Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
July 1991
TheJournal of
Gemmology
Past Presidents:
Sir Henry Miers, MA, D.Sc, FRS
Sir William Bragg, OM, KBE, FRS
Dr. G.F. Herbert Smith, CBE, MA, D.Sc.
Sir Lawrence Bragg, CH, OBE, MC, B.Sc, FRS
Sir Frank Claringbull, Ph.D., F.Inst.P., FGS
Vice-President: R. K. Mitchell, FGA
Council of Management
D.J. Callaghan, FGA
N.W. Deeks, FGA
N.B. Israel, FGA
E.A. Jobbins, B.Sc, C.Eng., FIMM, FGA
I. Thomson, FGA
V.P. Watson, FGA
K. Scarratt, FGA: Chief Executive
R.R. Harding, B.Sc., D.Phil., FGA: Director of Gemmology
Members3 Council
A. J. Allnutt, M.Sc, D. Inkersole, FGA PG. Read, C.Eng.,
Ph.D., FGA B. Jackson, FGA MIEE, MIERE, FGA
C. R. Cavey, FGA G.H. Jones, B.Sc, Ph.D., FGA I. Roberts, FGA
P. J. E. Daly, B.Sc, FGA H. Levy, M.Sc, BA, FGA E.A. Thomson,
T. Davidson, FGA J. Kessler Hon. FGA
R. Fuller, FGA G. Monnickendam R. Velden
J.A.W. Hodgkinson, L. Music D. Warren
FGA J.B. Nelson, Ph.D., FGS, C H . Winter, FGA
F. Inst. P., C.Phys., FGA
Branch Chairmen:
Midlands Branch: D.M. Larcher, FBHI, FGA
North-West Branch: W. Franks, FGA
Examiners:
A. J. Allnutt, M.Sc, Ph.D., FGA G. H. Jones, B.Sc, Ph.D., FGA
L. Bartlett, B.Sc, M.Phil., FGA D. G. Kent, FGA
E. M. Bruton, FGA P. Sadler, B.Sc, FGS, FGA
C. R. Cavey, FGA K. Scarratt, FGA
A.T. Collins, B.Sc, Ph.D E. Stern, FGA
A. E. Farn, FGA Prof. I.Sunagawa,D.Sc
R. R. Harding, B.Sc, D.Phil., FGA M. Virkkunen, M.Phil., FGA
E. A. Jobbins, B.Sc, C. Eng., FIMM, FGA C. Woodward, B.Sc, FGA
Cover Picture
Plate 1 from Bauer's Edelsteinkunde published in German in 1896 (translated into English by L.J. Spencer in 1904 as
Precious Stones). The specimens are diamond (1-4), ruby (5-6). sapphire (7-8). spinel(9-10) and zircon (11-13). (See Two
types of historical traps: on 'Diamond Softening' and the'Antiquity of Emerald Oiling' by Kurt Nassau p.399-403.)
ISSN: 0022-1252
394 J. Gemm., 1991,22.
The Days will be filled with gemmological activity, lectures, videos and hands-on
workshops. You will be invited to dine the evening away during what can only be
described os the gemmological social event of the year.
The Conference will be crowned on the evening of the 4th with the Presentation of
Awards Ceremony held at Goldsmiths' Hall where students from all over the World will
be present to receive their Diplomas and Awards.
Be with us on the 3rd and 4th November, meet old friends but most of all come to
enjoy the gemstones.
— A Conference sponsored by T.H. March & Co. Ltd. - Insurance Brokers to the Jewellery Industry —
J. Gemm., 1991,22, 7 395
Cat's-eye tanzanite
Another chatoyant gem mentioned in the litera-
ture but very rarely seen is cat's-eye tanzanite. It
thus came as a pleasant surprise when we were
shown the stone pictured in Figure 4. This semi-
transparent, high-domed oval cabochon with a
slightly convex base weighs 2.69 carats and mea-
sures 8.21 x 6.81 x 5.51mm. When examined from
above it exhibits an attractive medium dark greyish
violet-blue body colour and a sharp chatoyant band.
Gemmological properties determined for the
chatoyant tanzanite were as follows:
Refractive Index: 1.69, determined by the distant
vision ('spot') method on the apex of the cabochon
with white light source.
Optic Character: Biaxial, determined by resolution
of an optical interference figure between crossed
polaroids. Fig. 4. This 2.69 ct tanzanite also exhibits distinct chatoyancy.
Photo by Robert Weldon, Gemological Institute of
Pleochroism: Very strong, in blue, purple and America.
greyish green, as observed with a calcite dichro-
scope. It was interesting to note that, as with the
cat's-eye iolite described above, a deeper colour was
noted when the stone was viewed down the sides in
both the long (Figure 5) and narrow directions.
Chelsea Filter reaction: Inert (appeared green) in
most directions with a slight orangy overtone when
viewed down the length of the cabochon.
LWUVfluorescence: Inert; no phosphorescence.
SWUV fluorescence: Inert; no phosphorescence.
Absorption spectrum: No distinct features observed.
Specific gravity: 3.38, estimated using the sink-float
method with heavy liquids.
Magnification: Microscopic investigation revealed
the cause of the chatoyancy to be numerous parallel
whitish channels running perpendicular to the 'eye' Fig. 5. As with the cat's-eye iolite, due to its strong pleochro-
ism the chatoyant tanzanite pictured here displayed a
(Figure 6). Spike-shaped 2-phase inclusions were deeper colour when viewed down the sides. Note also
also noted. When looking down the length of the the ends of the chatoyancy-causing parallel channels.
channels a light transmission effect similar to that Photomicrograph by John I. Koivula, Gemological Insti-
shown by the mineral ulexite (so-called 'television tute of America. Magnified 25x.
stone') was also noted.
Two types
Two types of
of historical
historical traps:
traps:
on 'Diamond Softening' and thethe
'Antiquityof
'Antiquity of Emerald
Emerald Oiling'
Oiling'
Kurt
Kurt Nassau,
Nassau, Ph.D.
Ph.D.
Lebanon,
Lebanon, NJ
NJ 08833, USA
08833, USA
Introduction a step which Pliny and later recipes omit, the step of
The interpretation of ancient texts is always a heating the quartz before dropping it into the
hazardous undertaking. It is easy to fall into two liquid; for the whole process was intended to
types of traps: scoffing
scoffing at apparently ridiculous crackle the quartz for subsequent dyeing.
apparently
statements at one extreme; accepting apparently Exerpts from a new translation (Nassau and
careful
reasonable statements at face value without careful Hansen, unpublished) of just three of the many
analysis at the other extreme. recipes in the 'Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis' will
An example of the first type of trap, on which I illustrate the process as it was used over two
'softening of
was able to shed some light, is the 'softening thousand years ago:
diamond' with warm goat's blood as mentioned in
the 'Natural History' of Pliny (Gaius Plinius Secun- No. 29. Mordanting [or Softening] of of Stones.
dus, Roman historian, 23 AD AD to 79 AD).
AD). A trap of the ... hide them [the stones] in a dried fig or [in]
myself fell previously, is
second type into which I myself plump dates. These should be worked over
involved with Pliny's description of emerald oiling, charcoal and blown with bellows until they [the
the apparent antiquity of which is sometimes cited fig or dates] burn and become charred. And take
as justification
justification for current practice. out [the stones] with tongs not with your hand
[implying that they are too hot to touch], and
Pliny's 'Diamond Softening'
Softening' thereupon plunge while warm into the dye
An example of of the first type ofof trap is Pliny's solution and let cool there
there...
...
statement on diamond: "Adamas
''Adamas ... can be broken
up by goat's blood. But it must be steeped in blood Softening of
No. 36. Softening of Crystal.
that is fresh and still warm ... ..."" (Eichholz, 1962, To soften
soften crystal take goat's blood, heat the
p. 209). In his commentary on this passage Ball crystal over a gentle fire and dip it in until it
(1950, p. 252) calls this a myth and cites derivative pleases you.
statements by later writers. These frequently
frequently de-
scribe this process as a technique for 'softening'
'softening' Dipping for Lychnis [a red stone,
No. 46. Dipping
diamond for easier cutting, some stating that it did possibly tourmaline or ruby].
not work, with others claiming that they had used it mordanting [or softening] as above.
Begin by mordanting
successfully! Take orchil and alkanet [both red substances]
When I originally came across this passage, I was and vinegar. Drop the stone into this until it
greatly amused, just as everyone else. It was only pleases you.
while studying the even older 'Papyrus Graecus
Holmiensis',
Holmiensis; an Egyptian manuscript
manuscript titled Baphika In 200 BC later the first
Be and later first part
part ofof this two-step
(on dyeing) written by Bolos of of Mendes about 200 process was called 'mordanting' or or 'softening'
'softening' by
BC (e.g. see Nassau and Hansen, 1985) that I with the 'softening'
analogy with 'softening' of
of wool by a mordant-
realised this 'mythical' recipe actually works! For ing process which was in use from from ancient
ancient times
the papyrus describes in several recipes in varying recently to make the wool more receptive
until quite recently
details, a process which is still in use today, although to dyes (Nassau, "1984, pp."9
1984, pp. However;
9 and 158). However,
it is given by Pliny in a rather garbled form. preparing the previous translations
classicists preparing translations ofof this
This process applies not to diamond but but to papyrus
papyrus hadhad missed
missed the essential
essential point
point from
from not
included both
quartz, for the term 'adamas' then included knowing
knowing enough
enough gemmology. It It required
required a new
It uses goat's blood - today we use water
materials. It translation
translation involving my interaction
interaction with Professor
which works justjust as well! And the papyrus includes A.E. Hansen
Hansen of of the Classics
Classics Department
Department of of Prince-
400 J. Gemm., 1991,22,7
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Fig. 2. Title page of 1548 edition of Natural History by Pliny, written in the first century AD, the first book containing extensive
gemmological information.
402 J. Gemm., 1991,22,7
ton University to achieve understanding of the Ill: "Such stones [Median smaragdi], in spite of
subtleties involved and this also resulted in an their varied colours, seem to be green by nature,
understanding of Pliny's 'myth', which almost cer- since they may be improved by being steeped in
tainly was based on the papyrus recipe No. 36 cited oil" and footnote: "Pliny probably means that
above. green seems to be the natural colour, because this
colour is the one 'restored' by steeping the stones
Pliny's 'Emerald Oiling' in oil" (Eichholz, 1962, p. 221).
The routine oiling of emerald without disclosure
is sometimes considered to be justified on the claim There is general agreement that Median smarag-
that it has been in use for at least two thousand dus is not emerald: it is either malachite (Eichholz,
years. We are here speaking of the use of a colourless 1962, p. 220), turquoise or intergrown malachite
oil to fill open cracks and fissures in emerald to and azurite (Ball, 1950, p. 144). If it is malachite,
make these defects invisible or at least less obvious then a poor chalky grade could have its colour
to the naked eye. The claimed antiquity of this improved by oiling. A much more likely candidate
process is based on a passage in Pliny. I myself is turquoise, a material that does occur in 'varied
accepted the conventional interpretation of this colours' - both blue and green - and can be readily
source in one of my books (Nassau, 1984, pp. 7, changed from blue to the then-preferred green
100) and elsewhere, but have now investigated this colour by acid, acidic perspiration, and undoubted-
matter in detail, reaching a very different conclu- ly by oil, especially if it is mixed with acid wine or is
sion. acidic from rancidity.
Here again, it is absolutely vital to establish If it means anything at all, Pliny's 'oiling of
exactly what the words used meant. First of all, the smaragdus' can thus be interpreted as the turning
word 'smaragdus' is stated by Pliny to include green by oiling of blue turquoise or of poor quality
twelve varieties. These are now recognised to malachite!
encompass not only emerald but also other green to Essentially all the occasional references to emer-
bluish-green materials such as green sapphire, ald oiling in the centuries that followed are clearly
turquoise, malachite, amazonite, lapis lazuli, green based on the usual misinterpretation of Pliny's
alabaster, green jasper, and so on (Eichholz, 1962, smaragdus oiling. As one example (King, 1860), the
p.213; Ball, 1950, pp. 140 ff, 256 ff). Pliny himself Abbot Mar bod, writing in France about 1070 AD,
states that all smaragdi except the Scythian, Egyp- also cites twelve varieties of smaragdus, as did Pliny,
tian, and Attic ones are found in copper mines. and again paraphrases Pliny:
Eichholz (1962, p. 214) concludes that only the
Scythian and Egyptian smaragdi of Pliny were true "If steeped in verdant oil or bathed in wine
emeralds. It's deepened hues with perfect lustre shine."
Another critically relevant fact is that green
gemstones were preferred to blue ones at that time. There is also mention of the use of oil on
As one example, Pliny says: "... of all colours, green gemstones in the much earlier papyrus discussed
is the most pleasing to the eye" (Ball, 1950, p. 140). above, but there the oil is the medium that carries
Again, Pliny states (Ball, 1950, p. 143) with respect dyes and pigments into crackled stones to produce
to Persian smaragdus (probably turquoise): "... imitations. There seems to be no hint of the use of a
they have this fault that they have the colour either colourless oil merely to hide defects.
of gall or the sky... but are still not green". In summary, there are no convincing ancient
With these two considerations in mind, let us reports of emerald oiling. This is not to say that
examine what Pliny actually does say about the some may not have tried these instructions in the
oiling of smaragdus in Chapter 18 of Book 37. Here conventionally misinterpreted form throughout the
are the three authoritative translations of the pas- centuries and obtained an improvement in appear-
sage: ance from the filling with oil of the cracks in the
emerald. But we do not have any persuasive
I: "Such smaragdi [of Media] as are not naturally documentary evidence of it. Therefore we cannot
green may be improved and reach their full attribute the emerald oiling process to antiquity.
beauty by being washed in wine and oil" (Ball,
1950, p. 144, based on Philemon Holland's
Modern emerald oiling
translation of 1601).
