate for the lack of facial contact . The multi media
approach caters for the wide variations in student study formats and interests . The print
media must be written in such a way as to be independently used by the pupil.
The third characteristic of distance education is that it is a highly individualized system

of instruction. Brookefield (1995) sees distance education as self-directed learning that
focuses on the process by which adults take control of their own learning , in particular
how they set their own learning goals , locate appropriate resources , decide on which
learning methods to use and evaluate their own resources .
The fourth characteristic of distance education is that there is a high usage of centralized
high volume production or standardized learning materials . As stated in the third
characteristic above the main media is print . Because of the high enrolment covering a
large catchment area the materials are produced centrally in large quantities for
distribution to the students . The materials are carefully researched , written and edited
for their suitability for the intended audience . Again , it is essential to ensure that the
materials are standardized , so that even if the students do not refer to a variety of reading
materials they will be in a position to compete favorably with conventional students .
The fifth characteristic of distance education is that there is no limit to the number of
students receiving instruction at any time . It is common knowledge that conventional
programs are forced to admit a particular number of students depending on the capacity
of the accommodation , the availability of instructional spaces , level of staffing and the
status of instructional materials among other minor factors . It is possible to double the
admission under the distance education mode and simply produce more copies of the
instructional materials . There will be no need to double the accommodation space or
even double the staff .Therefore when demand instantly appears to outstrip the supply ,
distance education is the way out .
The sixth characteristic of distance education is that there should be counseling and
general support of students’ work by distance study material . The role of the teacher
becomes that of providing supportive and corrective feedback but little personal
communication. In most cases students under distance education are mature age and self
supporting . They would be parents possibly with other dependants . They pay fees ,
provide shelter and other basic necessities to the dependants . When they enroll in the
programs the demands of the course overwhelm their resources and they tend to plunge
into financial problems . This if not detected on time and the student counseled may lead
to dropping out . This is one more reason why there should be frequent field visits by
tutors to besides handling academic issues counsel and give general support to the
student .
Question 8.3
♥ Critique distance education programs ( mentioning evident shortcomings ) bearing in
mind the characteristics discussed above.
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8.6 Philosophy Of Distance Education
The philosophy behind distance education system revolves around several issues . Firstly
there is emphasis on individual study and independence of students. This mode of
education is obliged to assume that its students are self-regulated, while at the same time
it practices the ethos of ‘ opening’ education for those who are not able to enroll at
residential institutions. One of the proponents of the theory of autonomy and
independence in distance education was Charles Wedemeyer (1977), who is considered
as the father of American distance education. Influenced by a democratic social ideal and
liberal educational philosophy he considered that everyone should have the right to learn
. He based his assumption of adult learning on the fact that adults are supposed to have
the potential for self-direction .He proposed three main conceptualizations of
independence for learners namely :
• Learning through self-pacing , the learner paces learning according to
his/her circumstances and needs
• Learning to be individualized and learners be free to follow any of
several courses of learning
• The learner should have the freedom to select goals and activities
Willen (1988) challenges those who see distance education as characterized by
independence and autonomy by claiming that the idea of independence and autonomy are
not borne out by reality but that the students have similar characteristics and needs as
other adult conventional students . She refutes Moore’s claims that students choose
distance education because they have special personal qualities of independence and
asserts that the choice is based on practical reasons .
The second philosophical issue is that there is emphasis on self instruction as a method
of learning .The philosophical base of distance education is that learners are on their own
most of the time . The learner is assumed to be sufficiently motivated to read through the
materials , search for more reference materials , carry out experiments , research and
prepare reports.
The third philosophical issue is that materials are presented in small and relatively easy
to master doses to keep learners conscious of their progress. Just like in this module the
LESSONs are accompanied by some exercises and suggested activities. The learners go
through some reading , work out the exercises , present their work to the tutors for
assessment before moving on . Care should be taken to ensure that the exercises are
given in reasonable doses to keep the learner aware and appraised of his / her progress.
The fourth philosophical issue is that the learning materials are organized following the
principle of guided didactic conversation , namely through the provision of a two way
communication and occasional seminars .The thrust of this point should be reflected in
the preparation of the learning materials bearing in mind the fact that distance education
creates a feeling of personal relation between teaching and learning to motivate students .
Borje Holmberg (1995) put forward the theory of distance education as a guided didactic
conversation. He argued that the continuous interaction between students , tutors and
other representatives of the institution should be seen as a kind of conversation . Students
would be more successful in these circumstances than if the course has an impersonal
character .This is why we should use more colloquial language in the preparation of
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study material . This conversational style of presentation was designed to promote

empathy with the student .
The fifth and last philosophical issue is the creation of a two way communication
through student counseling services, tutoring and use of self checking exercises .Unlike
conventional students distance education learners tend to have more problems that if not
addressed on time can lead to dropout .Since distance learners are normally adults , there
is a tendency for them to take time to adjust their life routines . They will most probably
be having families with children in school , with extended family commitments and with
professional work demands. All these must be met and still ample time be found for
studies . These pressures together with the financial demands tend to wear down the
psychological drive within the student . It therefore becomes necessary to have in place
guidance and counseling services to handle students with symptoms of stress or
depression .
Question 8. 4
♥ Relate the philosophical issues discussed above to the distance education program you
are undergoing . Mention the weaknesses of the program and suggest how they can be
addressed
8.7 Advantages Of Distance Education

Distance education has several advantages. In this section we shall discuss the following
advantages:
First, distance education is useful when there is political or other pressures to expand
education (Tonny Dodds :6) . There are occasions when the government makes policy
changes in areas such as curriculum , access to education or even the structure of
education . There will be need to implement the new policy . In such cases it becomes
necessary to find a method of transmitting information to the would be implementors
urgently. At times it may be that personnel need to be in-serviced quickly to manage the
change . The government could even be confronted with thousands of school leavers
with no option of furthering their education . It may be easier to address the pressure to
expand the opportunities through distance education .
Secondly, distance education can be used to train teachers and other professionals
without withdrawing them from their regular work (Tonny Dodds :.7). This mode
becomes advantageous since it creates a more intimate interface with employment
(Smith Peter:12).There is less disjunction between the context of work and the context of
study and it is easier for students to relate one to the other. Also more and more people
who are already in employment are finding that advances in technology are such that
they cannot acquire appropriate skills simply through on the job experience. These
people need to be able to upgrade their skills without going back to full time study.
Thirdly , distance education can be used to meet specific educational and social problems
in local and national settings. The alternative of distance education became more
attractive since it allowed for flexibility that fitted well with modern lifestyles. Since
most of the prospective distance education students will be people who are engaged in
some income generating activity , the mode of instruction becomes ideal as the learners
have time to attend to their normal engagement and still get time in the evenings or
weekends to study the materials .
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The fourth advantage of distance education is that it can be used to solve educational
crisis . For example there can arise a need to in-service teachers after an educational
review . Or there may be need to in-service head-teachers on how to handle large
enrolments after a government implementation of free and compulsory primary
education . In such instances it may be prudent to acquaint the head teachers with ways
of implementing the directive.
The fifth advantage is that distance education provides easier access to education to those
who might not have had the opportunity to get it during their youth . This is particularly
advantageous because of its flexibility and the relief it gives from constraints of timing
and location , thus in essence it widens access to education. The constraints include
geographical isolation, family commitments and the requirements of employment.
The sixth advantage is that distance education provides a lot of student autonomy, and
independent opportunities. Because of their separation from the teacher, distance
education students approach more closely the ideal of the autonomous learner.
Autonomy advocates the individualization of study . It moves the centre of gravity away
from the tutor and takes it closer to the student . Candy (1991) points out that a learner’s
autonomy may vary from context to context . Aspects of their background , including
family and prior education powerfully affect adults in ways that limit or constrain their
ability to be self-directing in certain learning situations . The level of autonomy will be
determined by the way in which the students have been socialized to think about learning
and about themselves as learners . He continues to observe that autonomy is not
something that happens to people or that can be given to them . That while an adult
educator maybe able to give learners the chance to exercise freedom , it is not possible to
give them autonomy
The seventh advantage of distance education is that it solves the problem of isolation
(Dodds :.7) . There are instances where students may be far away from schools or even
other educational facilities such as libraries . In such cases the distance education mode
guarantees access to knowledge . The knowledge may then be transmitted in the form of
print , recorded materials and any other format that may be relevant. This may assist
students in arid and semi arid areas .
The eighth advantage is that distance education maximizes the students’ ability and
opportunity to relate what they are learning to the lives they are living (Tonny Dodds :.7)
. In the conventional program a student learns a lot of theory before finally getting to
practice .In the case of Bachelor of education degree program , the student goes for
teaching practice towards the end of the program . This fails to give the learner an
opportunity to integrate what they may be learning to practice. Another point is that
distance education tends to attract students who are already in the professions compared
to conventional programs where most of the students register in programs as a last resort
.
The ninth advantage is that distance education increases opportunities for education
without a corresponding increase in cost (Dodds :.7 ; Smith Peter :12). Increasing
opportunities for education is based on the assumptions that:
• Distance teaching makes it possible for a few teachers to reach a large
number of students, with better quality control over course materials (Smith
Peter : 12).
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• Doesn’t require new schools or physical structures for expansion to

