INGLES GRAMATICAL

BASICO
 Adverbs of Frequency
We use some adverbs to describe how frequently we do an activity.
These are called adverbs of frequency and include:

Frequency Adverb of Frequency Example Sentence

100% always I always go to bed before 11 p.m.
90% usually I usually have cereal for breakfast.
80% normally / generally I normally go to the gym.
70% often* / frequently I often surf the internet.
50% sometimes I sometimes forget my wife's birthday.
occasionally I occasionally eat junk food.
30%
10% seldom I seldom read the newspaper.
5% hardly ever / rarely I hardly ever drink alcohol.
0% never I never swim in the sea.

Some people pronounce the 'T' in often but many others do not.
These are also known as Adverbs of INDEFINITE frequency as the exact frequency is not defined.

The Position of the Adverb in a Sentence

An adverb of frequency goes before a main verb (except with To Be).

Subject + adverb + main verb

I always remember to do my homework.
He normally gets good marks in exams.

An adverb of frequency goes after the verb To Be.

Subject + to be + adverb
They are never pleased to see me.
She isn't usually bad tempered.

When we use an auxiliary verb (have, will, must, might, could, would, can, etc.), the adverb is placed
between the auxiliary and the main verb. This is also true for to be.

Subject + auxiliary + adverb + main verb

She can sometimes beat me in a race.
I would hardly ever be unkind to someone.
They might never see each other again.
They could occasionally be heard laughing.

We can also use the following adverbs at the start of a sentence:

Usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes, occasionally

 Occasionally, I like to eat Thai food.

BUT we cannot use the following at the beginning of a sentence:
Always, seldom, rarely, hardly, ever, never.
We use hardly ever and never with positive, not negative verbs:
  She hardly ever comes to my parties.
 They never say 'thank you'.
We use ever in questions and negative statements:

 Have you ever been to New Zealand?

 I haven't ever been to Switzerland. (The same as 'I have never been Switzerland').

Adverbs of Definite Frequency

We can also use the following expressions when we want to be more specific about the frequency:

 every day
 once a month
 twice a year
 four times a day
 every other week
 daily
 monthly
These are also known as Adverbs of DEFINITE frequency as the exact frequency is specified.
See our video for details about these types of Adverbs:

Adverbs Spelling -LY

Adjective vs. Adverb Review
Adjectives describe nouns (things).

 My dog is slow.
Slow is an adjective since it describes the subject (my dog).
How is my dog? Slow
Adverbs describe verbs (actions).

 My dog eats slowly.

Slowly is an adverb since it describes the way my dog eats.
How does my dog eat? Slowly.
Adverbs -LY
Adverbs are normally formed by adding -LY to the end of an adjective.
E.g. Quick - Quickly
For adjectives that end in -l or -e, we simply add -ly:
special + ly = specially
terminal + ly = terminally
literal + ly = literally
nice + ly = nicely
polite + ly = politely

There are of course some exceptions:

true truly
whole wholly
due duly
full fully

Adverbs ending in -Y
For adjectives that end in -y, we remove the -y and add -ily:
crazy crazily
happy happily

Adverbs ending in -LE

For adjectives that end in a consonant + le we remove the -e and add -y:
terrible terribly
horrible horribly
noble nobly
idle idly

Adverbs ending in -IC

If the adjective ends in -ic, we add -ally:
ironic ironically
enthusiastic enthusiastically
realistic realistically
Except: public - publicly

Irregular Adverbs
Some adverbs are irregular:
 Adjective Adverb Example
fast fast The man drives very fast (quickly).
good well You speak English very well.

Can - Cannot - Can't

Can is a modal verb.
Can is used to express ability or to say that something is possible.
Can is the same for all subjects. We don't add an 'S' in the third person (like other verbs)
The verb that comes after Can is in the infinitive without to:

 I can speak Spanish. (= it is possible for me to speak Spanish = I have the ability to speak
Spanish)
 He can swim well.
 We can see our neighbour in the garden.
 They can play the guitar.
For more uses of Can see: Modal Verbs: Can - Could

Negative
To form the negative we add "not" after can to form one word: cannot.
We can also contract the negative to form can't. (can't = cannot)

 I cannot play the piano. We can't go to the cinema tonight.

 She cannot speak French very well. He can't drive a car.

Questions
To from the question we change the position of the subject and the auxiliary verb.
The main verb is still in the infinitive without to.

Where can I buy an ice-cream?

Can I go to the party, please?
Can you speak Japanese?
What can we do on Saturday?
Remember that you can use short answers:

 Can I sit here please? Yes, you can.