When we examine more recent sources, such as
II: "... [Median smaragdi] appear naturally of a the writings of the great gemmologists of the
green colour, but become improved by the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, we find an even
addition of oil" (Bostock and Riley, 1898, more surprising situation. None of these refers to
p. 412). emerald oiling before the 1960s! This is most
J. Gemm., 1991, 22, 7 403
astonishing in the case of Max Bauer, whose tially all green aquamarine to the currently more
Precious Stones of 1904 is one of the most detailed desired blue colour (blue is rare for aquamarine as
gemmological treatises ever written. In his text he mined). Here again there is no mention of this
mentions many treatments, but for emerald only process in Bauer; Liddicoat first refers to it in 1981
green foil backings for pale stones and closed black in the eleventh edition of his Handbook of Gem
settings for fissured stones. Equally astonishing is Identification; Anderson mentions it only in the
the absence of emerald oiling in early editions of ninth edition of his Gem Testing in 1980; but a
Webster's authoritative Gems, where only in the description does occur as early as 1962 in Webster's
fourth edition of 1983 (Webster and Anderson, first edition of Gems. There is thus an earlier
1983) does an account finally appear. (The 'oiling' complete absence of mention of this process and
with kerosene by Brazilians mentioned on p. 91 of subsequently only rarely a reference to it. It is
Webster's third edition of 1975 is clearly not the usually accepted that the reason for this derives
modern oiling process). There is also no mention of from the widespread use of aquamarine heating
emerald oiling in early editions of Liddicoat's being known by all, with everyone recognizing it as
Handbook of Gem Identification or Anderson's Gem obvious and indeed to be expected. Perhaps this
Testing. type of explanation applies equally well to trade
The first reference to modern emerald oiling that emerald oiling in the twentieth century. There is, of
I have been able to locate is in Liddicoat's 6th course, one significant difference between these two
edition (1962, p. 2 80), where it is referred to as a products: the colour of heat-treated aquamarine is
'longstanding' process. The process itself is out- stable in normal use, but the oil in oiled emerald
lined for the first time in an unsigned article in 1981 may dry out or be washed out by detergent.
in the Retail Jeweller (Anon., 1981), soon followed
by a detailed description by Ringsrud in 1983. I References
should like to hear if any reader knows of earlier Anderson, B.W., Gem Testing, various edns., Butterworths,
references to the modern oiling process which I London.
have overlooked. (Anon) 1981. Secrets of Emerald Oiling. Retail Jeweller, 20, No.
488, April 9, 1981, 2.
Unable to locate older convincing documentary Ball, S.H., 1950. A Roman Book on Precious Stones, Gemological
mention of the modern oiling process, I finally Institute of America, Santa Monica.
turned to the memory of the master gemmologists Bauer, M., 1904. Precious Stones. Reprinted 1968, Dover, New
Richard T Liddicoat and Robert Crowningshield of York, Vol. 2, 310.
the Gemological Institute of America, to both of Bostock, J., Riley, H.T., 1898. The Natural History of Pliny, Vol.
6, G. Bell, London.
whom and their associates I am grateful for help. Eichholz, D.E., 1962. Pliny Natural History, Vol. 10, Harvard
They also checked with several octogenarian University Press, Cambridge.
sources accessible to them. The earliest any of these King, C.W., 1860. Antique Gems, J. Murray, London, p. 397.
sources could definitely locate trade emerald oiling Liddicoat, R.T., Jr. Handbook of Gem Identification, various
edns., Gemological Institute of America, Santa Monica.
was about 1910. There was also some feeling, but Nassau, K., 1984. Gemstone Enhancement, Butterworths,
certainly no proof, that trade emerald oiling may not London.
have existed before 1910. Nassau, K., Hansen, A.E., 1985. The Pearl in the Chicken, Gems
and Gemology, 21, 224.
If we then assume that trade emerald oiling began Ringsrud, R., 1983. The Oil Treatment of Emeralds in Bogota,
soon after the turn of the century, how to explain the Colombia, Gems and Gemology, 20, No. 3, pp. 149-56.
'conspiracy of silence' that existed among gemmo- Webster, R., 1962, 1970, and 1975. Gems, edns. 1, 2, and 3,
logists for some half a century, with but a minimal Newnes-Butterworths, London.
Webster, R., Anderson B.W., 1983. Gems, 4th edn., Butterworths,
mention over the next 30 years? An examination of
London, p. 116.
the aquamarine heating process may be relevant:
this enhancement has been used to convert essen- [Manuscript received 28 March 1991.]
404 J. Gemm., 1991,
1991, 22,7
22, 7
STUDENT SPECIMENS
We are pleased to offer an excellent range of student gemstone specimens
to members. Amongst those on offer are these interesting natural emeralds
from two localities, the USSR and Brazil
Ceylon Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, PO Box 787, Colombo, Sri Lanka
©
© Copyright the Gemmological Association ISSN: 0022-1252
0022·1252
406 J. Gemm., 1991,22,7
Results and discussion When the 'dead milk' areas in type (c) stones were
The samples were scanned at very low scanning analysed, relatively higher concentration levels of
speeds under the same experimental conditions Fe and Ti were detected than in clear areas. In all
using the EPMA, and the results were analysed and these type (c) samples the Ti level was noticeably
averaged. The lowest detecting limit of Fe and Ti higher than Fe (Table 1). Among other minor
was 0.03%. The concentration levels were classified impurities V was always present in all the type (c)
as: low - 0.03% to 0.15%; medium- 0.15% to 0.3%; samples analysed. In 'dead milk'-free areas the Fe
high - above 0.3% (see Table 1). and Ti levels were much lower than in the 'dead
milk' areas and the number of minor impurities
were also low.
Table 1: EPMA results of heat treated 'geuda'
However the reported minor trace impurities
corundums
were identified during the qualitative analysis.
Since presence of V was possibly more significant
than the other minor impurities, those results were
Samples Fe Ti V Minor tabulated separately, but no quantitative estimates
Trace are available for V.
Level
The possibility of contamination due to sample
Impuri-
preparation was ruled out by analysing similar types
ties
of samples without employing the special prepara-
(a) Good blue stones * X ND Na, K, Mn tion method. Further detection of similar impuri-
(b) Very pale blue/ * • ND Na, K, Ca, ties in natural corundums have been reported by
colourless Si, Zn Schmetzer and Bank (1980,1981), Bosshart (1982),
stones Schmetzer and Bosshart (1983) and Schrader
(1986).
(c) Stones with 'dead
milk' Conclusion
(i) "dead milk'area *** Y Na, K, Ca,
This study suggests that whilst the presence of Fe
Mg, Ga, and Ti is necessary to give a blue colour to
Mn, Si, Cr corundum, the presence of other minor impurities
(ii) blue area * * Y Na,K,
could prevent the formation of the required bi-
Mg,Si particle and hence not produce an acceptable blue
colour. This confirms the hypothesis of Schmetzer
* -low (0.03-0.15%) and Bank (1980) in the explanation of different
** -medium (0.15-0.3%) behaviour of heat treated corundums due to other
*** - high (above 0.3%) additional impurities.
X - average value below lowest detecting limit The formation of the thick white precipitate
Y - significant minor impurities ('dead milk') on the outer surface was apparent in
ND - N o t detected stones with high impurity concentration levels
especially Fe and Ti. It is possible that V and some
of the other impurities present in the sample may
It is generally accepted that the blue colour of have helped this process.
sapphires was caused by the formation of the
(Fe.Ti) 6+ bi-particle (Nassau, 1984; Eigenmann Acknowledgements
and Gunthard, 1972; Harder & Schneider, 1986; Authors gratefully acknowledge Mr W Weera-
Ediriweera & Perera, 1989). singhe for the assistance given in heat treatment and
The average results (Table 1) show that the the Institute of Fundamental Studies (IFS) for
concentration level of Fe in types (a) and (b) were facilitating the use of the EPMA and also Dr M
similar, whilst the concentration level of Ti seemed Rupasinghe, Mr Deepal Subasinghe and Mr L
to be lower in type (a) than in (b). The majority of Liyanage of IFS who helped us in the analyses.
the type (a) samples showed Ti up to about trace
impurity level and a few samples showed a slightly
higher level similar to Fe. The only detected References
additional impurities in (a) were Na, K and Mn. Bosshart, G., 1982. Distinction of Natural and Synthetic Rubies
by Ultraviolet Spectrophotometry, Journal of Gemmology,
Some type (a) specimens did not even show traces of
XVIII, 2, 145-60.
any of the minor impurities. However in type (b) Ediriweera, R.N., Perera, S.I., 1989. Heat Treatment of Geuda
stones, the presence of a number of minor impuri- Stones - Spectral Investigation. Journal of Gemmology, 21, 7,
ties were clearly noticeable (Na, K, Ca, Zn, Si). 403-4.
J. Gemm., 1991,22,7
1991, 22, 7 407
Name
Position
Company
Address
Telephone
L. .j
J. Gemm., 1991,22,7
1991,22, 7 409
409
© Copyright
© Copyright the Gemmological Association ISSN: 0022-1252
410
410 J. Gernrn.,
Gemm., 1991, 22, 77
Table 1.
1. Some of the largest known Colombian emerald crystals of special quality, in the chronological
order of their discovery
was baptised 'Muzo' after its place of origin. The low medium high
largest polished emerald also came from Muzo and < 11.5
.5 1.5 - 2.5
1.5-2.5 >2.5
>Z.5 wt%MgO
< 11.0
.0 1.0-Z.0
1.0-2.0 >2.0
> Z.O wt%NazO
perfume bottle, 10.9
is a perfume 10.9 cm in height, which was <O.Z
<0.2 O.Z-O.4
0.2-0.4 >0.4 wt% CrZ03
1641 by Dyonisio Miseroni
engraved in the year of 1641 < 00.5
.5 0.5-1.0 >1.0
> 1.0 wt%FeO
J. Gemm., 1991, 22, 7 411
emeralds (0.5 to 1.9 weight% H 2 0) is below or equal C3. Light absorption, colour and fluorescence
to the average of natural emeralds of other origins. Chromophores causing green colour in beryls (and
The infrared spectra of Colombian emeralds other silicates) by means of selective absorption of
usually indicate a slight predominance of type II light are the transition metals Cr,V,Fe,(Mn),Ni,Co
water over the free type I water. This is mainly due and(Cu).4
+
to the presence of Na : As electric dipoles, water Cobalt and copper appear to be absent in Col-
molecules are orientated and bonded in the ring ombian emeralds. Their iron contents and traces of
channels by neighbouring alkali and other cations manganese and nickel have no colouring effect in
and thus called type II water. Type I water is not the presence of chromium and vanadium as will be
alkali-bonded (Wood & Nassau 1968). shown in the evaluation of the spectra.
A coupled atomic substitution by alkalis regularly If (Cr,Fe)-emeralds are designated 'normal' or
takes place in natural emerald: Mg 2 + mainly re- type I emeralds and the yellowish-green (V,
places Al 3+ on the lattice sites of beryl while the Fe,Ni,Mn,Cr)-beryls as type II (Taylor 1977), the
larger-sized Na + ion is built into the ring channels Colombian emeralds with their Cr/V ratio averag-
of the crystal structure for electric charge com- ing about 3 may be classified as the last representa-
pensation. tives of the more frequent type I. This type shows
The magnesium and sodium oxide contents3*'3* of Cr/V ratios from 1.0 to 40 (in extreme cases to over
Colombian emeralds (averaging 0.7 and 0.6 wt% 100). Thus the Colombian emerald population is
respectively) are definitely lower than the corres- bordering the rarer type II which has Cr/V ratios
ponding values of natural emeralds of metamorphic below 1 (normally far below parity). Therefore
and other provenance, excepting the very low Mg they could also be considered as an intermediate
and Na contents of the recent emerald finds from emerald type.
Jos, Nigeria. Most other natural type I emeralds are lower in
Colombian emeralds take up a central position vanadium (V-free to V-poor) but higher in Fe 3+
with regard to the substitution of aluminium in the and Fe 2 + (ferriferous to Fe-rich). They display a
beryl structure by the colouring transition ele- bluish-green to blue-green colour, most obvious in
ments, the chromophores Cr3+ and V3+ (in company the border-cases between emeralds and aquamar-
3+ 2+
with some Fe and Fe ). Often they contain a ines like in certain stones from Miku, Zambia.
little more Cr than V and relatively little total Fe The other extreme is represented by the (V,Fe)-
3b
(averaging about 0.3, 0.1 and 0.3 oxide% respec- beryls, e.g. by those from Salininha (Bahia). They
tively and a Cr/V ratio of approximately 3). In the are nearly free from chromium (Cr/V < 0.1) and
next chapter, the effects on absorption and colour are still green, yet more yellow-green than the
will be compared to those of natural emeralds with Colombian emeralds. On average, their absorption
higher iron or vanadium contents. minima are shifted only 10-15 nm towards the
In addition to these minor constituents, the yellow (in Figures 2a and 3 from approximately
following trace elements (and molecules) foreign to 502 to 513 nm for the mean value of the o and e
the beryl formula have been reported in Colombian spectra). Usually Biron synthetics also show a
emeralds: higher content of V than of Cr (Cr/V ratios from
Ca,Sr,Ba,Mg2+ / K,Rb,Cs + / C0 2 (?), F 2 and about 0.2 to 0.7).
radiogenic He in the structural ring channels
Li + (and vacancies) on the tetrahedrally coor- Evaluation of the absorption spectra
dinated Be 2+ lattice sites (i.e. each beryllium ion The absorption diagrams of emeralds do not
is surrounded by four oxygen ions located in the allow a quantitative analysis of the colouring agents
corners of a slightly distorted tetrahedron) Cr,V,Fe,etc:
Ti 4 + ,Sc 3 + / Mn,Ni,Fe 2+ / Li + (and vacancies) on In the visible (VIS) region of the electromagnetic
the octahedrally coordinated Al 3+ lattice sites spectrum, chromium efficiently masks medium
(A106 octahedra) and iron and vanadium contents (Figures 2a,b,c) due to
Al 3+ on the tetrahedrally coordinated Si 4+ lat- its very high absorption coefficient (a beryl plate of
tice sites (Si0 4 tetrahedra). 10 mm thickness is.discernibly coloured by as little
All the properties discussed below are the results
of the fluctuating supply of chemical elements 4
According to the mineralogical definition, emerald is the yellow-green to
during emerald growth and of the imperfect struc- blue-green variety of beryl. Every gemmological attempt to sharply
separate Cr-emeralds from other green beryls must fail regardless of
ture of these crystals. This so-called real structure whether the criterion is the absolute chromophore content (i.e. colour
has been considerably disturbed by the incorpora- saturation) or the ratio of the individual chromophore contents (i.e.
tion of foreign chemical elements and by in- colour hue). Delimitations of the emerald term for the needs of the gem
trade as proposed by Superchi & Rolandi (1980) suggesting the use of the
homogeneous growth conditions (rapid pressure/ DIN 6164 Colour charts are remarkable but lack the international
temperature changes, geotectonic stress, etc.). approval and a generally accepted, simple usage.