take place, it can rely on spare-time use of existing buildings and equipment.
• Makes it possible for students to learn while they continue to earn,
they don’t have to be removed from the productive activity while they study .
• Can achieve economies of scale, once the teaching materials have
been produced and the system established, additional students can be enrolled
with any marginal cost, the more students they are, the lower the cost per student.
Higher fixer and lower variable costs characterize the cost structure of distance
education as compared with campus-based education. Note that selling distance
education on the basis that it is cheap is a two-edged sword. If the system once
established has to be run cheaply, the quality of materials and the extent of
student support, are bound to suffer . A commission set in Australia in 1986
suggested that efficiency in terms of LESSON costs is reached when enrolments
in a subject are above a threshold which lies between 50 and 150. Keegan
(1991:93) acknowledges that while increasing the proportion of interactive
activities improves a student’s performance , it simultaneously increases the
management costs .
Question 8.6
♥ As a distance education student enumerate and explain any advantages you have over
conventional students. Remember to highlight any advantages the conventional students
have over distance education students .
8.8 Personnel For Distance Education
A well set up distance education program requires the services of various cadres of staff.
Besides the usual support staff we should expect the distance education program to
utilize the services of personnel such as:
The distance education program should be headed by a director who should be the
overall in charge of administrative , academic as well as financial matters . S/he should
ensure that the right calibre of staff are recruited , well remunerated and retained . The
director should also be of the right professional background in education and have some
management skills .
Besides the director the distance education program must have senior staff tutors to look
after preparation of printed materials , preparation of radio materials , radio tutoring ,
course editing , counseling , administration , clerical work , co-ordination with field
officers / cooperating teachers / part timers , registration , correspondence , keeping
records and managing studios and laboratories .
Question 8.7
Discuss the shortcomings of the personnel involved in the management of the distance
education program you are conversant with. Suggest ways in which the program
management could be improved.
8.9 Problems / Constraints Facing Distance Education
Most of the problems are experienced by students, the most important of which are
discussed hereunder . The first problem faced by distance education students is that of
isolation (Tonny Dodds p. 10) . Contact with other students and staff is an important
aspect of learning and the external mode limits such contact . If understanding needs to
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be constructed , it is difficult for many students to do so in isolation or in the absence of

guidance . In many existing distance education systems , individual student contact with
other students is essentially non-existent .This is not recommended as frequent contacts
allow students to make errors in the presence of their friends and errors are less
pronounced when made among friends , and in such a case students are allowed to
develop the valuable skill of self correction . Distance education therefore needs to set up
circumstances in which students develop self-direction through a process of mediated
interaction . Amundsen and Bernard (1989:105) say that distance education should
attempt to reintegrate the act of teaching as mediation in which the learner takes an
active part as the appropriator of messages in a dialogue fashion. Daniel and Marquis
(1979) see distance education as being made up of two kinds of activities :
• Independent activities where the student works alone such as reading
text , watching the television , doing an experiment or writing an
assignment .
• Interactive activities which bring the student into contact with other
people. This contact can be in the form of telephone conversations,
group discussions , marking and commenting on work submitted by
the student and face to face discussions during residential / visiting
sessions .
The second problem indirectly experienced by students is that distance education
encourages rote learning .Though the principal mode of instruction is print , it is
increasingly impossible to provide students with enough reading materials . As a result
of this and other cost related problems the lecturers tend to give handouts or dictate notes
(Tonny Dodds p.11). For an institution running conventional programs also this may
eventually lead to the “black market” effect where campus-based students miss lectures
and settle for lecture notes made for distance education students since the notes they
make during lectures are not as reliable. The lecturers in return do not give elaborate
reading assignments as the students have limited access to reading materials . The net
result is that students rely on the handouts as the only source of information and the
examinations may follow the same pattern as the lecturer tends to set from the handouts
or the dictated notes Remember the old joke about lectures “Lectures are a way to
transfer material from the lecturer’s notes to the student’s notes without passing through
the mind of either”.
The third problem facing distance education students is the fact that most of them would
have been outside formal education for long (Tonny Dodds p.11) .
The fourth problem facing distance education is due to the flexibility that is in built in
most of the programs .The flexibility provided by the distance education mode often
becomes a negative factor and leads to non-completion of courses . A general
characteristic of distance education programs is that of dropping out .There is a higher
tendency to drop out at the start of the course and this may be due to a number of
variables such as family or work pressures , lack of strong study motivation or incapacity
to work independently and in some cases lack of prerequisite knowledge and skills. The
drop out rate with such a flexible approach tends to the 50% mark. (Daniel and Marquis
1979:34) . They disagree with Holmberg ( 1995) by suggesting that the more freedom a
learner has , the less likely s/he is to complete the course .It is advisable to pace the
students and monitor them so that they succeed rather than allow freedom that might lead
to failure . Learners should be encouraged to work within deadlines and get some instant
feedback so that s/he is aware of any progress or otherwise .
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Other problems are normally faced by institutions running distance education programs ,
and these include firstly lack of capital investment necessary to establish a widely
distributed network of broadband carriers. Most of the institutions start distance
education programs because they lack basic facilities to absorb all the interested
applicants . This lack of funds and by implication facilities ripples over and affects the
quality of the distance education program. The institution will most likely be unable to
stock its existing library / resource centre with the required materials . It will further be
unable to establish , man and equip regional centres to the satisfaction of the students .
Another area that will suffer as a result of these shortcomings will be the planned visits
to the centres , which will in turn reduce the level of interaction considerably . Lack of
capital investment will in fact lower the quality of the education .
The second problem facing institutions is lack of a cost structure favorable to the
purchase of necessary hardware both by institutions and by students. For an institution to
run a distance education program there is need to purchase modern equipment to prepare
the course materials as well as to equip the libraries , workshops and laboratories . The
students need to have the financial capacity to finance their studies . In developing
countries the students mostly rely on their meager earnings to pay the fees , and as a
result are unable to purchase the necessary reading and learning materials .
The third problem facing institutions running distance education is due to lack of a
favorable telecommunication tariff structure. One of the ways through which students
can reduce the effect of physical isolation is by interacting with their tutors through the
telephone , fax or lately the e-mail . These channels unfortunately are out of reach for
almost all the distance education students . They cannot afford to interact with the tutors
to get assistance on assignments and projects . They are also unable because of
prohibitive costs to access materials from the latest journals and periodicals on the
internet . This poses a challenge to provide an education that achieve parity with
conventional provision in quality , quantity and status ( MacDonald 1990 : 103)
The fourth constraint faced by institutions running distance education is unavailability of
courseware. As mentioned earlier cost constraints hinder the institution from supplying
learners with sufficient learning materials . In some cases it is even impossible to supply
course outlines and learners photocopy them at their own cost . It can even lead to failure
to use multi media approach due to unavailability of a wide range of resources such as
computers , radio , television , video materials etc .
The last constraint faced by institutions is lack of staff development programs for
academic staff and support staff . In most cases the institution does not employ new staff
but utilizes existing staff to run the distance education program .Smith and Sheath ( in
Keegan 1991: 98) recommends that distance education should be part of the
conventional system and be undertaken by the same full time academic staff . This
further ensures similarity in quality of the work covered between conventional and
distance education students . This may overload the staff and in the long run low the
quality of education for both groups of students .
Question 8.8
Discuss problems a distance education student in Kenya faces today . Give suggestions
on how they could be overcome .
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8.10 Methods Of Teaching At A Distance
Most distance education systems employ several methods of teaching. As mentioned