 Can you speak Chinese? No, I can't.
Impersonal Can
Sometimes You can and Can you…? are impersonal and refer to people in general.

 You can see many stars at night from here. (= people in general can see many
stars)
It doesn't necessarily refer to you but people in general.

 You can't run naked in the middle of the street.

Not necessarily saying YOU can't run naked in the middle of the street but in general it
is not possible for anyone.

Do vs. Does
To make a question in English we normally use Do or Does. It is normally put at the beginning
of the question (before the subject).
Affirmative: You speak Spanish.
Question: Do you speak Spanish?
You will see that we add DO at the beginning of the affirmative sentence to make it a question.
We use Do when the subject is I, you, we or they.
Affirmative: He speaks Spanish.
Question: Does he speak Spanish?
When the subject is he, she or it, we add DOES at the beginning to make the affirmative
sentence a question. Notice that the letter S at the end of the verb in the affirmative sentence
(because it is in third person) disappears in the question. We will see the reason why below.
We DON'T use Do or Does in questions that have the verb To Be or Modal Verbs (can, must,
might, should etc.)
Word Order of Questions with Do and Does
The following is the word order to construct a basic question in English using Do or Does.
 Do/Does Subject Verb* The rest of the sentence
Do I / you / we / they have / buy
cereal for breakfast?
Does he / she / it eat / like etc.
*Verb: The verb that goes here is the base form of the infinitive = The infinitive without TO before the
verb. Instead of the infinitive To have it is just the have part.
Remember that the infinitive is the verb before it is conjugated (changed) and it begins with TO. For
example: to have, to eat, to go, to live, to speak etc.

Examples of Questions with Do and Does:

 Do you speak English?
 Does John speak French?
 Do we have time for a quick drink?
 Does it rain a lot in the South?
 Do they want to come with me?
 Does she like chocolate?

Short Answers with Do and Does

In questions that use do/does it is possible to give short answers to direct questions as follows:
Short Answer Short Answer
Sample Questions
(Affirmative) (Negative)
Do you speak English? Yes, I do. No, I don't.
Do I need a dictionary? Yes, you do. No, you don't.
Do you both speak English? Yes, we do. No, we don't.
Do they speak English? Yes, they do. No, they don't.
Does he speak English? Yes, he does. No, he doesn't.
Does she speak English? Yes, she does. No, she doesn't.
Does it have four legs? Yes, it does. No, it doesn't.
However, if a question word such as who, when, where, why, which or how is used in the question, you
can not use the short answers above to respond to the question.
Question Words with Do and Does
The order for making sentences with Questions words is the following:
 Do/Does Subject Verb
What do you have for breakfast?
What does she have for breakfast?
Where do you live?
When do you study?
How do you spell your name?

DON'T VS. DOESN'T

To make a negative sentence in English we normally use Don't or Doesn't with all verbs
EXCEPT To Be and Modal verbs (Can, might, should etc.).
Affirmative: You speak Spanish.
Negative: You don't speak Spanish.
You will see that we add don't between the subject and the verb. We use Don't when the
subject is I, you, we or they.
Affirmative: He speaks Spanish.
Negative: He doesn't speak Spanish.
When the subject is he, she or it, we add doesn't between the subject and the verb to make a
negative sentence. Notice that the letter S at the end of the verb in the affirmative sentence
(because it is in third person) disappears in the negative sentence. We will see the reason why
below.
Contractions
Don't = Do not
Doesn't = Does not
I don't like fish = I do not like fish.
There is no difference in meaning though we normally use contractions in spoken English.
Word Order of Negative Sentences
The following is the word order to construct a basic negative sentence in English in the
Present Tense using Don't or Doesn't.
Subject don't/doesn't Verb* The Rest of the sentence
I / you / we / they don't have / buy
cereal for breakfast
he / she / it doesn't eat / like etc.
*Verb: The verb that goes here is the base form of the infinitive = The infinitive without TO
before the verb. Instead of the infinitive To have it is just the have part.
Remember that the infinitive is the verb before it is conjugated (changed) and it begins
with TO. For example: to have, to eat, to go, to live, to speak etc.
Examples of Negative Sentences with Don't and Doesn't:
 You don't speak Russian.
 John doesn't speak French.
 We don't have time for a quick drink.
 It doesn't rain much in summer.
 They don't want to come with us.
 She doesn't like meat.
 THE APOSTROPHE S - ('S)
POSSESSIVE CASE - GENITIVE CASE
Also called the possessive case, the genitive case is when we add apostrophe S (’s) to show
possession, that something belongs to another or a type of relationship between things.
e.g. Woodward’s house, Your brother’s friend