~
.....
412
':-<
Cl
S
?
-0
Fig.2a. Polarized absorption spectra of a saturated green Colombian emerald. Emerald type I due to a CrN ratio ~ I (here CrN = 1.5). Weight 1.872 ct, density -0
W -rt
2.713 g/cm', nl).< 1.578, nil." 1.585, optical path length nearly 6 mm. Medium chromium content (high for a Colombian eme·rald).
N
"2
Ordinary (0 ) and ex traordinary (e) ray spectra with polarization perpendicular and parallel respectively to the optical axis, recorded at ambient S"
f"!
J. Gemm., 1991,22, 7
tempera lUre in the first focal locu s of a Pye Unicarn SP8-IOO UV /VIS spectrophotometer (Bosshart 1982), with a Polaroid HNP'B polarizer filter .....
mounted in front ufthe detector.
II ':-
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J. Gemm., 1991, 22, 7
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IT j '-' f 11 It !tlill :lilH it Iml Ullm'!ujlL:, } III U ! III 111
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1 f n i l M T M T T I T 1 Ml T i l ! IHITH1M 1 1 ' 1 IHH Ml M M11M MII11II Mini 1 1 T
I T H T H — r r r n 1i ~n~nT iTnlnn IITTI—rrriT~rnlTnTn"n~n~rrrn'l4~M~rrrrl' 1 Li-1 !• H \ M '
"'"
c
Fig. 2c. Polarized absorption spectra of a pale yellowish-green Colombian emerald. Emerald type II, CrN = 0.8 (possibly less).
(*>
PIM-J-JP -4-4-111141-4-11—11
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>>
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415
-
416 J. Gemm., 1991, 22, 7
as 0.0025 % = 25 ppm Cr 2 0 3 , Wood & Nassau Their slightly yellowish or bluish-green hue is
1968). highly valued. Hue and saturation are not caused by
In addition, the vanadium spectrum in the VIS a particularly high Cr content as in the emeralds
(Figure 3) is very similar to that of chromium Fe 3+ from Sandawana (Zimbabwe), Santa Terezinha
and Fe 2 + may be positioned in various lattice and (Goias) or the Swat Valley (Pakistan) (in the latter
channel sites and then absorb in variable hues and two combined with high iron). Hue and saturation
mostly in low intensities. of the Colombian emeralds rather are generated by a
subtle combination of low to medium amounts of
a. The positions of both colour-decisive4 absorption the colour inducing elements Cr and V with compa-
bands in the violet and orange-red spectral region are ratively little Fe.
nearly identical for Cr and V: The dichroism (o-ray yellowish-green, e-ray
polarization perpendicular to the c-axis (ordinary- bluish-green) is weak in the majority of these
ray vibration, o) stones, thus generally less distinct than in the
Cr bands near 430 and 593 nm, ferriferous emeralds from metamorphic occurr-
V bands near 434 and 618 nm ences with their definitely aquamarine-blue e-ray
component.
polarization parallel to the oaxis (extraordinary-ray The colour saturation can vary considerably from
vibration, e) one Colombian emerald to another. Apart from that,
Cr bands near 416 and 628/644 nm, the colour distribution within a single crystal can be
V bands near 426 and 630 nm. extreme to such an extent that a colourless zone is
adjacent to a saturated green one. As a rule, the
While Al-substitution by chromium causes the well
colourless zone is the older prismatic nucleus
known absorption lines at
enveloped by a younger green skin, or there are
476, 637 nm (0), 660 nm (e) and
paler zonal lamellae intercalated between saturated
680.5/683.4 nm (doublet, e » o ) . green basal growth layers. Conversely, even large
in addition to the bands cited above, absorption emeralds can show an homogeneous and strong
lines in the V spectrum are looked for in vain (they green saturation.
are situated in the near infrared region, according to
Colourwise, emeralds from the various Col-
personal communication with K. Schmetzer, 1989).
ombian mines cannot be distinguished, perhaps
Thus vanadium is optically masked in the VIS by
with the exception of those from Gachala. They
the presence of chromium.
tend to be paler and a little more bluish-green than
Nevertheless, well polarized, low-iron spectra en-
other Colombian emeralds (Figure 2b). Chemical
able a rough estimate of the Cr/V ratio by evaluating
data of Gachala emeralds are scarce. The most
the position of the absorption bands. Overlapping
recent analysis5 demonstrates that this colour is not
of the Cr and V spectra produces intermediate
caused by a higher iron content but by lower Cr and
positions of the absorption maxima, with laboratory
V concentrations. Fe is also much lower than'the
recordings for Colombian emeralds averaging
Colombian average (0.3 wt%), and an aquamarine
approximately
component in the e-ray absorption (due to Fe 2+ /
431 and 600 nm for the o-ray and Fe 3+ charge transfer) is not present.
419 and 628 nm for the e-ray.
On this basis the average Cr/V ratio amounts to
about c. UV/VIS absorption spectra of emeralds permit
2.5 (variation from 0.5 to 4.5). statements to be made with respect to chromophore
However, the most recent microprobe analyses ratios and colour, as well as differentiations between
(Schwarz 1990b, 1991), prove that V may be
distinctly superior to Cr and in individual cases even 5
Partial chemical analysis of eight Gachala emerald crystals
much superior (or inferior). The variation of the Microprobe data, in weight % (Schwarz 1991)
Cr/V ratio of Colombian emeralds thus is wider, Variation Mean
Si0 2 66.77-67.55 67.22
ranging from approximately 0.1 to 10. A1 2 0, 16.69-17.48 17.15
The unexpected but incontestable fact is that the most 2 3
C r 0 0.02-0.43 0.10
0.02-0.15 0.09
cherished Colombian emeralds frequently are type II V2O3
FeO(Fe t o t ) 0.03-0.12 0.07
(vanadium) and not type I (chromium) emeralds. Ti02 n.d.-0.02 0.01
MnO n.d.-0.03 0.02
MgO 0.15-0.48 0.34
Na20 0.14-0.29 0.25
b. Superposition of the Cr and V spectra intensifies CaO n.d.-0.02 0.01
K20 n.d.-O.Ol 0.01
the VIS absorption bands and increases the steep- Sum 85.27
ness of their slopes, thus creating the brilliant and
pleasingly pure colour of the Colombian emeralds. BeO and H 2 0 not analysed Cr/V-1.1
';-<
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J. Gemm., 1991, 22, 7
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Fig. 4. Polarized absorption spectra of a bluish-green emerald from the Panjsher valley, Afghanistan. Emerald type I, Cr/V = 1.5.
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Maxima of the absorption bands near 430 and 630 nm and of the line doublet near 682 nm quenched by stray light losses on
<u -J C
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417
418 J. Gemm., 1991,22,7
certain origins and synthetic productions. For the Cr than V, or even no V (examples Figure 2c and
latter, evaluation of the absorption features is Biron synthetics).
carried out in the UV, similarly to that pertaining to The UV-fluorescence under long-wave radiation
the natural and synthetic rubies (Bosshart 1982), as varies in Colombian emeralds from inert to medium
well as in the very near infrared (see special weak red. The reaction to short-wave UV rays is
literature for near and mid-IR analysis). nearly always inert. This, as also the behaviour
The average position of the absorption minima in the observed with a Chelsea filter, is undiagnostic and
ultraviolet region for Colombian emeralds is at not suited for the discrimination of emeralds from
340 (±5) nm for the 0-ray and at many synthetic emeralds.
346 (±5) nm for the £-ray. A typically turbid, red VIS-fluorescence may be
Transition from the absorption edge to the general excited in many Colombian emeralds with strong,
absorption, on average, is at UV-poor lateral illumination from a fibre-optic
298 (±15) nm for the 0-ray and at beam (Figure 10).
304 (± 10) nm for the e-ray.
These UV minima and absorption edge positions C4. Optical values and density
have been found to be at lower wavelengths than The values given in Table 2 are low to average,
those of natural emeralds from other deposits, compared to those of other natural emeralds. They
including Jos, Nigeria, and Panjsher, Afghanistan relate to the numerous and largely independent
(Figure 4), as well as those of synthetics containing substitutions by water, alkalis and chromophores
iron or iron, nickel and copper (certain Gilsons, which can be small to medium in amount. Accor-
Inamori; Vasar USSR, etc.). Moreover, the UV dingly there is no strictly linear correlation ofn andD.
minima of the Colombian emeralds are more deeply This irregularity can be explained by the variable
developed. addition of zeolitic water (H 2 0 type I and II in the
On the other hand, the low-iron synthetic emer- channels) which appears to influence density more
alds (Chatham, Biron etc.) can be differentiated by than the optical values.
their absorption edges at lower wavelengths and by The sets of data taken from the literature and the
their broader UV minima. values collected at the Laboratory largely agree.
Absorption bands in the very near infra-red caused Table 2 does not include data for Trapiche emeralds
by Fe 2 + (near 820 nm) have hardly been detected in nor moralla, but only for mediocre to excellent
Colombian emeralds nor in low-iron synthetics. In quality grade. The n (RI) and D values of Col-
most natural emeralds (Figure 4) and in Fe- ombian gem-quality material are unlikely to lie
containing synthetics (Vasar), however, they can be outside the given ranges, yet slightly higher figures
observed. The structural position of Fe 2 + is dis- are to be expected for the rare specimens with
puted (Al 3+ octahedral, Be tetrahedral or structu- abnormally high chromophore (or alkali) contents.
ral channels?). Abnormally low density values such as 2.646 g/cm3
The moderate Fe 3 + content of Colombian emeralds (laboratory minimum 2.676) relate to enclosed
usually does not make its appearance in their cavities or artificial resin-like organic fillers (ap-
absorption spectra: the substitution of Al 3+ oct. and plied in new, permanent treatments).
Si 4+ tetr. is very subordinate and the aquamarine While refractive indices may very occasionally be
component from Fe 2 + /Fe 3 + charge transfers on Al found to vary on strongly (colour-)zoned emerald
lattice sites is absent. Therefore the colour- individuals, the hydrostatic determination of the
inefficient positioning of Fe 3 + might be suspected density in all cases results in one value only, the
to take place in the structural channels. bulk density.
Two minor absorption lines at 733.8 and 833.4 nm
(e^>o) are virtually always observed in Colombian C5. Inclusions and growth characteristics
stones, but have also been noticed in a Panjsher Solid and (primary and secondary) fluid inclu-
emerald and a synthetic Biron individual. The cause sions, as well as growth inhomogeneities, are known
of these absorption lines is not evident. as the main internal characteristics of Colombian
emeralds. They permit conclusions to be drawn as
d. Marginal notes for the practising gemmologist: to crystal growth and growth conditions. Character-
Cr absorption (and emission) lines can be seen istic features of Colombian emeralds are three- and
through the spectroscope in type I but not neces- multi-phase inclusions (Eppler 1973, Gubelin 1973,
sarily in type II emerald (see Figures 2 and 3). Roedder 1982, Gubelin & Koivula 1986, Kozlowski
However, because of the V masking discussed etal. 1988).
above, the observation of Cr lines in the hand
spectroscope does not infallibly mean that the a. Primary fluid inclusions appear in crystallographi-
examined stone is a type I emerald containing more cally orientated, shallow cavities. Pseudo-
J. Gemm., 1991, 22, 7 419
secondary fluid inclusions are usually smaller and (s, for solid phases, also called daughter minerals),
not orientated as the primary ones are. In larger embedded in the saturated residual liquid (phase /).
numbers, the secondary inclusions are connected to The gas bubbles take up 10 to 11%, the crystals 12
each other. They indicate slightly to strongly to 15% and the brine about 75% of the cavity
vaulted, ancient tension cracks (now healed fis- volumes. The gas bubbles contain carbon dioxide
sures). In their entirety these healing fissures mostly under variable pressure and can be surrounded by a
produce but a slight turbidity. The gem trade thin crescent of liquid carbon dioxide ( ^ 3% C0 2 ). 6
sometimes calls the eye-visible veil in its green This can be detected only in shallow cavities
surroundings a 'jardin' (Figure 5). (Figure 8). In the thicker ones the bubbles appear
The individual, more or less shallow primary too dark because of the strong optical relief.
cavities parallel to the main growth axis c are Methane (CH4) and nitrogen gas (N 2 ) have also
typically pointed or tapering into thin tubes. They been reported.
form jagged peaks like regular fine palisades or The square to rectangular daughter crystals have
coarse stockades (Figures 6,7,8). In basal directions been identified as halite (NaCl, cubic). It is assumed
they present more roundish, shape-less or angular that there is also some subordinate sylvine (KC1,
contours. A peculiarity which the author until now cubic). These 'flattened' cubic crystals are more
has only observed in Colombian emeralds, is fluid often found than crystal forms resembling rhom-
inclusions bending off from the prismatic to the bohedra. Considering their anisotropic nature, the
basal direction (or vice versa). The widespread latter are assigned to a carbonate. It seems most
interpretation as to the formation of the spiky- probable that they are calcite or dolomite crystals
prismatic voids prior to the basal ones is very (Figure 8).
doubtful in this light. Their dissimilar shape does Hexagonal, small-grained anisotropic crystals ex-
not point to a chronological succession but to solved from the fluid fillings have been pictured as
growth conditions depending from directional dif- well. A single emerald crystal and even a single
ferences within the crystals. cavity can house cubic, lozenge and other daughter
The cavities were originally filled with a crystals. Combinations of several types of daughter
homogeneous, single-phase brine at a temperature crystals and a gas bubble in the saturated residual
of over 470°C. This was an aqueous solution with a
6
salt content of approximately 40 wt% CI and Na The longitudinal extension of fluid inclusions may have been epigeneti-
cally constricted or even cut off. This event, called 'necking down' or
±(Ca,Si,Al,(C),K etc.). At room temperature and 'necking', modified the cavity fillings with respect to the relative
with magnification, this fluid filling is seen to be volumes of the individual, segregated phases as opposed to the normal
undisturbed (s,l,g) state. For instance, one very large gas bubble may
mostly exsolved into three phases: an immobile gas have built up in one and a daughter crystal may have been cut off in the
bubble (phase g) and one or several similar crystals neighbouring, separated cavity.