early it is prudent for an institution teaching students at a distance to employ the multi
media approach.
The most prominent method used in all distance education systems is through printed
materials . The materials are normally in the form of study guides, work sheets and notes
. The materials are specially prepared to be used by the student on his / her own . They
present the content in convenient doses punctuated with regular exercises.
The second method is through the use of radio broadcasts and audiocassette recordings .
These are also prepared in such a manner that the student can independently listen at
home . The recordings are made to support the printed materials . The recordings ensure
that the presentation is conversational .
The third method of teaching and which should be in built into the system is through the
use of occasional face to face teaching during residential session and field visits . During
the visits the students get the opportunity to interact with the authors of the printed
materials .
There are obviously other media that can be used in distance education. Rumble and
Keegan (1982) tabulated 13 kinds of media used in distance education. These include
print, study centers, face-to-face tuition, telephone tuition, computer assisted instruction,
access to computer terminals, access to laboratories at study centers, home experiment
kits, residential schools, television, videotapes, radio and audio-cassettes.
Question 8.9
Discuss the main methods of teaching employed in a distance education program you are
conversant with .Explain how these methods could be improved for effective delivery of
content.
FURTHER READINGS
1. Smith Peter (1987). Distance education and the mainstream. Croom Helm. New
York.
2. Mitton Roger (). Practical research in Distance Teaching: A handbook for
developing countries.
3. Henning , Elizabeth (Ed.).1998 Education as change . SA
Scientific Publications. South Africa
4. Keegan Desmond . (1986) . Foundations of Distance Education . Routledge .
London .
5. Harry K. (Ed). 1993. Distance Education : New perspectives .
Routledge. London.
6. Moran Louise. (Ed). 1993. Collaboration in Distance Education .
Routledge. London .
7. Perraton Hillary. (Ed.) 1993. Distance Education for Teacher Training.
Routledge. London
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LESSON NINE
MANAGEMENT OF LEARNING RESOURCES
9.0 What this lesson is about
Management of learning resources is a topic which cuts across many disciplines – key
among them being the Human Resource management. Considering that schools deal
with human capital, it is imperative that the lesson incorporates skills of managing
people in as much as people as resources are the key change agents in any curriculum
implementation. What people do and how they do it with respect to acquisition, design
and utilization of resources is ultimately more crucial than the resources themselves.
Other aspects covered in this lesson are resource procurement procedures and the criteria
for allocating funds within a school. The Learning Resource Centre concept is discussed
so as to emphasize the fact that a resource-based learning is more than the building. It is
an idea built up in the mind. That idea implies that any material used in the
implementation of a given curriculum is a learning resources. Hence, we talk of both
human and non-human resources.
Use of resources in teaching and learning is of course not new. The traditional African
mode of education utilized men, tools and materials to impart knowledge and skills to
their children. What is perhaps new is the complexity of learning modes into which
learning resources are being fitted. This lesson brings together in a concise form the
essential skills a student requires such as selection, storage, dissemination and retrieval
of information on resources’ collection.
Management of learning resources in Kenyan schools poses significant financial,

administrative and perceptual problems for the teachers and students alike. For that
reason alone, the lesson presents in a summary way, some skills for budget preparation
and the management of both internal and external publics. Some research findings why
teachers in our schools resist the use of resources are highlighted and solutions offered
for overcoming that resistance.
9.1 Objectives
• Define the term ‘management’.
• Define the term ‘Learning Resource Centre’.
• List and describe the methods through which the traditional African mode
of education utilized resources to instruct.
• Describe the development and objectives of Learning Resource Centres in
Kenya.
• Analyse the reasons why a majority of teachers in Kenya resist the use of
resources while teaching.
• Discuss the skills a director or manager of a Learning Resource Centre
needs in order to manage both Internal and External Publics of his or her
school.
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• Understand the manager’s responsibilities in changing teachers’ attitudes

towards the use of resources.
9.2: Meaning of the Term Management

A careful examination of the writings of management scholars and practitioners
suggests a number of definitions of the term “management.” Szilagyi (l981:6)
defines the term management as the process of integrating resources and tasks
towards the achievement of set objectives and goals of the organization. Plunkett
and Attner (l983:5) define management as the process of setting and achieving
goals through the execution of five basic management functions that utilize
human, financial, and material resources.
Gannon (l982:12), citing Wren(l979) has defined management as an activity that
performs certain functions in order to acquire,
allocate and utilize human and physical resources
to accomplish some goal.
In view of the foregoing, this lesson is concerned with the management from the
point of view of equipment, tasks and goals of a school or college. But perhaps
more importantly for this lesson, the management of learning resources involves
a systematic and organized way of doing things in order to bring about Return On
Investment (ROI) through proper utilization of those resources.
9.3 Resource-Based Learning

Resource-based learning is the response to the need to individualize instruction.
Veatch (l970) has clarified the meaning of individualization of instruction as
follows:
Individualization is a way to think about managing the
classroom. It is not a method of instruction. It is a way a
teacher arranges (students), equipment and materials so that
each can eagerly be at the peak of his potential, without undue
stress or strain.
In brief, one can say that resource-based learning is learning that depends on a
variety of resources, how we manage those resources and the classroom which by
extension means students.
Competition is a feature that is often associated with conventional classroom

teaching. But in resource-based learning, the student assumes major
responsibility of his or her learning. Bertalanffy (l995:40) describes this
principle of learning as equifinality where the same final state may be reached
from different initial conditions and in different ways.
Under the equifinality principle, the student competes against his or her potential
and sets criteria rather than against other students (Malcolm l973:7). The more
we move towards individualization of learning, the more necessary it becomes
to diversify the learning resources at our disposal and the more the skills of
resource management are required.
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9.4 Learning Resource Centre Defined

According to Beswick (l972:10) a Learning Resource Centre (LRC) is a place
for stimulating the active creation and use of resources’ collection, including the
following six functions.
a) Production of home made resources.

b) Selection and acquisition of other resources.
c) Classification and indexing for easier retrieval (cataloguing).
d) Storage
e) Use including guidance and lending out.
f) Evaluation and weeding out, that is, evaluation and disposal of unserviceable
resources.
9.5 Constraints Preventing Proper Management of Resources.