The meaning of X’s Y is:

= The Y of X
= The Y belonging to X (Y is normally a thing)
= The Y which has some relation with X (Y is often a person)
The Rules:
We normally use the ’s with people, animals though it can also be used with places,
organizations and companies (which suggest a group of people).
It is not common to use the ’s with non-living things.
1. Singular nouns
add 's (apostrophe S)
 My mother’s house is next to the beach. (= the house of my mother)
 Jason’s car was stolen last night. (= the car of Jason)
 Tomorrow, we’re all going to see the museum’s new art exhibit.
2. Plural nouns ending in –s
only add the apostrophe ' (without the S)
 The two sisters’ house is next to mine. (= the house of the two sisters)
 The plumbers’ tools were rusty. (= the tools of the plumbers)
 The players’ boots were dirty and smelly after the game. (= the boots of the players)
Notice that the pronunciation is the same for certain possessives:
 My friend’s house = the house of my friend = 1 friend
 My friends’ house = the house of my friends = 2 or more friends
You can usually distinguish whether the speaker is referring to one or two friends by listening
to the context of what the speaker says.
3. Plural nouns not ending in –s:
add 's
 Be careful not to trip over the children’s toys. (= the toys of the children)
 The women’s bathroom is currently flooded with water.
 The presidential candidate is often called the people’s favorite politician.
4. Singular noun ending in –s:
It depends…
a. Most names: add 's (apostrophe S)
 They had a really good time at James’s barbecue last Friday.
 We spent the day admiring Frances’s new car.
b. Classical or religious names: add ' (only the apostrophe)
 Jesus’ disciples carried out the teachings of Jesus.
 Sophocles’ plays are still performed today.
5. Possessive nouns as part of a phrase
Sometimes more than one word/noun is a possessive. The same rules as above are still valid:
  The King of Sparta’s wife was called Helen.
 The President of Chile’s speech was very long.
 I accidentally took someone else’s bag home by mistake.
 I had to give my boss three weeks’ notice that I was leaving the company.
If there are two owners of something, we add 's to the final name:
 Rick and Steve’s car is quite old.
But, if each person owns a car, then add 's to both names:
 Rick’s and Steve’s cars are quite old.
Notice how the verb is in plural form.
6. No Noun
If the meaning is clear, we can use the possessive without a noun after it.
 Her hair is longer than Jill’s. (= Jill’s hair)
 We ate at Billy’s last night. (= Billy’s Diner or Billy’s house)
 Whose bag is this? It’s Jane’s. (= Jane’s bag)
 HAVE - HAS - GO - GOES
Simple Present Tense
Conjugation of Have and Go
To Have = To show possession / a quality
To Go = to show movement (travel) in a specific direction

Subject To Have The Rest of the sentence

I / you / we / they have an old bike.
he / she / it has a new car.

Subject To Go The Rest of the sentence

I / you / we / they go to class every day.
he / she / it goes to the movies on Friday.
Usually we only add 'S' to a verb when we conjugate it in the third person but notice how To
Have and To Go are slightly irregular (though they still both end in S).
Have and Go in Negative Sentences
To make a negative sentence in English with To Have and To Go we use Don't or Doesn't followed
by Have or Go(never Has or Goes).
Affirmative: You have a pen.
Negative: You don't have a pen.
You will see that we add don't between the subject and the verb. We use Don't when the subject
is I, you, we or they.
Affirmative: He has a pencil.
Negative: He doesn't have a pencil.
When the subject is he, she or it, we add doesn't between the subject and the verb to make a
negative sentence. Notice that we don't use the normal third person conjugation (has, goes) in
negative sentences. We use the base form of the infinitive as seen below.

Word Order of Negative Sentences

The following is the word order to construct a basic negative sentence in English in the Present
Tense using Don't or Doesn't.
Subject don't/doesn't To Have* The Rest of the sentence
I / you / we / they don't
have cereal for lunch.
he / she / it doesn't

Subject don't/doesn't To Go* The Rest of the sentence

I / you / we / they don't
go to classes every day.
he / she / it doesn't
* Verb: The verb that goes here is the base form of the infinitive = The infinitive without TO before the
verb. Instead of the infinitive To have it is just the have part.
Remember that the infinitive is the verb before it is conjugated (changed) and it begins with TO. For
example: to have, to eat, to go, to live, to speak etc.
Examples of Negative Sentences with Have:
 You don't have a clue.
 John doesn't have many friends.
 We don't have time for a rest.
 It doesn't have four wheels.
 They don't have the correct answers.
 She doesn't have a nice dress.
Examples of Negative Sentences with Go:
 You don't go to university.
 John doesn't go to parties.
 We don't go to work on the weekend.
 It doesn't go fast.
 They don't go to the beach.
 She doesn't go to church.