420 J. Gemm., 1991,22,7
Fig. 5. Dense inclusion array in an octagonal emerald from Fig. 6. Predatory octopus and his protegee with full stomachs
Colombia. Width of photograph represents approx- in a green sea. Three-phase inclusions of variable
imately 6 mm. appearance, the largest one being a 0.4 mm long and
unusually thick cavity, spiky on one side and filled with
a gas bubble and a salt crystal (also containing an
inclusion).
Fig. 7. Exceptionally thin cavities filled with residual brine, Fig. 8. Primary axial healing fissure with flat cavities contain-
slightly brighter gas bubbles (almost without any ing different exsolution components of constant
relief) and two exsolved, zoned halite daughter crys- volume proportions of s/l/g. Largest gas bubble with a
tals. Jagging of these primary growth voids running delicate crescent seam of liquid carbon dioxide (C0 2 ),
parallel to c, the main axis [0001] of the emerald largest daughter crystal with a rhombohedral habit and
crystal. Width of photomicrograph represents approx- zonal structure (a carbonate), smaller daughter crys-
imately 1.2mm. tals with a cubic habit (halite). Long diagonal of the
rhombohedron circa 0.25 mm.
Fig. 9. Plane (pseudo?)secondary gas and fluid network in a Fig. 10. Yellow and dark brown primary cavity fillings of
Colombian emerald. Width of photomicrograph repre- segregated organic liquids (presumably light carbohy-
sents approximately 2.4 mm. drates): Length of drop about 70 /xm (0.07 mm).
J. Gemm., 1991,22, 7 421
Fig. 11. Distorted polyhedral pyrite crystal with fine tension Fig. 12. Rhombohedral, colourless syngenetic mineral inclu-
fissures along its edges, enclosed in a structurally sion (calcite?) in a very transparent emerald. Smaller
disturbed emerald. Length of pyrite crystal approx- grains with less euhedral shapes (albite, quartz, pari-
imately 0.85 mm. site?). Long diagonal of largest rhombohedron about
0.4 mm.
Fig. 13. Loose group of larger, brownish and smaller, yellowish Fig. 14. Aggregate of transparent crystals and small opaque
parisite crystals included in the emerald displayed in grains (albite or carbonate and carbonaceous shale).
Figure 5. Barrel-shaped, short-columnar and pyramid- Width of largest cluster about 0.3 mm.
al habits. Iridescent tension crack (not 'Opticon'-
treated). Width of largest crystal approximately 0.35
Fig. 15. Small syngenetic pyrite crystals of different shape and Fig. 16. Red fluorescence (682 nm chromium emission) strong-
size, distributed on a basal plane. Width of photo- ly excited by a 100 watt fibre-optic side illumination in
micrograph represents circa 8 mm. a particularly transparent emerald octagon displaying
long axial growth tubes and slightly vaulted pseudo-
secondary healing fissures. Tiny mineral inclusions
having acted as starting points for the slender acicular
crystallization disturbances. Width of emerald appro-
ximately 9.2 mm.
it
422
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IV
mI ~ . ~ ~I ~ L U t L ti im H ·r t I i It II III ! ~ 'I] t ~
' . Itih ti . ~ 1~9 I lj !~ '1 t ~ttt! 111 1~1 II J Iii J I]JIlm ~,'mm ~j j
solution are known as multi-phase fillings. Another Another, more frequent feature of Colombian
kind of multi-phase inclusion can be made up of a emeralds are aggregates of tiny, dark grey grains.
fluid, some liquid carbon dioxide, a gas bubble and They are thought to be particles of the wall rocks,
solid rock salt. that is traces of carbonaceous shale such as those
Two-phasefillingsin the cavities are noticed less found in Trapiche emeralds (Figure 14). Pyrite, as
frequently than three- or multi-phase inclusions. In well as albite, quartz, calcite and parisite, can occur
healed fissures these (l,g) inclusions are small and in free crystal groups or grainy aggregates. Accu-
delicate. As autonomous basal networks of liquid mulation of a single mineral species on a growth
and gas, they can show spectacular relief (Figure 9). plane has also been seen (Figure 15). Bands of fine
This is yet another proof that the original chemical dust || c are occasionally observed also.
composition of the fillings had not to be identical in From time to time rusty to yellow-brown goethite
every single cavity or healing fissure of an emerald. turns up as a crust on fissures or as grainy aggre-
The observed phenomena point to a complex gates in cavities. This list of crystal inclusions may
geological history of the emeralds, marked by not be absolutely complete.7
syngenetic infiltration of fluid phases into the Microscopically and spectroscopically the listed
primary growth voids and by secondary formation mineral inclusions are not readily identifiable, with
and filling of tension cracks. the exception of parisite and the ore mineral pyrite.
Occasionally the brine was heterogeneously en- Statistically speaking, pyrite crystals appear most
closed together with an immiscible constituent of commonly in Chivor emeralds and calcite and
some dark brown liquid which could well be a parisite in Muzo emeralds. However, pyrite and
cracked mineral oil. Brownish-yellow to dark calcite are found in emeralds of both districts and
brown liquids sometimes are also found as single- parisite also in those from Coscuez. Thus in the
phasefillingsof cavities (to present without a surfaceindividual testing case, determination of origin by
contact, i.e. sealed in). They are rare and presum- mineral inclusions is not feasible.
ably also primary formations. In Figure 10 two So far Gachala emeralds alone seemed to be
types of organic liquids can be distinguished, the recognizable to some extent. They exhibit a better
darker hydrocarbon having segregated in several transparency (fewer healing fissures), a paler and
instances as droplets from the lighter variety. more greenish-blue colour, more mineral inclusions
(albite), more and longer growth tubes and a
b. Proto- and syngenetic mineral inclusions are not stronger VIS-fluorescence (Figure 16) than other
particularly frequent in Colombian emeralds. They Colombian emeralds. These properties, however,
consist of pyrite crystals displaying a bright yellow are said to be virtually identical to those of emeralds
metallic lustre (Figure 11) and the following colour- from the 'new' Yacopi mine in the Muzo district
less minerals: tabular albite, rhombohedral calcite (personal communication by D. Schwarz, 1989).
or dolomite (Figure 12, sometimes whitish) and
rarely also prismatic quartz. c. Internal growth characteristics of five different
Small reddish to yellowish-brown spear-shaped kinds have been noted in cut Colombian emeralds:
crystals of the decidedly rare, trigonal parisite as colour zoning, colour spindles, growth zoning,
Ca(Ce,La,Nd,Pr)[(C03)3/F2] may be noted in Col- growth spirals, and growth tubes. On the other
ombian emeralds. hand, twinning has not been observed in a single
The most prominent parisite inclusions encoun- instance (twinning in beryl is extremely rare).
tered were fairly large, brownish-yellow barrel- As a rule, colour zoning as well as straightforward
shaped to pyramidal crystals (maximum length 0.7 growth zoning (i.e. zoning without colour contrast,
mm, maximum diameter 0.35 mm, Figure 13). Figure 17) occur as series of prismatic and/or basal
Parisite (Ca(Ce,REE)-carbonate) was successfully planes. Pyramidal zoning is less widespread.
identified by the main lines and bands of the rare Prismatic colour zoning classically consists of a
earth absorption spectrum at 442, 460, 512, 520, sharply defined, colourless, yellowish or pale green
534, 574/579/584 and 678 nm. The spectrum was prismatic core, surrounded by a saturated green
observed through a hand spectroscope held into the shell. Colour distribution can also be inverse. Hosts
ocular tube of a stereo-microscope and compared to of colourless 'holes' are met with much less fre-
the absorption spectrum of a crystal specimen from quently. These are essentially colourless prism-like
Colombia recorded on a spectrophotometer (Figure
13a). Recent chemical investigations by ED-XFA
and electron microscope analyses of these inclu- 7
Fujisaki (1976) identified several ore minerals in a Colombian emerald
sions and other Colombian parisite samples con- individual: pyrite, pyrrhotine, pentlandite and rutile. The formation of
firmed the elements Ca,Ce,La,Nd+Pr and a very the last three minerals is difficult to explain in the postulated hydrother-
mal growth environment (especially pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9Sg, cubic)
good cleavage. In addition, traces of Y and Th were except, if some connection from a remote (ultra)basic source to the
found to be present. deposit had been in existence.
424 J. Gemm., 1991,22,7
Fig. 17. Lamellar to slightly wedge-shaped basal growth struc- Fig. 18. Host of nearly colourless, axial columns in an emerald
tures with palisades of short spindles on individual cabochon. Largest diameter of the columns approx-
growth planes. Photomicrograph height represents imately 1.5 mm.
1.50 mm.
Fig. 19. Steep, saturated green pyramids with axes parallel to Fig. 20. Axial growth tube with a spiral passing from a fissure
the main growth direction c of the emerald. Height of into a healing fissure. Next to it a more delicate helix in
pyramids up to about 0.5 mm. reverse sense of rotation. Width of photomicrograph
represents approximately 2 mm.
Fig. 21. Axial view onto a basal plane covered with corrosion Fig. 22. Faceted Colombian emerald with characteristic,
cells. Shallow etch pits structured with modified or strongly reflective tension cracks, in the de-oiled state.
hinted hexagonal contours. Width of photomicrograph Length of brightest crack approximately 1.25 mm.
about 9 mm.
J. Gemm., 1991, 22, 7 425
columns of small diameter parallel to the c-axis in growth direction (Figure 16), occasionally also
otherwise green crystals (Figure 18). vertical to the c-axis. These tubes are very fine and
Basal colour zoning can be a sequence of colour- long and can show two-phase (l,g), three-phase
less and green, flat and well defined lamellae. As (s,l,g) or multi-phase fillings (si,s2,lbl25g)-
cutters usually orient the emerald with the c-axis Starting point for the growth tubes are sometimes
almost parallel to the table, the basal zoning can be the mineral inclusions described above because
quite obvious as a colour striation traversing the these solids have formed intrinsic obstacles facing
crown of the stone. Similarly, in the case of the fluid the growth front. Tubes are growth gaps compara-
inclusions, transitions can be seen between the ble to very long negative crystals (often measuring
prismatic and the basal zoning which, in reality, are several millimetres).
combinations of both directions with small pyra- Actual negative crystals have not frequently been
midal growth zones in between. encountered among gem quality material, the
The pyramidal colour zoning normally starts on largest one according to laboratory notes having
basal planes. These pyramids may show very strong been a lathe-like cavity measuring about 1.6 x 0.8
green colour saturation and steeply sloped arches x 0.45 mm.
tapering in the growth direction (Figure 19). Pyra-
mids may also be pale in colour and have formed d. Flat primary cavities, colour zoning, growth
prior to the growth of green zones. Well-defined spirals and tubes are all indicators of emerald crystal
zigzag formations towards the outside of the crys- build-up. The contrary, decomposition, is much
tals do not necessarily stem from irregular pyramid- rarer, making its appearance in the form of flat,
al growth of variable inclination but rather from cellular etch pits on basal planes (Figure 21, as
growth planes separating the older core and the occasionally also seen on the base of emerald
younger shell. crystals). These etch marks have been overgrown
Closely related with the growth pyramids, on the again, subsequent to the corrosion phase. Under
other side, are palisades of flame-like spindles crossed polars they show strain birefringence in-
which also originate on basal planes (Figure 17). stead of straight extinction and low optical relief.
Neither colourless nor coloured spindles are very Although Figure 21 can also be interpreted as flat
common but they can reach lengths of up to 2 mm. hillocks (truncated pyramids) as a consequence of
Small hillocks on basal planes reminiscent of the spiral or polygonal beryl growth (cf. Sinkankas
shallow growth pyramids of Linde synthetics have 1981, Figures 9-26), this interpretation is less
also been detected. probable than corrosion in view of the irregularity
Under the microscope, basal, prismatic and pyra- of their contours.
midal growth zoning can easily be recognized and Similar or identical cellular phenomena have also
differentiated. According to Kiefert & Schmetzer been described as thin, basal layers of calcite
(1990), combinations of zonal structures enable crystals.
identification of authenticity of Colombian emer-
alds but not of their exact provenance. e. The least desirable properties of many Col-
Growth spirals are attractive but sporadic phe- ombian emeralds are undoubtedly their numerous
nomena in Colombian emeralds. They prove two tension cracks. They have formed either during or
facts: that an emerald crystal does not have to be after growth (and could have been healed out) and
built up by planar growth fronts and that healing of some could have formed during mining. Since
the spirals by fluid brines can set in and be white light is reflected back from these fractures to
terminated at any stage of growth (Figure 20). The the outside after a short light path through the
same phenomena can be observed in the hydrother- emerald, the cracks are very obvious and look white
mal synthetics after Biron (today Pool, Australia), rather than green (Figure 22).
however, without a central growth tube.
Other subtle and quite common characteristics
are the growth tubes. They run parallel to the main [Manuscript received 19 March 1990.]