In most Kenyan schools, the above functions are not easily attained because of
the following constraints:
a) Limited funds that are compounded by higher prices.
b) Unavailability of some materials in the local market such as spare parts.
c) Storage problems which lead to poor security.
d) Lack of forward planning.
e) Poor inventory management for instance, lack of a maintenance culture in
our public institutions.
f) Lack of support from school heads and administrators.
g) Unethical practices such as misuse of institutional and government
resources.
h) Lack of sound procurement and resource management policies (neglect of
resources).
Activity 9.A
• Define the term management.

• Define the term resource-based learning and explain how it relates to
individualization of instruction.
• Visit a Learning Resource Centre (LRC) or a Teachers’ Advisory Centre
(TAC) near you, familiarize yourself with the activities, facilities and
resources available there so as to be able to answer the following questions:
i) What are the objectives of the centre you visited?
ii) To what extent does the LRC/TAC you visited meet the needs of
its target audience?
iii) How are the resources procured, utilized and maintained?
iv) Is the centre you visited an LRC/TAC because it is called so or
because it functions as one?
9.6 The Learning Resource Centre Concept.

Although the Learning Resource Centre is a western countries’ idea, the concept
of teaching using resources is as African as any other. Indeed, the tradition
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African mode of education was more resource-based than the pen-paper-

blackboard type of education that was introduced to us by the Missionaries.
Traditional African mode of education utilized the following methods and

instructional resources to teach:
a) Learning through play and other youthful activities such as:

• Games
• Role playing (simulations) and
• Making models.
b) Learning through productive work
• The apprenticeship system (attachment to a blacksmith in order to learn
how to make spears, knives, bows and arrows etc).
• Attachment to a sculptor in order to learn how to make three-dimension
artifacts, pottery etc.
c) Oral literature (expository method).
• Fireside stories depicting myths, legends, fables, proverbs and folk tales.
d) Folk songs and dance
• Used as outlets for creative talents
• Used as media for transmission of messages of good citizenship.
• Used as media for commendation and honour of heroes and role models.
• Used as media for reinforcing memory of historical events.
e) Organized formal classes
• African children (adolescents) were taught in secluded areas the secrets
of the community as well as lessons on good morals. Every elder was a
potential teacher (resource person) on such matters as family life, sex
education and adulthood.
9.7 The Development of Learning Resource Centres in Kenya.

The Learning Resource Centre is a concept that was introduced in Kenya in the
mid seventies as a way of improving the education system. The World Bank
Project Appraisal document summarizes the aims of the project as to:
Promote not only a general qualitative improvement but more

significantly a reorientation of basic education from its traditional role of
preparing the few best pupils for entry to secondary schools, to one of
providing a well balanced education for pupils of varying ability to
develop their talents for diverse employment opportunities especially
those in rural areas (World Bank Project Appraisal l975:19).
In the early l970’s and because of the ‘Harambee’ spirit, primary schools’
enrolment was rising unproportionally to the number of teachers. It even rose
more sharply after the Presidential Decree of December, l973 for free primary
education from Standard I to IV. Following that decree, enrolment increased
specifically from 1.8 million children in l973 to 2.8 million in l974 (World Bank
Report l975:5).
In order to meet this expansion, the Kenya government recruited many untrained
teachers to help cope with the numbers. But the large numbers also lowered the
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standards of basic education in the country. As a way of helping to improve the

standards and effectiveness of teaching, the Kenya Government approached the
World Bank for partial funding for a program to help improve the standards of
the many untrained teachers. The proposal for the Learning Resource Centres
was therefore written and accepted by the World Bank.
The Kenya Learning Resource Centre Project was therefore started in 1976 and
scheduled to be completed in 1981.
9.8 Objectives of the Kenyan LRC Project.

a) Expansion of Kenya Institute of Education (K.I.E.)
b) Establishment of the Schools’ Broadcasting Service – later named
Educational Media Services (EMS).
c) Establishment of Teachers’ Advisory Centres (TACs).
d) Constructing and equipping of Learning Resource Centres in
Primary Teachers’ Training Colleges.
9.9 Problems Encountered

The establishment of Learning Resource Centres in Kenya’s Primary Teachers’
Training Colleges was a long-range technology plan. It was also a noble idea.
However, before such an undertaking begins, the planners should recognize the
necessity of the following activities.
• Teacher involvement in all aspects of learning resources is

essential.
• Existing curriculum needs to be realigned to include a resource-
based learning in schools.
• Staff development and curriculum applications need to be
incorporated in the plan and undertaken.
• Resource procurement procedures and per year student resource
allocation budgets need to be established.
• Students’ and teachers’ access to technology and resources need
to be planned for.
• A time frame for implementation needs to be set and closely
monitored.
While some of the above activities were addressed in the Kenyan Learning
Resource Centre (LRC) project, funding became a major barrier to resource
integration in Kenyan schools. The high cost of the resources, required Teacher
Training Colleges where the LRCs were initially built, to explore different and
broader funding avenues such as business partnerships, donor collaborations,
resources-sharing and other joint efforts.
Such partnerships and collaborations were never adequately done. As a result,

the following problems were encountered:
a) Delays. The LRC project was finished in l984 instead of the anticipated date
of 1981.
b) Cost overuns as a result of the delays.
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c) Out of the 22 college tutors who finished a staff development course at

Kenyatta University, a majority never joined any Learning Resource Centre
because the LRCs at the Primary Teacher Training Colleges had not been
completed when the course ended in 1981.
d) Misunderstanding created by the existence of the ministries of education
namely;
- Ministry for Basic Education and
- Ministry for Higher Education
The consequences of having two ministries of education resulted in:
• Lack of an integrated approach in policy implementation;
• Tertiary institutions where the Learning Resource Centres were built were
under the Ministry for Higher Education. However, the LRCs and the
Teachers’ Advisory Centres (TACs) were managed by tutors who were
employees of the Ministry of Basic Education. This caused some confusion
as to who was answerable to who.
Activity 9.B
• Imagine for a moment that you are the person in charge of

curriculum implementation in the Ministry of Education Science
and Technology, analyse the activities you would want to see
undertaken to ensure that quality education is maintained or
improved through the implementation of a resource-based
teaching and learning.
• Point out two leadership problems associated with the use and
management of learning resources in a school of your choice
and discuss strategies the head of that school could use to
alleviate those problems.
9.10 Management of Human Resources

The establishment of LRCs in any school is a costly venture and more so
because of the capital outlays needed to renovate existing buildings, put up new
ones and purchase necessary equipment and materials. The problem is
compounded by the fact that Kenyan public schools lack the capital to undertake
major projects. Most of their money come from donations, school levies, fees or
is raised through ‘Harambees.’
Raising money through ‘Harambees’ or self-help initiatives calls for skills in

human resource management. A director or manager of a schools’ resources
must be able to persuade friends of the school to contribute funds for buying
teaching and learning resources. This LESSON then books at human resource
liaison as a core function in the management of resources in a school. It is an
effort of seeking assistance from the public and other stakeholders in order to
make learning more meaningful and efficacious. The LESSON also views the
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LRC as the hub of a resource-based learning where people are seen as means to
that end.
Managing people depends on one’s ability to coordinate, network and

communicate. As noted by Smit and Cronje (l992:441), school management
tasks of planning, organizing, leading and controlling are dependent on the
availability of timely information to the school head, principal or head of
department for the management process to be effective.
The key people we are talking about here fall into two categories. These are the
Internal and External publics. With accurate and timely information, a manager
or director of a schools’ Learning Resource Centre is able to solicit for support
and acquire additional funds for the purchase of new equipment and resources
through confidence building and accountability to those people.
9.10.1 Managing the Internal Publics

Internal Publics are people working within a school on a regular basis such as:
- Teachers
- Students
- Administrators and
- Support or auxiliary staff.
Because of the importance of their role in a school, a manager of learning

resources is expected to liaise with each and every one of them to ensure that
there is effective utilization and proper management of resources. Teachers in
particular are key determinants to the use or failure to use resources. Research
findings on the use of resources have indeed shown that a majority of teachers in
our schools resist the use of resources for the following reasons:
a) Fear and uncertainty