426 J. Gemm., 1991,22,7
GEMDATA - UPDATE 3
A computer program for gem identification
* Now available in 3.5-inch disk version *
Abstract Resumen
The application of diagnostic growth structures for Se, discute la aplicación de marcas de crecimiento
the distinction of natural and synthetic emeralds is diagnósticas para identificar las esmeraldas naturales y
discussed. Typical examples for the characterization of sintéticas. Se facilitan ejemplos tipicos para la
natural emeralds from distinct sources as well as of their caracterizacion de esmeraldas naturales de yacimientos
synthetic counterparts of some producers are given. determinados. Se subrayan criterios que son útiles para
Criteria which are useful for the recognition of faceted reconocer gemas talladas como naturales o sintéticas.
gemstones as natural or synthetic are underlined. Gem Las gemas descritas con detalle son esmeraldas
materials described in detail are natural emeralds from naturales de Colombia y Nigeria, esmeraldas sinteticas
Colombia and Nigeria, flux-grown synthetic emeralds Chatham, rusas y Gilson obtenidas por el
from Chatham, Russia and Gilson as well as different procedimiento "melt" al igual que otras esmeraldas
hydrothermally-grown synthetic emeralds (Linde, Regency, obtenidas por el procedimiento hidrotermal (Linde,
Lechleitner, Biron, Pool, and Russian synthetic Regency, Lechleitner, Biron, Pool y esmeraldas
emeralds). sintéticas de origen ruso).
I. Introduction
In the first part of this publication (Kiefert &
Zusammenfassung Schmetzer, 1991) a detailed description of methods
Die Anwendung von Wachstumsstrukturen zur for the determination of characteristic crystal faces
Unterscheidung natürlicher und synthetischer
Smaragdse wird beschrieben. in faceted optical uniaxial gemstones by use of two
Nicht nur typische Beispiele zur Charakterisierung simple auxiliary means is presented. These means
von natürlichen Smaragden verschiedener Herkunft are a two-axial sample holder (cf. Schmetzer, 1986)
werden erwähnt, sondern auch von synthetischen and a rotatable measuring ocular with cross hairs
Gegenstücke. attached to the lens, both with attached 360° dials
Nützliche Kriterien zur Erkennung geschliffener and fixable indicators. The best obtainable results,
Edelsteine als natürlich oder synthetisch werden i.e. a complete determination of the structural
betont. characteristics present in one sample, are available
Die ausführlichst beschriebene Edelsteine sind by a combination of both methods.
natürliche Smaragde aus Kolumbien und Nigeria This second part of the publication will reveal
sowohl nach dem Flußmittelverfahren gezüchtete
Smaragde (Chatham, Gilson, Rußland) als auch some examples for the practical applicability of the
verschiedene nach dem Hydrothermalverfahren methods described in the first part in detail. The
gezüchtete synthetische Smaragde (Linde, Regency, characterization of natural emeralds from two im-
Lechleitner, Biron, Pool und russische synthetische portant sources (Colombia and Nigeria) as well as of
Smaragde). some of their commercially available flux-grown
Fig. 16. Growth structures in natural emerald from Colombia; Fig. 17. Growth structures in natural emerald from Colombia;
planes parallel to the hexagonal prism m and m' {1010} planes parallel to the hexagonal prism faces m {1010}
form an angle of 120°, smaller planes parallel to the and a {1120} form angles of 150°. View parallel to the
prism a (1120) are also present. View parallel to the c-axis. Crossed polarizers. 25x.
c-axis. Crossed polarizers. 18x.
and hydrothermally-grown synthetic counterparts sodium and magnesium and, using only this fea-
by means of growth structures is selected as one of ture, are hardly distinguishable from synthetic
the typical and important problems of determina- emeralds. Absorption spectra of Colombian emer-
tive gemmology. alds also -disclose no characteristic iron absorption
Figures 1-15 as well as Tables 1-3, which are bands, which are very often useful as diagnostic
occasionally referred to in this second part of the features for natural emeralds from metamorphic
publication, are presented in the first part (Kiefert source rocks. Consequently, high quality emerald
& Schmetzer, 1991). samples from Colombia or Nigeria sometimes cre-
ate problems in determinative gemmology. In order
II. Natural emeralds from Colombia and Nigeria to determine additional characteristic properties for
Natural emerald is mainly found in metamorphic these two types of emeralds, more than 200 rough
deposits. Emeralds from these sources are recogniz- and cut Colombian emeralds from different mines,
able by the presence of many different mineral and more than 100 rough and cut Nigerian emeralds
inclusions such as mica and actinolite. Further were made available for a detailed investigation.
diagnostic properties of emeralds from metamor- In general, the internal growth structures of
phic deposits are characteristic sodium- and magne- Colombian cut emeralds correspond to the mor-
sium-contents, which are generally higher than phology of rough samples. The most significant
those of synthetic stones. Absorption spectroscopy, growth planes in all Colombian emeralds are the
which can, besides microscopic investigations, also first-order hexagonal prism m (1010) [Figure 16]
be used as a non-destructive method, frequently and the basal pinacoid c (0001). Part of Colombian
reveals distinct iron absorption bands as well as a samples additionally reveal the second-order hex-
characteristic aquamarine component (Schmetzer, agonal prism a (1120), most frequently in a size
1988). The emeralds from metamorphic source
rocks, however, in many cases do not disclose
characteristic growth structures of diagnostic value.
Fig. 18. Growth structures in natural emerald from Colombia;
On the contrary, emeralds from deposits with a planes parallel to c (0001), p (1012), u (1011) and m
temperature of formation lower than that of samples (1010). View perpendicular to the c-axis, the c-axis
from metamorphic deposits, reveal characteristic runs vertically. 80x.
Fig. 19. Growth structures in natural emerald from Colombia;
growth features useful for diagnostic purposes. planes parallel to c (0001), s (1122) and a (1120). View
Typical examples for these types of emeralds occur perpendicular to the c-axis, the c-axis runs vertically.
in different deposits in Colombia, in Nigeria, and, 85x. Figs. 18 and 19 are related by a rotation of 30°
occasionally, are also found in material from Afgha- about the c-axis.
nistan. Larger quantities of emeralds from Afgha- Fig. 20. Growth structures in natural emerald from Colombia;
planes parallel to c (0001), p (1012) and m (1010). View
nistan are very difficult to obtain and, therefore, perpendicular to the c-axis, the c-axis runs vertically.
samples from this particular source will not be 80x.
considered in this publication. Fig. 21. Growth structures in natural emerald from Colombia;
planes parallel to c (000 l j , s (1122) and a (1120). View
Colombian and Nigerian emeralds, in contrast to perpendicular to the c-axis, the c-axis runs vertically.
emeralds from metamorphic source rocks, in most 70x. Figs. 20 and 21 are related by a rotation of 30°
cases do not reveal any diagnostic contents of about the c-axis.
J. Gemm., 1991,
J. 1991,22,7
22, 7 429
Fig. 18
Fig. 20 Fig. 21
430
430 J. Gemm., 1991,22,7
1991, 22, 7
Fig. 23
Fig. 24
24 Fig. 25
25
J. Gemm., 1991, 22, 7 431
smaller than the prism m as shown in Figures 4c and general, do not occur in synthetic emeralds pro-
16. Occasionally, this face also can reach the same duced by the flux method (see section III). Howev-
size as the first-order hexagonal prism m (10Ï0) er, the crystal faces c (0001), m (1010) and a (1120)
[Figure 17]. Additional growth planes are the can also be present in synthetic emeralds and,
first-order hexagonal dipyramids u (1011) and p therefore, in samples in which only these crystal
(10J.2) and the second-order hexagonal dipyramid s faces are determined, no definite characterization of
(1122) [Figures 4a, 4c, 18, 19]. These dipyramids the emerald by means of growth structures is
were found to occur all together in some samples, possible.
other samples revealed only the first-order hexagon-
al dipyramid p (1012)_and the second-order hex- III. Some important types of flux-grown synthetic
agonal dipyramid s (1122) [Figures 4b, 20, 21], and emeralds
others disclosed, additionally to the above men- The results of some experiments, in which spher-
tioned basal and prism faces, only the second-order ical seeds of natural beryl crystals were prepared
hexagonal dipyramid s (1122). So far, it has not yet and subsequently used for growing synthetic emer-
been possible to distinguish between emeralds of alds in a flux of V2Os were published by Ushio
the two major mining districts Chivor and Muzo, (1977). During these experiments Ushio observed
because part of the material available to the authors, in the first state of crystal growth the crystal forms c
most presumably, was already mixed up in Col- {0001}, m {ÎOTO} and a {1120} as well as different
ombia. first- and second-order hexagonal dipyramids. Af-
The morphology as well as the internal growth ter some days, however, all hexagonal dipyramids
structures of the investigated emeralds from Niger- disappeared, and the final morphology of the
ia are identical with growth structures of aquamar- synthetic emeralds produced by this flux method
ines from the same mining districts (cf. Lind et al, resulted in dominant basal pinacoids c {0001} and
1986). Beryls from this source always disclose the first-order hexagonal prism faces m {1010}, occa-
first-order hexagonal prism m (1010) [Figure _27] sionally with a subordinate small second-order
and the second-order hexagonal dipyramid s (1122), hexagonal prism a {1120}.
as well as the basal pinacoid c (0001) in different This morphology corresponds to the morphology
sizes [Figures 4b, 23, 25]. Besides these crystal of flux-grown synthetic emeralds produced by
faces, Nigerian emeralds very rarelyshow a small Chatham as well as to Russian flux-grown synthetic
second-order hexagonal prism a (1120) or a small emeralds as described in the literature. According to
first-order hexagonal dipyramid p (1012) [Figures Schrader (1987), crystal growth of Chatham flux-
4b, 22,24,26]. The first-order hexagonal dipyramid grown synthetic emeralds is performed by the use of
u (1011), which is quite common in Colombian small seed crystals. Russian flux-grown synthetic
emeralds, has not yet been observed in Nigerian emeralds are produced by means of seeded growth
samples. as well as by spontaneous crystallization (Bukin
In comparison to synthetic emeralds produced by et a/., 1980, 1986), which is also mentioned for
the flux method, a characteristic feature of emeralds Chatham flux-grown synthetic emeralds (e.g.
from the two groups of deposits discussed above is Nassau 1976,1980).
the presence of the first-order hexagonal dipyr- Consistent with literature data dealing with the
amids u (10Ï1) and p (10Ï2) as wellas the second- morphology of both types of flux-grown synthetic
order hexagonal dipyramid s (1122), which, in emeralds, faceted samples of Chatham and Russian
flux-grown synthetic emeralds examined by the
authors disclose, as internal growth structures, only
Fig. 22. Growth structures in natural emerald fromNigeria;
planes parallel to c (0001), p (1012) and m (1010). View a combination of c (0001), m (1010) and a (1120)
perpendicular to the c-axis, the c-axis runs vertically. [Figures 28, 29, 31, 32, 33]. Other growth planes,
Crossed polarizers. 20x. for example in natural emeralds frequently
Fig. 23. Growth structures in natural emerald from Nigeria; observed hexagonal dipyramids u (1010),
planes parallel to c (0001) and s (1122). View perpen-
dicular to the c-axis, the c-axis runs vertically. 20x.
p (1012) and s (1122) were not found in these
Figs. 22 and 23 are related by a rotation of 30° about the flux-grown synthetic emeralds, and residual seeds
c-axis. were not observed. In addition to growth struc-
Fig. 24. Growth structures in naturalberyl from Nigeria; tures, another common feature of flux-grown
planes parallel to c (0001), p (1012) and m (1010). View
perpendicular to the c-axis, the c-axis runs vertically.
synthetic emeralds is the zoning of residual flux
30x. parallel to dominant growth planes [Figures 30,32],
Fig. 25. Growth structures in natural beryl from Nigeria; which does not arise in natural stones in this
planes parallel to c (0001) and s (1122). View perpen- particular form.
dicular to the c-axis, the c-axis runs vertically. 30x.
Figs. 24 and 25 are related by a rotation of 30° about the As an example for flux-grown synthetic emeralds
c-axis. often containing residual seed plates, properties of
432 J. Gemm., 1991, 22, 7
Fig. 26. Growth structures in natural emerald fromNigeria; Fig. 27. Growth structures in natural beryl from Nigeria;
planes parallel to c (0001), p (1012) and m (1010). View planes parallel to the hexagonal prism m and m' {1010}
perpendicular to the c-axis, the c-axis runs almost form an angle of 120°. View parallel to the c-axis. 30x.
vertically. Crossed polarizers. 12x.
Fig. 28. Growth structures in Chatham flux-grown synthetic Fig. 29. Growth structures in Russian flux-grown synthetic
emerald; planes parallel to the hexagonal prism faces m emerald; planes parallel to the hexagonal prism faces m
{1010} and a {1120} form angles of 150°. View parallel {1010} and a {1120} form angles of 150°. View parallel
to the c-axis. Crossed polarizers. 35x. to the c-axis. Crossed polarizers. 20x.
J. Gemm., 1991,22,7 433
Fig. 32. Growth structures in Chatham flux-grown synthetic Fig. 33. Growth structures in Russian flux-grown synthetic
emerald; planes and zoning of residual flux parallel to emerald; planes parallel to the basal pinacoid c (0001)
the basal pinacoid c (0001). View perpendicular to the and parallel to one of the prism faces (m or a) form an
c-axis, the c-axis runs vertically. 40x. angle of 90°; an intense colour zoning is also visible,
growth zones confined to the prism are intense green,
growth zones confined to the basal pinacoid are light
green. View perpendicular to the c-axis, the c-axis runs
vertically. 25x.
Fig. 30. Growth structures in Chatham flux-grown synthetic Fig. 31. Growth structures in Russian flux-grown synthetic
emerald; zoning of residual flux parallel to the basal emerald; planes parallel to the hexagonal prism m and
pinacoid c (0001). View perpendicular to the c-axis, the m' {1010} form anangle of 120°, smaller planes parallel
c-axis runs vertically. 20x. to the prism a (1120) are also present. View parallel to
the c-axis. Crossed polarizers. 20x.
434 J. Gemm.,1991,22,7
Fig. 34. Growth structures in Gilson flux-grown synthetic Fig. 35. Growth structures in Gilson flux-grown synthetic
emerald; planes parallel to the basal pinacoid c (0001). emerald; planes parallel to the hexagonal prism faces m
View perpendicular to the c-axis, the c-axis runs {1010} and a {1120} form angles of 150°. View parallel
vertically. 40x. to the c-axis. Crossed polarizers. 34x.
Gilson synthetic emeralds will be discussed in some emeralds with part of the seed plate and stones
details. In an earlier state of the production of without residuals of the seed could be distin-
Gilson synthetic emeralds, most presumably seed guished. Consistent with the more recent literature
plates cut parallel to the basal pinacoid c (0001) were cited above, the samples examined by the authors
used (Sinkankas, 1981; Schrader, 1987), which is contained only seed plates of flux-grown synthetic
recognizable in cut samples by growth structures emerald. Depending on the position from which the
parallel to this dominant growth plane (cf. Schmet- stone was cut out of the synthetic emerald crystal,
zer, 1989). different possibilities of growth structures are
Obviously, the orientation of seed plates in Gilson observable in cut samples.
synthetic emeralds was changed for the more recent In those without part of the seed plate a number
commercial production. According to Diehl (1977), of stones revealed only a distinct zoning parallel to
a tabular seed plate of natural colourless beryl cut the basal pinacoid c (0001) as growth structure
parallel to the second-order hexagonal prism a [Figure 34], others showed onlystructures parallel
(1120) was observed in a rough crystal of Gilson to one of the prism faces m (1010) or a (1120). In
synthetic emerald. Later on, seed plates of synthetic another part of this type of cut stones growth
emerald were cut in the same orientation from the structures were observed, which revealed two sets of
synthetic overgrowth of the colourless beryl seed prism faces m and m' or m and a [Figure 35]. In
and used instead of that (Nassau, 1976, 1980). other examples, the basal pinacoid c (0001) in
During crystal growth, a morphology is developed, combination with one of the two prism faces m
which, in addition to the basal pinacoid c {0001}, (lOTO) or a (1120) was found [Figure 36].
consists of two largersecond-order hexagonal prism In natural emeralds, no growth structures re-
faces a and a' {1120} on opposite sides of an sembling those mentioned above were observed
octagonally shaped crystal, as well as of six crystal because of the size of natural emeralds. In other
faces built by the first-order hexagonal prism m words, no natural samples with growth structures
{1010}. This information is based on the investiga- parallel to only one single basal or prism face in the
tions of rough crystals of Gilson synthetic emeralds whole cut sample or parallel to one prism face and
by Diehl (1977,1982) and Schrader (1987), and part the basal pinacoid were observed by the authors.
of it is also found in the publication of Schwarz For natural stones, it is not customary to cut only a
(1987). small section out of a crystal with more or less
The information given in the above mentioned prismatic natural habit. Faceted natural emeralds,
publications corresponds to the observations made in general, reveal growth structures of the whole
by the present authors. However, it has to be rough crystals, e.g. the basal pinacoid c (0001^in
underlined that the material available for this combination with six larger prism faces m {1010}
investigation only consisted of faceted Gilson flux- and six smaller prism faces a {1120} as well as
grown synthetic emeralds weighing up to about 5 different hexagonal dipyramids.
cts. This means that only structures were observ- In Gilson flux-grown synthetic emeralds, in
able, which are characteristic for parts of the whole which part of the seed plate was still observable in
rough crystal plates of Gilson synthetic emerald. the cut samples, the following different kinds of
During the investigation of faceted samples, which growth structures were examined: some of the
were cut out of the crystal plates described above, stones could be determined, which showed growth
J. Gemm., 1991, 22, 7 435
Fig. 36 Fig. 37
Fig. 42. Growth structures in Biron hydrothermally-grown Fig. 43. Growth structures in Biron hydrothermally-grown
synthetic emerald; residue of the seed [right], domi- synthetic emerald; step-like growth line and colour
nant growth line parallel to the boundary colourless zoning, irregularly changing sub-grain boundaries
seed/synthetic emerald [left]. View 23° inclined to the almost perpendicular to the growth line. View 23°
c-axis. Crossed polarizers. 20x. inclined to the c-axis. 5 Ox.
Gemmological Abstracts
Found in the large melo amphora shell, which chrome spectrum and is green through the
can reach 50cm in length, this rare 68.97 ct non- Chelsea filter; sunstone quartz from Tingha near
nacreous pearl is pinkish-orange in colour with a Inverell, NSW, thought to be due to included
flame pattern reminiscent of that seen in pink hematite plates, is described. [The figures in this
conch pearls, SG 2.83, DV/RI value 1.67, inert to paper are again numbered in separate groups and
UV and no visible absorption. R.K.M. there is misuse of the word 'including'. An inclu-
sion should not be said to be 'including' the host
BROWN, G., 1991. Some Australian turquoise mineral.] R.K.M.
deposits. Australian Gemmologist, 17, 9, 369-73,
4 figs. BROWN, G., KELLY, S.M.B., BEATTIE, R., 1991.
Turquoise occurs in almost every state, but lit- Gemmological Study Club Lab reports.
tle of it is offinequality. R.K.M. Australian Gemmologist, 17, 9, 363-7, 13 figs.
Deals with Hong Kong dyed and waxed
B R O W N , G., BEATTIE, R., SNOW, J., 1 9 9 1 . jadeite; a coated (heated) sapphire; cerussite;
Verneuil synthetic red spinel. Australian prawn-claws as earrings; pipi blister pearls from
Gemmologist, 17, 9, 344-7, 6 figs. Cook Island; carved bone from India and red
Hitherto a difficult synthetic to find, this is now Kauri gum. [The idiosyncratic numbering of fig-
apparently in circulation in fragmented form in ures in these reports is confusing. In this one there
Australia and USA. RI 1.720, SG 3.59 and strain are seven with the number 1. Can editor not do
free between crossed polars, fluorescing like natu- something to rationalize this.] R.K.M.
ral stone and with identical absorption/emission
spectra, these stones need close examination
BROWN, G., KELLY, S.M.B., SNEYD, R., 1990.
under magnification to reveal characteristic inclu-
sions of curved growth banding, tadpole and pro- Russian flux-grown synthetic spinel.
filated bubbles [these writers persist in calling Australian Gemmologist, 17, 8, 315-17, 10 figs.
these 'proliferated', a term which has quite a dif- A specimen of this fairly new synthetic red
ferent meaning from that intended by Anderson spinel was purchased in Hong Kong and con-
when he coined the new word]. It is not known formed very closely in constants with similar octa-
whether these are old stock or a new production. hedral crystals described elsewhere. Etch
(growth?) marks and triangular dissolution edges
R.K.M.
and marks on the octahedral faces, adhérant octa-
hedra, dark flux, platinum flakes, air-filled curved
BROWN, G., CHAPMAN, J., 1991. Argyle cham-
fractures and dendrites were seen. Authors con-
pagne and cognac diamonds. Australian
clude that if a visually clean stone could be cut
Gemmologist, 17, 9, 350-1, 1 fig.
from such material, it would be identical with nat-
A brief résumé of occurrence, colours and qual-
ural red spinel, undetectable by normal tests.
ities. R.K.M.
R.K.M.
B R O W N , G., KELLY, S.M.B., BEATTIE, R.,
BRACEWELL, H., 1990. Gemmology Study BROWN, G., KELLY, S.M.B., SUTHERLAND, C ,
Club report. Australian Gemmologist, 17, 8, CALLAWAY, P., 1990. Imitation chicken-blood
325-32, 20 figs badly numbered. stone. Australian Gemmologist, 17, 8, 311-13, 5
A ruby/sapphire combined in one crystal; mas- figs.
sive stichtite, a rare ornamental material from A visually effective imitation of this Chinese
Tasmania, are described. A mounted suite of 10 valued material was detected by warmth to touch,
large orange sapphires was found to be yellow syn- bubbles in cinnabar imitation and coating, and
thetic corundum diffusion treated with synthetic strong fluorescence to LUV. The grey base mate-
ruby; bought for US$35 in Srinagar, Kashmir, one rial is described as soapy to the touch, while the
wonders at the economics of the deal [and even coloured coating had a waxy feel; both peeled
more that the purchaser should need them val- readily. R.K.M.
ued]; diffusion-treated synthetic blue sapphire
with curved colour zones has been seen. A glass BROWN, G., LINTON, T., 1991. An inexpensive
imitation of aquamarine spalled after cutting, conversion unit. Australian Gemmologist 17, 9,
while another was made from photo-sensitive glass 355, 1 fig.
of the type used for sun-glasses. Emerald from A metal base which allows a Kiowa microscope
'Harry's Mine' near Torrington, NSW, is shown to be turned through 90° for horizontal examination
to be green beryl rather than emerald, it has no of immersed stones. R.K.M.
J. Gemm., 1991, 22, 7 441
BROWN, G., T O M B S , G., 1991. An introductory CHANCERED C., 1991. Bloody opals ...! Revue de
note on the manmade products of Dominique Gemmologie, 106, 3-7, 20 figs (6 in colour).
Robert. Australian Gemmologist, 17, 9, 381-2, 5 A brief account of mining and cutting opera-
figs in colour. tions at the Australian field of Lightning Ridge,
Emeraldolite is a synthetic druse of emerald New South Wales. Some personal cutting experi-
coated onto a large crystal or other base of natural ences are described. M.O'D.
beryl. Heat whitens and opacifies the seed mate-
rial. Oulongite is another synthetic 'garnet', for- CLUNAS, C., 1989. Jade carvers and their cus-
mula unspecified; colours so far white, blue, tomers in Ming China. Bulletin of the Friends of
green, pink. H about 7.5, SG 6.9, RI 1.93-1.99, Jade, 6, 33-52, 7 figs.
Disp. 0.030. R.K.M. Jade carving in China between Han dynasty
and the eighteenth century is examined. There is
CAIRNCROSS, B., 1991. The Messina mining dis- a useful bibliography. It is interesting that the con-
trict, South Africa. Minerahgical Record, 22, 3, noisseurs of the Ming period did not appear to
187-99, 12 photographs (8 in colour), 11 maps regard jade as highly for its tactile qualities as has
and plans. been thought. M.O'D.
Quartz crystals coloured sky blue by inclusions
of ajoite and measuring up to 5cm in length are DYAR, M . D . , PERRY, C.L., REBBERT, C R . ,
reported from the Messina mining area, northern DUTROW, B . L . , HOLDAWAY, M . J . , LANG,
Transvaal, South Africa. M.O'D. H.M., 1991. Mossbauer spectroscopy of syn-
thetic and naturally occurring staurolite.
American Mineralogist, 76, 27-41, 7 figs.
CAMPBELL, I.C.C., 1991. A report on one of a
Room temperature Mossbauer spectroscopy of
number of emeralds from Madagascar. South 23 natural and 12 synthetic staurolites showed
African Gemmologist, 5, 1, 8-15, 7 figs in colour. that the majority of the Fe in all samples is Fe2*.
Large emeralds from Madagascar have been This occupies the F e l , Fe2 and Fe3 subsites of
seen in the South African gem market. SG is the tetrahedral Fe site in an average ratio of
reported as 2.73-2.74, RI 1.585, 1.591, 1.593 43/12/27. M.O'D.
[sic] (a previous study gives 1.589-1.591 for the
ordinary ray and 1.581-1.585 for the extraordi-
FREY, R., 1989. Satellite scans: technical notes
nary ray). Birefringence is reported by the earlier
and gazetteer. Bulletin of the Friends ofJade, 6,
study as 0.006-0.008. Stones are inert to UV and
60-1, 1 fig.
show strong yellowish-green and strong greenish-
A satellite photograph shows the nephrite
blue dichroism. T h e cabochon examined con-
source of the Karakash River. A short gazetteer
tained goethite, limonite, hematite and colour
gives some of the places shown. M.O'D.
zoning, as the previous report stated. In addition
phlogopite was identified and the stone may have
FRYER, C.W., Ed., CROWNINGSHIELD, R., H U R -
been oiled. Biotite, muscovite, apatite, quartz,
WIT, K.N., KANE, R.E., H A R G E T T , D., 1990.
tourmaline and two-phase inclusions could not be
identified with the limited equipment available, Gem Trade Lab notes. Gems & Gemology, 26,
though they featured in the previous report. The 4,294-9, 17 figs..
strongest absorption was in the region of 680nm Collection quality mineral specimens of azurite
and diffuse bands were noted in the region from were examined including exceptional ones from
650-640nm. There was moderately strong absorp- Chessy, France and Bisbee, Arizona; the latter
tion of the orange-yellow from approximately 630- with rosettes of azurite on a back-ground of mala-
570nm. N o absorption was noted in the blue chite [most beautiful!]. A yellow zirconia was
region. Under the colour filter the stone gave a found matched with a yellow diamond in a ring,
slightly reddish colour with a dull and dark and had absorption lines at about 453 and 478nm,
appearance. M.O'D. normally belonging to Cape diamonds. Intense
yellow marquise diamonds in a brooch were prob-
ably proved by fluorescence and absorption to be
CAMPBELL, I.C.C., 1991. Fine quality large cut natural, but were very like Sumitomo synthetics in
opal. South African Gemmologist, 5, 1, 22, 1 fig. appearance. Another diamond shown to be irradi-
in colour. ated green by the 'umbrella' around the culet, but
A fine quality white opal measuring 28.62 x had additional dark zoning.
21.92 x 9.74mm and weighing 35.16 ct is Dyed black cultured pearls fluoresced a distinct
described and illustrated. M.O'D. yellow under LUV and a tellurium dye was sus-
442 J. Gemm., 1991,22,7
1991, 22, 7
HOCHLEITNER,
HÖCHLEITNER, R, R., WEISS, S.,
S., 1991. Neue miner- KAMMERUNG,
KAMMERLING, R.C., RC., KANE, RE., KOIVULA, J.I.,
R.E., KOIVULA, J.I.,
Afghanistan. Lapis,
alfunde aus Pakistan und Mghanistan. MCCLURE, S.F., 1990. An investigation of a
16,3, 15-16, 3 figs
16, 3, 15-16,3 (2 in
figs (2 in colour). suite of
of black diamonds. Gems & & Gemology,
Gemology,26,26,
Stibiotantalite and tremolite are described from 4, 7 figs.
4,7 figs.