• Whenever we are unsure, we often feel a desire to play safe.
b) Ignorance or lack of information on the new technologies and resources.
• The tendency then is to ensure that we do not reveal that ignorance by
experimenting with those resources.
c) Resistance due to erroneous logic caused by derogation of evidence.
• Whenever we are faced with a situation of self-doubt, the tendency is to
deride the evidence by causing or convincing ourselves that someone
else’s ideas are inferior to ours.
d) Resistance due to a feeling of fulfillment.
• This is sometimes caused by complacency.
• In this case, we try to justify our resistance by citing our past and
impeccable records such as school results in national examinations in the
subjects we teach.
e) Rejection though interpersonal or peer pressure.
• If colleagues are not using resources, so the argument goes, I do not want to be the
‘odd-man-out.’
f) Rejection because of the attitudes we hold towards the change agent-or
the person advocating the change.
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• Sometimes we reject ideas not because they are bad, but because we do
not like the person selling them to us.
Activity 9.C
• Explain how the traditional African mode of educating the young

was more resource-based than the blackboard-pen-textbook method
brought by the missionaries.
• Critically evaluate the opinion that unlike in developed countries,
African countries are faced with common problems in education
when it comes to resource-based learning.
• In light of your experience, evaluate the relevance as far as your
school or college is concerned of the reasons why teachers resist the
use of resources while teaching.
9.10.2 Planning Ahead

Because anti-use of resources’ sentiments are usually encountered during the
development and implementation phases of any resource-based learning
program, it is suggested that a representative of those who are reluctant or
even negative about use of technology and resources in teaching be included
at the planning stage. Talking about opinion leaders, Karlins and Abelson
(l970) ell us: People are more persuaded by a communicator they perceive to
be similar to themselves. However, as Lumley and Bailey (l993:14) argue, a
manager must be careful not to let any negative person dominate or impose
his or her feelings on other members of the Internal Publics. All categories of
the Internal Publics should have an equal voice. Involvement promotes
ownership and diverse viewpoints through a shared approach rather than
unilateral decision-making will make the final plan a much better product.
The management of resources entails advance planning as the basis for doing.
Different managers however plan for the purposes of:
• Making something happen;

• Preventing something from happening;
• Exploiting a situation;
• Remedying a situation.
Good managers of resources are those who are often engaged in:
• Making something happen rather than preventing something from

happening.
• Taking advantage of a situation rather than remedying it.
9.10.3 Manager’s Responsibilities in Managing the Internal Publics.

When dealing with teachers in particular, leadership should be the focus as
opposed to management. Lumley and Bailey (l993:67) have for example,
suggested that “good leaders provide ‘top-down’ motivation and support and
‘bottom-up’ involvement from teachers.” Leadership therefore is a linchpin to
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the eventual success of human resource management. For a manager or school

head to exercise prudent management, he or she needs to do the following:
a) Understand first, the reasons behind teachers’ resistance to the use of

resources. – seek teachers’ opinions through interviews and questionnaires.
b) Organize educational or awareness campaigns about the value of the use of
resources.
c) Involve teachers in consensus decision-making regarding:
- Planning
- Choice of resources
- Purchasing
- Utilization of media and resources.
d) Disseminate information about the resources available through:
- An up-to-date catalogue
- School newsletter
- Brochures
- Bulletin boards etc.
e) Draw a media utilization guide for each equipment in the school’s Learning
Resource Centre.
f) Show by example by inviting colleagues to your classes where you are using
resources.
g) Encourage teachers to allow their students to have practical sessions where
the latter will have a ‘hands-on’ practice with media and resources. As you
do that, recognize too, the need for equifinality whereby, because of the
uniquenesses of your learners, each individual learner is allowed to do things
his or her own way. The principle of equifinality posits that self-directed
learning is the ideal so long as the same final state is reached from different
initial conditions and in different ways. (Bertalanffy, l995:40).
Activity 9.D
• Design a simple questionnaire on the teachers’ use of learning

resources and administer it to five of your colleagues.
• How do your findings compare with what we have presented as
reasons why teachers resist the use of resources?
• Compare your findings with those of your college-mate in this
course who teach in a different school. How do they tally?
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9.11 Managing the External Publics
External Publics are all the stakeholders outside the school who have an interest
in the affairs of the school but do not necessarily work there. They include:
- Parents
- Politicians
- Donors
- Government administrators
- Members of the Parents Teachers’ Association (PTA).
- Members of the Board of Governors (BOG).
- Community members or friends of the school.
Since External Publics do not work in the school and are scattered in various
places, the key to dealing with them is networking. Networking means
establishing a communication network and developing goodwill through:
- Fair dealings
- Transparency and accountability
- Maintaining good record of accounts.
- Prompt and courteous attention to all inquiries from interested parties.
Once well treated, External Publics become emissaries of change in the
school.
It is also important for a Learning Resource Centre Director to always

demonstrate a readiness for windfalls by keeping a list of priority items ready in
case the school receives funds unexpectedly or enquiries for resource
acquisition from a donor.
9.12 Budgeting for Resources

The final step in the management of resources is the conversion of the
management techniques discussed here to budgets. Through budgeting, heads of
schools and directors of Learning Resource Centres ensure that they have the
right combination of resources to carry out the plans for a resource-based
teaching and learning. In return, that will enable them to fulfil the goals of the
school. Budgeting can therefore be described as the allocation of financial and
human resources necessary to achieve the school’s stated objectives. This is
because we normally conceptualize a Learning Resource Centre in terms of:
- Resources
- Equipment
- Facilities
- People
All the above require money to purchase and maintain.
Cost determination is therefore an important component in the management of

resources. It is also important because there will never be a time when our
public schools will have the right amount or all the money they need to
implement a fully resource-based learning into their classrooms. Resource
improvization and prudent planning are thus important.
Budgeting for resources is rarely a one person’s job. Some basic things a
manager needs to do therefore are:
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• Ask section or departmental heads to submit an itemized estimate of the

resources and the quantity they would need;
- An LRC director simply blends all estimates together.
• State your monetary needs clearly.
- No employer will give you a blank cheque to spend on resources as you
wish.
• Support your request for funds with documentary evidence such as:
- Written proposals;
- Genuine cost estimates;
• Know the cost of various items in your Learning Resource Centre.
- This will protect you against price-fixing.
• Understand that the most expensive resource is not necessarily the best.
- Cost is but one way of determining value and that,
- The ultimate value is rarely reflected in the price alone.
9.12.1 Steps in Cost-determination Process.

a) Request for quotations every now and then from different manufacturers
an dealers.
b) Make a complete survey of your resources to determine their present
worth.
c) Ascertain need for new equipment and resources based on demand.
- How often for instance is an item requested for use by clients?
d) Establish operational levels of equipment and resources based on:
- The number of staff and facilities.
- Student enrolment;
- Future projections for staff and facilities;
- Future projections for student population.
e) Whenever you plan to make new purchases, allocate funds according to
need as follows:
- On a per student basis;
- On a per class level basis;
- On a per subject basis;
- In light of special needs.
f) When purchasing media resources, consider their durability,
compatibility, and the availability of spare parts.
g) Always have a reserve fund for emergency purposes. A petty cash fund
will enable the director to purchase small items and pay for minor
repairs.
h) Always evaluate media resources to determine their efficacy in meeting
your objectives.
i) Tabulate data and project costs based on:
- Purchase of materials and equipment;
- Rental costs for materials and equipment;
- Cost and frequency of servicing and repairs,
- Longevity (durability) of equipment.
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9.12.2 Budget Preparation

a) Padding the Budget
Padding the budget is the tendency to lengthen or expand the budget with
unnecessary materials such as itemizing for items that are standard and
which are already included in the price of the main item.
Disadvantages:
• Such items are fraudulent in nature;
• Auditors may find out in the long run;
• It is also a sign of poor financial management because you are
creating ground for others to exploit when they want to destroy your
credibility.
b) Hidding the cost
Hidding the cost is the tendency to inflate the cost of materials in
anticipation of getting less money than one requested for. For example, it
may be accomplished by arranging with the supplier to give you two or
three separate but fake quotations in anticipation that the lowest quotation
though doctored, will be picked.
Disadvantage:
• Hidding the cost is risky because people will not be fooled for long.
c) Switching funds
This is a situation where a director utilizes funds from one vote head to
purchase items under a different vote head. It is making up for shortfalls
through utilization of the available funds.
As long as the appropriation in any given fund is not exceeded, the

Learning Resource Centre Director can switch funds from the original
purpose to another rather than returning the money to the donor.
Advantages
• Switching funds provides flexibility in purchasing;
• It also allows the Director to utilize all the funds originally allocated
instead of returning it to the donor.
9.13 Budgetary Controls

In private companies, the ultimate output that most of them desire is profit. In
schools and colleges, the ultimate goal is the acquisition of knowledge, skills
and attitudes by pupils and students. The quality and quantity of education
provided is often seen as means to this end. As part of the planning process,
heads of schools and principals allocate financial resources to different
departments in order to assist them attain their stated objectives.
Financial statements provide valuable information about whether a school,

college, or department is using its allocated finances effectively. Good
budgetary controls offer a way of ensuring that the school, college or
department is performing well financially (Mondy, Sharplin, and Premeaux,
1991).
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As a rule of thumb, a director or principal must establish a system of double

checking all entries through bank reconciliation. He or she must learn to
scrutinize against mistakes in payments and promptly bringing to the attention
of the authorities monies paid out wrongly. Good budgetary controls can be
achieved by ensuring that expenditure is within what was iitially planned for.
Quite often, we see schools and colleges asking for additional budgetary
allocations in the middle of the financial year simply because they did not
control their expenditure. This can be avoided by regular checking of books of
accounts.
9.14 Budget Administration

In the preceding paragraph, we emphasized the importance of budgetary
control. You may now be wondering as to what is to be controlled if there is no
budget. There are two budgeting approaches an LRC director can adopt,
namely:
a) Variable Budgeting
Variable budgeting recognizes that:
• Certain costs are related to output. We call these variable costs. An
example here would be the cost of materials.
• Other costs are unrelated to output. We call these fixed costs for
example, labour costs in situations of fixed salaries.
Variable budgeting requires adjustments in all areas depending on output

and circumstances.
b) Moving Budgeting
Moving budgeting involves preparing a budget for a fixed period such as
one year, with periodic up-dating and adjustments at fixed intervals like
three or six months.
• Moving budgeting is an on-going process,
• It allows managers to learn through experience and adjust figures
accordingly.
Whichever approach a director of principal chooses, it is always advisable to as
much as possible adhere to an agreed upon budget.
Activity 9.E
• Discuss the management style in your school as far as dealing with

both Internal and External Publics are concerned.
• Examine the differences or similarities between the steps in budget
preparation and controls discussed in this LESSON and those
practiced in your school or college.
• How prepared for windfalls is the person in change of the LRC/TAC
you visited earlier?
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9.15 Summary
This LESSON opens with definitions of the terms ‘management’, ‘resource-
based learning’ and Learning Resource Centre.’ It goes ahead and delineates
the LRC by clarifying that the LRC concept is not exemplified by a building
rather, it is a state of mind. The LESSON further makes an argument that
although the LRC as an edifice was a western countries’ idea, traditional
African mode of educating the young was more resource-based than the one
introduced by the Missionaries.
We have traced the background of LRC project in Kenya, the reasons,

objectives and the problems encountered. We have said that LRCs are the hub
of a resource-based program and the public (people) the linchpin around which
proper management and utilization of resources should revolve. This means
that the director’s or head of school’s leadership skills should be the focus as
opposed to his/her managerial skills.
The LESSON concludes with suggestions for budgeting for resources,

budgetary controls and administration.
Equifinality. A principle based upon dynamic interaction in an open system
which posits that the same final state may be reached from
different initial conditions and in different ways.
Harambee. A Kiswahili clarion call for pulling together used frequently in
Kenya to urge people to contribute towards self-help projects.
The term is now used to mean such a fund-raising meeting or
gathering.
Learning Resources. Any relatively permanent material which learners can use
to facilitate learning. They include both human and non-human
resources.
Learning Resource Centre. An individualized environment designed to
encourage the student to use a variety of instructional media and
resources to engage in diversified learning activities and to
assume major responsibility for his or her own learning.
Module. A free standing, self contained component of an instructional system.
Resource-Based Learning. A learning based on the use of resources as stimuli
for the transmission of the message or content.
Stakeholders. Administrators, teachers, students, parents and community
members.
REFERENCES
Szilagyi, A.D. Jr (l981). Management and Performance. Glenview. Scott, Foresman

and Company.
Plunkett, W.R. and Attner, R.F. (l983). Introduction to Management. Boston,
Massachusetts. Kent Publishing Co.
Gannon, M.J. (l982). Management: An Integrated Framework. (Second
Edition). Boston. Toronto. Little, Brown and Company.
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Bertalanffy, von L. (l995). General System Theory. 12th Edition. George

Braziller, New York.
Malcolm, G.H. (l973). A Resource Centre is a State of Mind. Glasgow:
SEFA.
Beswick, N.E. (l972). School Resource Centres. London: School and Council
Publications.
World Bank (Oct. l975) Appraisal of the Third Educational Project in the
Republic of Kenya: Report No. 764 – KIE. Nairobi Government Press.
World Bank (l975). The World Bank and Educational Projects. Washington,
D.C.
Smit, P.J. and Cronje, G.J. de J. (l992). Management Principles: A
Contemporary South African Edition. Cape Town. Juta and Company.
Lumley, D. and Bailey G.D. (l993). Planning for Technology: A Guidebook
for School Administrators. Scholastic Leadership Policy Research, New York.
Toronto. London, Auckland Sydney.
Bertalanffy, von. L. (l995) General System Theory. 12th Edition. George
Braziller, New York.
Mondy, R.W. Sharplin, A. & Premeaux, S.R. (l991) Management: Concepts,
Practices and Skills. Boston. London. Tronto. Sydney. Tokyo. Singapore.
Allyn and Bacon.
Karlins, M. and Abelson, H.I. (l970). Persuasion: How Opinions and Attitudes
are changed. Springer Publishing Company, Inc., New York, New York.
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LESSON ELEVEN
MULTICHANNEL LEARNING
12.0 Introduction
The obstacles to increasing opportunities for basic education in most developing
countries of Africa have proved formidable over the years following their
independence. In Kenya, for example, it took a Presidential Decree of December,
1973, to declare free primary education from standard I to IV (World Bank
Report, 1975). But even then, the problems still persisted despite the efforts to
hire and train more teachers. In the year 2003, the Kenya Government again
went a step further and reinforced the 1973 presidential Decree, this time making
primary education free from class one to class eight.
So the last 30 years have not been a time favourable for accelerating the
development of education and human capacity in Africa. Economic growth has
stagnated in many parts of Africa while population increases have continued
unchecked. Economic decline and population increases have put great pressure
on the ecosystem and on other resources for education and other social services.
Moreover, corruption, unaccountability of rulers, nepotism, mismanagement of
national resources and poor governance have altogether disrupted economic and
social life. This has led to crumbling of national infrastructures.
For these and other reasons, African countries have been unable to increase spending on
basic and even higher education. International donor support for education too,
has been slow in coming. It may greatly diminish in the years ahead. If African
countries have to provide education for all, other alternatives have to be sought
and new delivery systems designed. Already, this is beginning to happen though
on a lesser scale. Programmes like Open Learning, Parallel Degree Programmes,
Self-sponsored Programmes and the School-Based Continuing Education
Programmes are a few examples of the alternative delivery systems we are
talking about.
12.1 Objectives
By the end of this LESSON, you should be able to:
Define multichannel learning.
Differentiate between multichannel learning and distance learning.
Give at least five reasons for multichannel learning.
Discuss some evidence why there is a lot of schooling in Kenyan schools
without leaning.
Discuss the theoretical framework of multichannel learning.
Respond to the fact that despite Kenya Government’s efforts to provide free
primary education, there is still a wide range of educational deficits in the
country.
12.2 The Concept of Multichannel Learning