$tak-Nala
Stak-Nala in in Pakistan and and from Nuristan, Six quite large mounted black diamonds were
Mghanistan,
Afghanistan, respectively. From the the illustrations examined for transparent dark green areas which
the quality approaches the the ornamental. The would indicate artificial irradiation. Minute trans-
stibiotantalite is
is yellow and occurs with tourma- parent areas in these stones were white or blue.
line and albite. The tremolite is is white and resem- Facets were pitted and polishing drag lines were
bles Alpine adularia. M.O'D. prominent, as with most black diamonds. Colour
was due to graphite. N Noo distinct absorption lines
HODGKINSON, A., A., 1991. Padparadscha - what isis or bands were seen. Two Two stones showing blue
meant byby this term? Australian
Australian Gemmologist, transparent areas fluoresced
fluoresced strong blue under
17, 9, 378-80, 3 figs.
17,9,378-80,3 figs. LVV
LUV andand green in SVV SUV another stone gave aa
Discusses various versions of of orange/pink
orange/pink chalky mottled yellowish-green. All the the black
corundum sold under this and similar names, and stones had
had been cemented into their settings.
settings,
the ruby/pink sapphire question, going on to to probably in deference to the many cleavages which
include synthetic padparadschas, which are by far made the
the stones vulnerable to setting pressures.
the commonest of this name. RK.M.
R.K.M. Thermal conductivity was normal for diamond. A
detailed list of
of possible simulants is given.
H U A N G , V.T.,
HUANG, U . T . , AUNG,
A U N G , Z., HTEIN,
H T E I N , W., 1991. RK.M.
R.K.M.
Radioactivity in some minerals in the the Mogok
area. Australian
Australian Gemmologist, 17, 17, 9,9, 356-9, 2 KAMMERLING,
KAMMERLING, R.C., R . C . , KOIVULA, J.I., 1991.1991.
figs. Examination of a plastic coated 'sugar treated'
Researchers found more uranium in zircon, opal. Australian
Australian Gemmologist, 17,9,352-5,4
17, 9, 352-5, 4
and more thorium in in sphene, than in in apatite. An figs.
erudite scientific paper having little to to do with the Submitted for
for investigation
investigation by by John
John Fuhrbach
Fuhrbach
gem potential of these stones. RK.M.
R.K.M. of Amarillo, this stone had been bought as as black
opal at
at high cost.
cost. It
It is
is aa dyed (sugar/acid treated)·
treated)
HUGHES,
HUGHES, RW.,
R.W., 1991. There's aa rumble in in the
the stone which had also been coated with plastic,
the1 sapphire face-lift face-off
jungle -- the' face-off saga. causing anomalous fluorescence
fluorescence andand many
Digest, 3,
Gemmological Digest,
Gemmological 3, 2, 11 figs in
2, 17-28, 11 in included bubbles. RK.M.
R.K.M.
colour.
J. Gemm., 1991, 22, 7 443
KAMMERLING, R.C., KOIVULA, J.I., 1991. Opals is usually described as apple green; the team call it
displaying cat's-eye effects.South African 'fancy green', photographs of the actual stone
Gemmologist, 5, 1, 23-7, 3 figs in colour. published here suggest lightish yellow-green.
A number of natural opals show chatoyancy. Graining was seen in three directions and polar-
Idaho opal mounted as composites show chatoy- iscope revealed considerable cross-hatched strain;
ancy and in this case the phenomenon is a powerful source of UV revealed weak green flu-
attributed to planar faults in the stacking of the sil- orescence. Natural radiation damage was evi-
ica spheres. An opal whose chatoyancy is denced by small green or brown stains at three
attributed to light reflection from parallel acicular places near the girdle, but do not cause the body
inclusions is described. Since the stone showed a colour. No distinct spectrum at normal tempera-
weak pleochroism its origin may have been as a tures but low temperature spectroscopy revealed a
pseudomorph after a biréfringent fibrous mineral general radiation pattern, with absorption lines at
such as goethite. M.O'D. 594, 495, 470, 310, 393, and a cut-off at 225nm.
There are similarities with a known radiation-
KAMMERLING, R.C., KOIVULA, J.I., FRTTSCH, E., treated stone. Further details are given, but
1990. An examination of Chrysoprase from 594nm is considered to indicate a treated stone,
Goias, Brazil. Australian Gemmologist, 17, 8, yet the Dresden was known long before such treat-
313-15, 2 figs. ment was available. Infrared absorption spectra
The pale yellowish green to dark vivid green is suggest the stone is a Type Ha diamond, and this
probably due to nickel in the form of bunsenite. leaves the question of separating natural from arti-
RI 1.539, SG 2.64. Rather strangely a quite ficially treated green Type Ha diamonds wide
marked greenish-blue fluorescence in LUV, and open. R.K.M.
fainter in SUV, have apparently not been previ-
ously noted. R.K.M. KEVERNE, R., 1988. Worldwide view of the jade
market, 1986. Bulletin of the Friends ofJade, 5,
KANE, R.E., MCCLURE, S.F., MENZHAUSEN, J., 7-13.
1990. The legendary Dresden Green diamond. Details of jade pieces sold at auction are given
Gems & Gemology, 26, 4, 248-66, 16 figs. (hammer prices excluding the 10% commission
A very full investigation of this historic 41 ct levied on the buyer). Sales conducted by Christie's
diamond by a team which visited Dresden espe- and Sotheby's are covered worldwide. Jadeite ves-
cially for the purpose. Photographs reproduced sels were strong performers over the year and good
show the stone in a recently drawn reconstruction qualities did well while sub-standard pieces failed
as part of the order of the Golden Fleece, which is to attract buyers. Jewellery of the best colours did
also used as the front cover of this issue of the well. M.O'D.
journal. Others show a glass copy and the stone
itself, which registers as paler than either the copy KEVERNE, R., 1989. Worldwide view of the jade
or the drawing. market 1987 (1988). Bulletin of the Friends of
The history of the stone is researched with care Jade, 6, 8-19 (20-32).
and it seems certain that the rough came from Considerable enthusiasm exists, on the basis of
India, since Brazilian diamonds were discovered the Christie's and Sotheby's sales in the two years
only a year or so earlier. It was cut, probably in reviewed, for high quality jade artefacts. The 1988
London, shortly afterwards and in 1742 was season in particular was the most successful since
incorporated in the Fleece badge only to be bro- the early 1970's. Fine jewellery and good white
ken up four years later, when it was used in a sec- carvings were in strong demand. M.O'D
ond version which also included the 49.71 metric
carat Saxon White diamond. [Two weights are KOIVULA, J.I., 1990. Snail shells in amber.
given for this stone, the first being in pre-metric Australian Gemmohgist> 17, 8, 309-10, 2 figs.
carats.] The badge was again dismantled in 1768 In common with other animals and plants in
and Dissbach commissioned to fashion the centre amber from the Dominican Republic, these lern
part into a shoulder knot and a hat ornament, spiral (pulmonata) snail shells are remarkably well
both of which exist today, the Dresden Green preserved for forty million years old. Author says
being transferable. that one area of Panama has an estimated snail
The present team investigated the stone very population today of over seven million snails per
thoroughly, and report on shape, cut, proportions, acre, mostly of sizes suitable for such entrapment.
finish, clarity and colour. Finish and symmetry are [He also says that most snails serve as scavengers
very good and transparency is exceptional. Colour of dead plant and animal matter. The million or
444 J. Gemm., 1991, 22, 7
so in my garden are much braver and tackle living Aqua Aura treatment of quartz can also use silver
plants with considerable appetite!] These two are or platinum which do not colour the crystal but
small, the larger about 1cm in length. R.K.M. leave the surface iridescent; synthetic sapphire
cabochons are being 'improved' by matt surfacing
KOIVULA, J.I., KAMMERLING, R.C., 1990. Gem the backs to reduce transparency; Thailand is now
news. Gems & Gemology, 26, 4, 300-9, 16 figs. cutting CZ for the US; glass imitations of Imperial
Diamonds jadeite are described and illustrated; pectolite is
De Beers have grown a 14.2 ct good quality imitated by blue Imori stone (glass); dyed quartz
industrial yellow stone thought to be the largest sold as purple onyx in Indian jewellery in the
yet, but not commercially viable; only industrials States seems to be a micro-version of crackled
are aimed at in such experiments. Nearly half the quartz with a strong resemblance to sugilite.
China-cut diamonds offered in Singapore were R.K.M.
sold; development and exploration of diamond
mining in Guyana has been agreed. KROSCH, N.J., 1990. Queensland Chrysoprase.
Coloured stones Australian Gemmologist, 17, 8, 303-6, 2 figs, 2
Vast gold reserves found in Afghanistan, with maps.
gem mining, this is expected to attract foreign The exceptionally fine Marlborough Chryso-
investment; cat's-eye opal triplets, synthetic prase, sometimes incorrectly called Queensland
corundum stars and quartz cabochons backed jade, has been known for more than thirty years.
with computer chips are among new assembled Mined by open-cast method from nickel-ferrous
stones; black coral is being exploited in the serpentines. Gemmological details are not quoted.
Mexican Caribbean; heavy excavating equipment R.K.M.
is being used in Kanchanaburi sapphire mines; a
peace pact has been signed between warring fac- LEAMING, S., 1989. From the mines in the moun-
tions in the Colombia emerald area, and produc- tains to the rocks in the river. The development
tion is expected to increase; an unusual African of alluvial jade deposits from jade lodes.
grossular garnet was parti-coloured yellowish Bulletin of the Friends ofJade> 6, 63-8, 1 fig.
brown and orange with different RI (1.38, light, The movement of nephrite from in situ
and 1.4 darker area). deposits to alluvial finds is discussed. The equa-
Australian research is investigating use of safe tion
heavy organic water-soluble compounds for min- r
eral separation; a black cat's-eye opal from Mexico EdxR
is described and illustrated; a 14 x 10 cm gem
quality opal found at Boi Morto Mine, Brazil, was where T is the time in years taken for a block to
brownish white in colour with pinfire on all sur- travel, D the distance between two locations, W
faces; a 16.39 ct cobalt spinel of violet-blue colour the weight of the block, E^ the difference in ele-
in fluorescent light, turned purple under incan- vation between the two locations, C a constant
descent light, RI 1.714, red through Chelsea filter, specific to nephrite, R the roundness of the block
chalky-red in LUV, strong fluorescent line at and U r the rate of uplift is postulated. The case in
686nm weaker one at 552 and broad diffuse question covers the distance between the mines at
absorption at 454-46lnm; a large light bluish- Shahidulla to the oasis of Khotan. M.O'D.
green topaz sculpture weighing about 35000 ct
has been cut from part of a 79 lb crystal bought by LlNTNEk, B., 1988. Along Burma's jade trail.
Edward Swoboda in the 1950s, polishing large Bulletin of the Friends ofJade3 5, 81.
facets gave a lot of trouble in the final stages; cat's- A reprint of an article in The Far Easatern
eye red/blue tourmaline had tubular inclusions in Review in 1987 describing the difficulties of work-
the blue section only, skilled cutting retained the ing the Jade Tracts in Myitkina, Burma. M.O'D.
'eye' at the junction of the two colours; a Welsh
firm has exclusive agreement with USSR geology L I N T O N , T . , B R O W N , G., 1990. Presidium
ministries to attract foreign interest in gem min- MiniMate. Australian Gemmobgist3 17, 8, 318-
ing; waxing of jades was described and illustrated 20, 3 figs.
in a Hong Kong magazine. Another well-designed and reliable heat-probe
Enhancements for testing mounted diamonds. Usual precautions
Robert Crowningshield showed that techniques must be taken in use. R.K.M.
to detect colour diffusion treatment in loose sap-
phires can work equally with mounted stones; L I N T O N , T., BROWN, G., 1990. Presidium
J. Gemm., 1991,22,7 445
DiaMeter - System Berger. Australian West Sri Lanka. Australian Gemmologist, 17, 9,
Gemmologist, 17, 8, 301-6, 3 figs. 347-9 and 351, 4 figs.
A slide rule for diameter/weight calculations for A gneissic region with rich sources of alluvial
well-made round diamonds, combined with an gems including chrysoberyl cat's-eyes, alexandrite,
electronic version of the Leveridge gauge. rose quartz, hessonite and other gem species.
Combination works well for stones of good make. Yield increases as the Singharaja Hills are
R.K.M. approached suggesting that these are the primary
source. R.K.M.
L I N T O N , T., BROWN, G., 1991. T h e gold-meter.
Australian Gemmologist, 17, 9, 360-2, 2 figs. ROBERT, D . , 1991. Emeraldolite (letter).
An assessment of a new electro-chemical meter Australian Gemmologist, 17, 9, 381-2.
for testing gold which proved accurate for quali- An answer to A. Taylor's letter, claiming that
ties up to 18ct, but did not specify quality above colourless beryl is an excellent foil for the artificial
that. Needs to be used with care. [An obsolete druse of synthetic emerald. R.K.M.
address of Gemmological Instruments L t d is
quoted.] R.K.M. ROBERT, D . , F R I T S C H , E., KOIVULA, J.I., 1990.
Emeraldolite: a new synthetic overgrowth on
MAAS, H.H., 1991. Museen in Westdeutschland. natural beryl. Gems & Gemology, 26, 4, 288-93,
(Museums in West Germany.) Aufschlüsse 42, 7 figs.
2, 29-40. A product rather similar to Lechleitner coated
A useful list of museums in West Germany with emeralds, but opaque in this case, and different in
geological, mineralogical or fossil collections technique from the Lennix process, since fluorine
arranged in alphabetical order of place. The name is used as the transport agent. Emerald layer grows
of the director is given together with hours of open- in conformity with the substrate crystal, giving
ing, telephone number, postal address and main even coloration. Spot RI 1.56, SG 2.66. No UV
theme of the collections. M.O'D. fluorescence or phosphorescence. There were
numerous surface specks of white which were
MONTGOMERY, R.S., 1991. In the dark: separat- thought t o be lithium feldspar. Intense red
ing synthetic and natural gems by ultraviolet through Chelsea filter, no surface cracking.
spectroscopy. Gemmological Digest, 3, 2, 45-53, Unique appearance makes identifying easy.
18 figs (17 in colour). Generally used unpolished, but can be polished or
The Krüss UVS 2000 is evaluated. Significant carved. R.K.M.
differences were noted between the spectra of the
following pairs: natural and synthetic ruby, heated SCHLUESSEL, R., 1991. Des saphirs étoiles syn-
and unheated rubies, natural and synthetic blue thétiques ... pas comme les autres. Revue de
sapphires, heated and unheated blue sapphires Gemmologie, 106, 10-12, 12 figs in colour.
and natural and synthetic red spinels. M.O'D. Several methods of distinguishing natural from
synthetic star sapphires are outlined. Inclusions
characteristic of the synthetic material are illus-
PEARSON, G., 1990. Multiple chatoyancy in trated. M.O'D.
Australian sapphire. Australian Gemmologist,
17, 8, 296-8, 8 figs. SCHUHBAUER, E., 1 9 9 1 . Bemerkenswerte
An interesting account of 12-ray asterism in a Neufunde von Roten Beryllen in den Wah-
cabochon sapphire from Rubyvale in Queensland, Wah Mountains, Utah. Lapis, 16, 6, 38,4 pho-
thought to be due to rutile (diffuse white star) and tographs in colour.
ilmenite (intersecting bronze coloured star show- Fine red beryl crystals are reported from the
ing additional reflective centres). [This is asterism southern Wah-Wah Mountains in Beaver County,
not chatoyancy.] R.K.M. Utah, USA. The find of particularly good crystals
was made in August 1990 at the Violet Claims.
PEILE, J., 1988. Trouble at the mines. Bulletin of M.O'D.
the Friends ofJade, 5, 81.
A reprint of an article in The Times of London SCHWIEGER, R., 1990. Diagnostic features and
in 1893 describing the difficulties of working the heat treatment of Kashmir sapphires. Gems &
Jade Tracts in Myitkina, Burma. M.O'D. Gemology, 26, 4, 267-80, 24 figs.
A well-researched paper which serves to distin-
PEMADASA, T.G., 1991. Gem deposits of South guish the rare and very lovely Kashmir sapphire
446 J. Gemm., 1991, 22, 7
from those fine stones from Burma or Sri Lanka, T A N G , S.M., T A N G , S.H., M O K , K.F., RETTY,
which are often called 'Kashmir' in ignorance. A.T., TAY, T.S., 1991. A study of natural and
Typical silk and other inclusions are illustrated, synthetic rubies by PDŒ. Gemmobgical Digest,
and the unique absorption recorded by spec- 3, 2, 63-7, 2 photographs in colour, 2 figs.
trophotometer is compared with those of stones Proton-induced X-ray emission is used to
from other sources. Kashmir sapphires are examine 160 natural and synthetic rubies.
markedly different in the blue-violet region, while Vanadium and iron are found in the natural stones
comparison with heated Sri Lankan stones Was rather than in the synthetic ones. M.O'D.
even more marked. But a Kashmir sapphire, sim-
ilarly heated, became lighter in colour, some T A N G , S.M., T A N G , S.H., T A Y , T.S., RETTY,
'snowflake' inclusions dissolved and some areas A.T., 1991. Analysis of Burmese and Thai
became colourless. The spectrum also changed rubies by PDŒ. Gemmobgical Digest, 3, 2, 57-
and became much more like that of a Sri Lankan 62, 2 photographs (in colour), 2 figs.
sapphire. Unheated Kashmir stones can probably Proton-induced X-ray emission techniques are
be identified with some certainty, but once heated used to identify trace elements in 60 Burmese and
they may lose colour and identifying characteris- Thai rubies. Burmese stones were found to con-
tics. R.K.M. tain higher concentrations of all impurities except
iron. They also show a higher concentration of
SERSEN, W.J., 1991. Gemstones and early Arabic vanadium than Thai stones, which contain on
writers. Gemmobgical Digest, 3, 2, 34-9, 4 pho- average four times the amount of iron. M. O'D.
tographs (3 in colour), 1 fig.
Several Arabic writers of the thirteenth century TAYLOR, A., 1991. Emeraldolite (letter).
onwards have commented on aspects of gem- Australian Gemmologist, 17, 9, 381-2.
stones. Some of these are illustrated with com- Queries loss of water and colour when seed
ments on old mines and nomenclature. M.O'D. beryl is heated. R.K.M.
prices; it is not known whether more of these may gem zircon samples from Sri Lanka. XRD and
be found. [Two captions to figures have been chemical analysis were also used. The degree of
transposed.] R.K.M. metamictization increases systematically with U-
Th content up to the point of total metamictiza-
WARD, F., 1988. The search for jade. Bulletin of tion. The amount of metamictization is deter-
the Friends ofJade, 5, 86-92. mined by examination of unit cell parameters. In
The author describes his work in preparing an the IR spectrum band widths increase and inten-
article on jade for the National Geographic sities decrease with increasing U-Th content.
Magazine. He was able to visit some of the jade- Bands related to Si-O bonds persist and bands
producing areas of the world. M. O'D. related to Zr-O bonds disappear thus indicating
that the structure of metamict zircon consists of
WEISS, S., 1991. Eisenhaltiger gelber Orthoklas - distorted and disoriented isolated silica tetrahedra
ein wiederentdeckter Edelstein aus with few if any displaced Zr cations. M.O'D.
Madagaskar. (Iron-bearing yellow orthoclase -
a rediscovered gemstone from Madagascar.) YEUNG, I., 1989. Treasures of Peinan culture
Lapis, 16, 3, 13-14, 3 figs (1 in colour). found in Taiwan dig. Bulletin of the Friends of
Fe-bearing yellow orthoclase from Madagascar Jade, 6, 8-6.
is described with notes on the location and on the Archaeological examination of sites in the cen-
crystal forms encountered. The mineral is of gem tral mountain range of Taiwan has revealed
quality and is found in pegmatites in the general nephrite artefacts in burial sites dating from 2025-
region of Itrongay. M.O'D. 1025 BC. Many of the objects are a fine green.
M.OT).
WILKE, H.-J., POPOVA, E.E., 1991. Das
Mineralogische Museum des Leningrader What's new in minerals? 1991. Mineralogical
Bergbau-Institute. Lapis, 16, 6, 24-37, 13 Record, 22, 3, 213-20, 22 photographs (20 in
photographs in colour. colour).
The museum of the Leningrad Mining Gem quality minerals seen at the 1991 Tucson
Institute contains a fine collection of mineral spec- Gem and Mineral show included copper-coloured
imens from the USSR and elsewhere. Exceptional blue tourmaline from the Batalha mine, Paraiba,
crystals of brazilianite and uvarovite are among Brazil; green diopside crystals from Kaflu (?),
those of gemmological interest. M.O'D. Pakistan; aquamarine crystals from the Jaqueto
mine, Bahia, Brazil; vesuvianite crystals from the
WOODHEAD, J.A., ROSSMAN, G.R., SILVER, L.T., Jeffrey mine, Asbestos, Quebec; pink apatite crys-
1991. The metamictization of zircon: radiation tals from Nagar, Pakistan, and fine multi-coloured
dose dependent structural characteristics. tourmaline crystals from the Cruzeiro district,
American Mineralogist, 76, 74-82, 9 figs. Minas Gérais, Brazil. M.O'D.
IR spectroscopy was used to examine a suite of
J. Gemm., 1991,22,7 448
Book reviews
FLEISCHER, M., MANDARINO, J.A., 1991. Glossary logical texts this book includes basic details of
of mineral species 1991. The Mineralogical fashioning.
Record Inc., Tucson, pp.256. Price on appli- The book is well-produced and very suitable
cation. for students and the academic background of the
This is the sixth edition of the invaluable authors ensures a balanced presentation of mate-
Glossary. Since the printing of the previous edition rial. M.O'D.
in 1987 about 200 new mineral names have been
added and about 900 previous entries have had to KERRICK, D.M., 1990. The Ah SiOspoly-
be revised. Six new mineral groups have been morphs. The Mineralogical Society of
added. As before the listing is alphabetical with America. Washington DC. pp. xii, 406. Illus.
chemical composition, crystal system, colour in black-and-white. US $20.00. [Reviews in
where necessary, allocation to groups which are mineralogy Vol. 22.]
themselves listed at the back of the book, Gemmologists will be interested in ALSiOs
dimorphs and polymorphs and particulars of ref- since andalusite, kyanite and sillimanite are mem-
erences, mostly in The American Mineralogist but bers of the group. The book opens with an intro-
also in other journals where appropriate. Where ductory section in which faciès series and baric
there appears to be a close relationship between regimes are discussed together with tectonic meta-
minerals without the entire series of compositions morphic analysis of metamorphic belts and
between them being known the words 'compare geothermometry as applied to the aluminium sili-
with' are used. 'Isostructural with' is used to cates. The next section covers crystal structures,
denote two crystal structures of the same type with optical and physical properties and is followed by
different chemical compositions, as with grossular a lengthy section on phase equilibria, an important
and berzeliite. There are also boxes which can be feature in minerals displaying polymorphism.
completed by the reader to denote what species Later sections cover non-stoichiometry lattice
are found in his collection. M.O'D. defects, Al/Si disorder, problems with fibrolite
(here the name is distinguished from sillimanite),
HURLBUT, C S . , KAMMERLING, R.C., 1991. metamorphic reactions, reaction kinetics and crys-
Gemology. 2nd edition. John Wiley, New York. tal growth mechanisms, aluminium metasomatism
pp. xiv, 336. Illus. in black-and-white and in and a final section dealing with aluminium sili-
colour. £43.70. cates in anatectic migmatites and peraluminous
Since the first edition appeared several years granitoids. There is a general list of references at
ago there have been a number of developments in the end of the book. Gemmologists will find the
gemstone synthesis and enhancement. A new greatest interest in the section discussing colour
chapter has been added for this reason and the and chemical composition. M.O'D.
coloured illustrations are more numerous and of
good quality. Additional species have been added NlEDERMAYR, G., 1990. Fluorit Mineral des
to the descriptive section and in this edition the Regenbogens. Bode, Haltern, pp. 80. Illus. in
more important species are listed first. Both sec- colour. DM 14.80.
tions are in alphabetical order. Details of impor- The book covers nine major European fluorite
tant synthetic materials are also given in the sec- locations, each section being contributed by a dif-
tions on their natural counterparts. ferent author. British and other world locations
The details of instruments and of gem testing are briefly described in a final chapter. Each sec-
are clearly given and the simple diagrams will be tion has its own valuable list of references and the
useful for students. Refractive index is well first chapter deals with the mineral itself with
explained and the description and details of the notes on its common modes of occurrence. Maps
use of interference figures are particularly suc- are provided for major sites and the colour pic-
cessful. In contrast to many other simple gemmo- tures are superb. M.O'D.
J. Gemm., 1991, 22, 7 449
Proceedings of
The Gemmological Association and
Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain
and Notices
FORTHCOMING MEETINGS
London
Midlands Branch
Meetings held at Dr Johnson House, Bull Street Birmingham. Further details from David
Larcher on 021 554 3871.
13-15 September 1991 The Branch will participate, with an exhibition of gem testing, in
the National Exhibition of Time to be held at The British
Horological Institute, Upton Hall, Nr Newark, Notts.
From A.E. Farn, FGA very human touch and a great sense of humour.
He gave names to his favourite gemmological
Dear Sir, tools, such as Henry and Henrietta respectively
It is always a pleasure to read a 'Letter to the for two much used pearl scoops. He also had
Editor', particularly when penned by our Vice names for his spectroscopes which may well be
President, R.K. Mitchell. I refer to his letter upon mentioned in the forthcoming treatise of Eric
the name changes of methylene iodide and mono- Bruton and Keith Mitchell on Anderson's
bromo-naphthalene (The Journal of Gemmology, research and work with the spectroscope.
1991, 22, 6, 387-8). In B.W. Anderson's day at 55 May I take this opportunity to draw attention
Hatton Garden I feel sure we termed it alpha- to a short notice on page 386 of volume 22, no.6,
mono-bromo-naphthalene. 'Alpha' was also adjoining Keith Mitchell's letter. It is headed
used by Basil Anderson when referring to the 'Verbal Testing at the Laboratory' and then pro-
4155Â line in diamond. That of course was in the ceeds to describe the method of sending articles
days before the dwarfing effect of nanometres. for verbal testing by post - this puzzles me. I can
Keith Mitchell admits to a somewhat tongue- understand 'mono' in monocular and 'di' in
in-cheek frame of mind in his comments. He dichroscope, but fail to relate 'verbal', by post.
attributes this to a surfeit of years and a dislike of
change. I am completely in accord with his senti- Yours in retrospect.
ments. This of course, is hardly surprising as we A.E. Farn
are both elderly trade products and share a great
regard for the memory and name of Basil 6 June 1991
Anderson. Anderson, despite his erudition, had a Seaford, Sussex.
452 J. Gemm., 1991,22,
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J.J. Gemm.,
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Notes for Contributors
The Editors are glad to consider original is consistent with clear indication of the
articles shedding new light on subjects of content of the paper. It should be followed by
gemmological interest for publication in the the names (with initials) of the authors and by
Journal. Articles are not normally accepted their addresses. A short abstract of 50-100
which have already been published elsewhere words should be provided. Papers may be of
in English, and an article is accepted only on any length, but long papers of more than
the understanding that (1) full information as 10 000 words (unless capable of division into
to any previous publication (whether in parts or of exceptional importance) are
English or another language) has been given, unlikely to be acceptable, whereas a short
(2) it is not under consideration for publication paper of 400-500 words may achieve early
elsewhere and (3) it will not be published publication.
elsewhere without the consent of the Editors. Twentyfivecopies of individual papers are
Papers should be submitted in duplicate on provided on request free of charge; additional
A4 paper. They should be typed with double copies may be supplied, but they must be
line spacing with ample margins of at least ordered atfirstproof stage or earlier.
25mm all round. The title should be as brief as
Thc
Journal of
Gemmology
Contents
Copyright© 1991
The Gemmological Association and Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain
Registered Office: Palladium House, 1-4 Argyll Street, London W1V IAD
ISSN: 0022-1252