Multichannel learning is a new concept in education that was adopted by the
1990 World Conference on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand. The term
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should not be confused with the narrow concept of communication channel

because it means something different than multimedia.
It aims at broader learning by involving itself in a greater variety of learning
environments and methods, and is packaged and delivered with greater
flexibility.
Multichannel concept too, reflects a convergence of several ideas such as the idea
of the ‘Third Channel.’ The ‘Third Channel’ implies unplanned array of informal
learning experiences coming through the use of traditional and modern means of
communication. The informal learning is one that is largely motivated by
individual self-interest. This is the gist of the multichannel concept where
communities are assisted in getting involved in education.
12.3 Multichannel Learning Defined

Multichannel learning refers to the integration and reinforcement of formal, non-
formal and informal education through various mediators of learning-human and
material, in and out of school in order to effectively achieve the goals of access,
equity and quality in education (Sutaria, 1993). It is the opportunity to:
Learn.
Acquire new knowledge and skills that allow people to:
− earn more,
− to participate in local governance, and
− control their own lives.
It continues throughout life.
Uses a combination of systems/means to provide effective and
affordable access to knowledge and skills.
Multichannel learning proceeds from the premise that the chances for successful
learning and transfer of what is learned to situations encountered in daily life are
improved when teaching makes use of more than one learning channel. In
addition, the learning channels have to be used in ways that reinforce or
supplement one another.
An example of learning channels (modes) that reinforce or supplement one

another are a television or a radio broadcast lesson which is accompanied by a
module. Such a combination of lesson delivery modes increases the probability
that learning will occur because it offers alternatives of learning from a different
channel (mode) when things go wrong in another.
12.4 Reasons for Multichannel Learning

In making a case for multichannel learning, Anzalone (1993) writes:
To serve the basic learning needs of all requires more than a commitment to
basic education as it now exists. What is needed is an “expanded vision” that
surpasses present resource levels, while building on the best in current
practices. New possibilities exist today which result from the unprecedented
capacity to communicate. We must seize them with creativity and a
determination for increased effectiveness.
The challenge posed above by Anzalone of an ‘expanded vision’ is great

considering that any expansion in the provision of basic education must be set
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against a background of limited resources. But African countries must come up

with new visions to the extent that the world continues to change in a rapid
manner, bringing diverse challenges to education and further transforming our
traditional modes of teaching. Other reasons behind the creation of the concept
of multichannel learning are:
(a) Boundaries of basic education are being extended before and beyond
primary school.
Because of the exposure to technology in their homes, children are
entering class one when they already know the basics of the three
R’s.
(b) The relationship between education and work is evolving quickly.
Learning has become a lifelong activity.
(c) Diminishing job security due to changes in the job market brought about by
stiff global competition and changes in the means of production from labour
intensive to capital intensive.
Workers are being viewed as LESSONs of production. One is
therefore hired and retained in a job because of his/her ability to
produce cheaply and learn new skills.
(d) Education and training are no longer a one-shot deal but something to be
done periodically throughout life.
(e) A recognition that sometimes distance is not always the issue.
People can now enroll for programmes/courses at universities
overseas and earn their degrees without ever having to travel to
those countries.
(f) An appreciation that effective use of media and resources comes about in
combination with other educational inputs and processes.
No single medium, even the face-to-face interaction will provide one
hundred per cent learning efficiency.
Activity 12.A
Define multichannel learning.
Differentiate between multimedia approach and multichannel learning.
Revisit the reasons given in this LESSON for multichannel learning. For
each reason given, come up with a Kenyan example that fits or supports
that reason.
12.5 The Case for Multichannel Learning in Kenya

At independence in 1963, Kenya inherited a system of education that was deeply
flawed. The colonial system of education had serious inequities that had been
institutionalized. For example, teachers were trained in paternalistic
“authoritative” teaching methods that never provided corresponding channels for
pupils to communicate with teachers. Pupils were taught to respect authority
rather than question it. It was a system that was meant to instil fear in Africans
and reward blind obedience to authority.
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Since independence, we have continued to compound the problem by changing a

few things here and there, while retaining the basic structure of curriculum
design. We have for instance, persisted on teacher-given objectives to guide our
teachings. Teacher-given objectives however, have the tendency of making
learner’s dwell too much on the negative motivators such as:
− fear of failing and
− fear of punishment.
Teacher-given objectives moreover, tend to concentrate on the trivial learnings.

Note that not every measurable and observable outcome is significant. Some
learning outcomes such as the moral dimension of the learners and attitude
change cannot be measured by the end of the lesson. Others may take the length
of the student’s school life before change can be observed.
The zeal to measures objectives is a result of our desire to be scientific about

teaching. It is our response to a behaviorally oriented curriculum which gives
objectives greater status than they deserve. The assumption here is that if the
learning cannot be measured then there is nothing there. Unfortunately only
science and mathematics lend themselves more readily to a ‘straight’ objectives
approach. Social sciences and humanities do not always fit well into that kind of
‘strait-jacket’ approach for instance in art appreciation and debating skills.
There are other pressing problems that have their roots to the colonial legacy of
Kenyan education. For now, it will suffice to note that, every year, more than
half the number of students who qualify to join Kenyan secondary schools and
public universities do not do so for lack of space. This is because we peg our
intakes to capacity. Multichannel learning has the potential to take care of those
unfortunate learners who fail to join secondary schools and universities because it
seeks to maximize value through enlisting the support of all available channels
and resources.
Other compelling justifications for multichannel learning in Kenya are based on

the fact that there is currently a lot of schooling without learning. Evidence of
this include:
Routines of copying text from the blackboard.
A lot of listening to teachers’ verbal renditions (translations of information).
Reciting and memorizing text.
Teaching for examinations where factual information is taught as something
to be covered rather than mastered (grilling).
Policy decisions and budgetary allocations aim at inputs rather than output.
In other words, Kenya’s education policy decisions are supply driven rather
than demand driven.
People learn in different ways and the best way to cater for individual
difference is by making available multiple channels.
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Activity 12.B
Prepare a “position paper” (approximately five double-spaced typed

pages) on a topic about the inequities of the Kenyan education system.
12.6 Theoretical Framework of Multichannel Learning

Since multichannel learning is a relatively new term in the vocabulary of educational
technology, the best way to explain it is ‘a term in the process of becoming.’
Chieuw and Mayo in Anzalone (1995:13) argue that the term is based on an
amalgamation of concepts and experiences borrowed from other domains.
Its theoretical framework however is founded on the following convictions:
(a) Unless there are substantial reinforcement of skills acquired and diversity in
learning channels used, the chances for skills to endure are not strong.
The implication of this statement is that students should be allowed
to exercise their preferences in the use of media. In individualized
instruction for instance, each student should be allowed the
opportunity to select the medium or media that suit(s) his/her needs,
abilities and interests.
(b) Providing multiple channels increases the probability that learning can occur
because it provides opportunities to learn where some channels fail.
Note that research has not so far provided the answer as to which
particular medium or combination of media will produce most
learning in a given situation. So the onus is on the teacher to create
stimulus that may produce the desired results. For example, in
selecting television as our mode of delivery, students can gain more
from that medium if the material contained was briefly introduced
by a live human being and followed by a discussion thereafter, but
television should never be used as a substitute to human (student-
teacher) interaction.
(c) Chances for successful learning increase when learning channels are used in
ways that reinforce one another.
The learning channels referred to here include:
− Teachers as facilitators.
− Other learners.
− Family members.
− Community members.
− Social experiences.
− Educational materials of all kinds.
Activity 12.C
Performance in Kenyan schools have always been different between rural and
urban and between private and public schools. Part of the reason for the
disparities is because the problems afflicting low achieving schools have multiple
causes.
List and analyse the problems in a schools you are associated with
either primary, secondary or college which affect learning outcomes.
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What interactive multichannel learning modes can you think of that

could alleviate the difficulties you have listed in order to improve
performance in that school?
To what extent do you agree with the theoretical framework of
multichannel learning given in this LESSON?
12.7 Summary
‘Technologizing’ of education cannot be reduced to one aspect such as ‘hands-
on’ skills or the application of computers. It is, rather, a multi-faceted process.
Hence, multichannel learning has the potential of solving the confusion
occasionally encountered regarding technology in education and technology of
education.
Our intention in writing this LESSON was to challenge the narrow definition of
communication channels. That intention is maintained here by referring to
learners, teachers, family and community members, and all educational materials
as channels under one title of the ‘third channel.’ In good measure, we believe
we have succeeded by ‘broadening’ the concept of channels to include a greater
variety of learning environments and methods.
We have enumerated the reasons for multichannel learning and reviewed the
problems besetting African education as far as access, equity and quality of
education go. We have argued that if developing countries have to meet the
demand for education for all, new delivery methods have to be devised and
adopted.
Finally, we have traced some of Kenya’s education problems to the paternalistic

colonial system of education that emphasized the trivial at the expense of the
practical skills. We have made a case that, in light of the evidence available of a
lot of schooling without learning, there is need for change so as to accommodate
changes in the global environment. Multichannel approach to education promises
the way forward.
Activity 12.D
Describe an actual use of multichannel learning in an out-of-school

setting based upon your experiences or readings.
Interview a lecturer or students who have used the multichannel learning
system of instruction.
Determine their reaction to using the system and ascertain what they perceive
as the advantages and disadvantages of the approach.
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Communication Channels – means through which messages are transmitted or
communicated.
Distance Learning – Learning that is organized in packages or courses that can be
delivered and used by learners who are unable to take part in
conventional face-to-face experiences.
Media – The vehicle carrying the stimulus mode such as charts, models, films,
recordings, pictures, realia, etc.
Mode – The method or manner through which content is delivered. The kind of
stimulus presented to the student such as spoken words, written text,
pictorial presentations and recorded messages.
Multimedia – Sequential or simultaneous use of a variety of media formats in a
given presentation or self-study programme.
Technology in Education – Embraces every possible means by which information
can be presented. It concerns itself with the gadgetry of education and
training such as televisions, language laboratories and various projected
media.
Technology of Education – Concerns itself with the intangible aspects of
education for instance, the techniques of teaching and learning rather
than the hardware itself.
Third Channel – Unplanned array of informal learning channels (experiences)
coming through the use of traditional and modern means of
communication. These channels include: teachers as facilitators, other
learners, family and community members, social experiences and
educational, materials of all kinds.
Three R’s – The fundamental skills taught in nursery and lower primary meaning
reading, riting (writing) and rithmetic (arithmetic).
REFERENCES
Anzalone, S. (1995). Multichannel Learning: Connecting all to Education. Education
Development Center. Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
Anzalone, S (1993). Expanding the Vision of Basic Education Through Multichannel
Learning. Development Communication Report No. 82. Washington, D.C.: US
Agency for International Development.
Sutaria, M.C. (1993). Multichannel Learning in Focus: Project No Drops and a Learning
System for All. Development Communication Report No. 82:7-10.
UNESCO (1993). Education for All: Status and Trends, Paris.
World Conference on Education for All (1990). World Declaration on Education for all
and framework for action to meet basic learning needs. New York: Interagency
Communication (UNDP, UNESCO, UNICEF, World Bank).
− thereafter, but television should never be used as a substitute to

human
− Educational materials of all kinds.
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DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION

http://www.elab.co.ke/notes/ Whatsapp: +254 712 218 705 Page 1

SYSTEMATIC PLANNING FOR THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA.

PRINT AND NON-PRINT MEDIA 40

TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONAL MEDIA 71

Question 8.9 ..................................................................................................................... 89

MANAGEMENT OF LEARNING RESOURCES 90

The course’s locus therefore is a mediated multichannel learning approach where

http://www.elab.co.ke/notes/ Whatsapp: +254 712 218 705 Page 4

Educational Technology in Focus

1.2 The Conceptual Foundation of Technology Based Learning

Today, we can speak of two different perceptions of educational technology

i. Technology in education and

1.2.1 Technology in Education

One of the earliest phases in the evolution of educational technology was

• Embraces every possible means by which information can be presented.

Technology in education is sometimes referred to as the ‘machine approach.’

1.2.2 Technology of Education

A ‘technology of education’ approach to educational technology thus involves a

At the heart of technology of education therefore is the ‘systems approach’ where

Technology in education on the other hand is one of the possible means to an

1.3 Definitions of Educational Technology

(a) Definition One

(b) Definition Two

(c) Definition Three

Source: Commission of Instructional Technology USA.

Differentiate between technology in education and technology of education.

1.4 Communication in the Classroom

1.5 Things we need to know about classroom communication

Interdependence does not mean linear causality. Therefore, my poor teaching

1.6 Communication Defined

The key word in our definition of communication is process. A process has no

• Approach your colleagues and request them to define

1.7 Verbal and Nonverbal Aspects of Human Communication

Discuss the notion of process as it applies to classroom communication.

1.8 Barriers to Effective Classroom Communication

(a) Physiological Barriers. These include all kinds of illnesses such as

− Lack of ventilation or stuffiness in the room.

(c) Psychological Barriers. The psychological characteristics of a situation

The important thing for the teacher to do is to be aware that psychological

1.8 Types of Teacher Reinforcements

(a) Positive Verbal Reinforcements. These include statements a teacher

(c) Negative Verbal Reinforcements. These come about when we

• By being impervious. Imperviousness in communication means

(d) Negative Nonverbal Reinforcements. This is the situation where a

1.10 Consequences of Negative Reinforcements

everything we have said in this LESSON about the process nature of

1.11 Suggestion for an Effective Teacher/Communicator

(b) Listen to understand.

(c) Listen to diminish defensiveness.

Conduct a classroom observation of a colleague in your school for one working

We have argued that although ‘technology of education’ involves a systematic

This is unlike in the mechanistic and reductionistic approach found in technology

Communication is revisited and the problems that have prevented our

After examining the barriers to effective classroom communication, you realize

1.13 Definition of Terms

Ubiquitousness. Existing or being everywhere at the same time: constantly

Budd, R.W., and B.D. Ruben (1979). Interdisciplinary Approaches to Human

Commission on Instructional Technology, U.S.A

Council For Educational Technology for the United Kingdom (CET).

National Centre for Programmed Learning UK.

Sampath, K., A. Pannirselvan and S. Sauthanam (1981). Introduction to Educational