Questions with Have and Go

To make a question in English with To Have and To Go, we normally use Do or Does at the
beginning of the question.
Affirmative: You have a girlfriend.
Question: Do you have a girlfriend?
You will see that we add DO at the beginning of the affirmative sentence to make it a question. We
use Do when the subject is I, you, we or they.
Affirmative: She has a boyfriend.
Question: Does she have a boyfriend?
When the subject is he, she or it, we add DOES at the beginning to make the affirmative sentence a
question. Notice that we don't use the normal third person conjugation (has, goes) in questions. We
use the base form of the infinitive as seen below.

Word Order of Questions with Do and Does

The following is the word order to construct a basic question in English using Do or Does.
Do/Does Subject Verb* The Rest of the sentence
Do I / you / we / they
have a new bike?
Does he / she / it

Do/Does Subject Verb* The Rest of the sentence

Do I / you / we / they
go to school?
Does he / she / it
*Verb: The verb that goes here is the base form of the infinitive = The infinitive without TO before the
verb. Instead of the infinitive To have it is just the have part.
Remember that the infinitive is the verb before it is conjugated (changed) and it begins with TO. For
example: to have, to eat, to go, to live, to speak etc.
Examples of Questions with Have and Go:
 Do you have a dictionary?
 Does Mary have a dictionary?
 Do we go to all the meetings?
 Does she go to all the meetings?

Short Answers with Have and Go

In questions that use do/does it is possible to give short answers to direct questions as follows:
Short Answer Short Answer
Sample Questions
(Affirmative) (Negative)
Do you have a car?
Yes, I do. No, I don't.
Do you go to church?
Do I have time?
Yes, you do. No, you don't.
Do I go to work today?
Do you both have time?
Yes, we do. No, we don't.
Do you both go to school?
Do they have a car?
Yes, they do. No, they don't.
Do they go to the pub?
Does he have a car?
Yes, he does. No, he doesn't.
Does he go to university?
Does she have a car?
Yes, she does. No, she doesn't.
Does she go to the gym?
Does it have four wheels?
Yes, it does. No, it doesn't.
Does it go slow?
However, if a question word such as who, when, where, why, which or how is used in the question,
you can not use the short answers above to respond to the question.
 Noun + To Be + Noun
Nouns are words that name things. Some common nouns include those used for animals, countries, food,
languages, cities and countries.
When we are explaining things, we use Noun + To Be + Noun:

 English is a language. (Noun + To Be + Noun)

 A chicken is a bird. (Noun + To Be + Noun)

Singular Noun + IS + Singular Noun

We use IS between the two singular nouns.

 Champagne is a drink.
 Paris is a city.
 France is a country.
 French is a language.
 Europe is a continent.
Note that we normally use an article (A / AN) before a singular noun.

Articles + Nouns
'A' or 'AN' are articles. In English we normally use articles before singular nouns.
A is used before a word that begins with a consonant.
AN is used before a word that begins with a vowel.
Vowels: A, E, I, O, U.
Consonants: B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, Y, Z.
For example:

 Chile is a country. (A before consonant)

 Santiago is a city. (A before consonant)
 An apple is a fruit (A before consonant)
 A dog is an animal. (AN before vowel)
 A mosquito is an insect. (AN before vowel)
 Qantas is an airline. (AN before vowel)

Plural Noun + Are + Plural Noun

Singular Noun + IS + Singular Noun
Plural Noun + ARE + Plural Noun
Note that we do not use an article (A / AN) with a plural noun.
For example:

 A dog is an animal. (singular)

 Dogs are animals. (plural)
 Spanish is a language. (singular)
 Spanish and Italian are languages. (plural)
 Cities are places. (plural)
 Countries are states. (plural)
 Simple Past Tense
The Simple Past Tense, often just called the Past Tense, is easy to use in English.
If you already know how to use the Present Tense, then the Past Tense will be easy.
In general, the Past Tense is used to talk about something that started and finished at a definite time in the
past.

How to form the Past Tense in English

The main rule is that for every verb in English, there is only one form of it in the past tense.
(The exception is the Past tense of To Be, which has two forms: was and were)
This is totally different from other languages such as Spanish, French, Italian etc. where you change the verb
ending for every subject.
For example: The past tense of the verb want is wanted.
Wanted is used as the past tense for all subjects/pronouns.

 I wanted
 You wanted
 He wanted
 She wanted
 It wanted
 We wanted
 They wanted

So you just have to learn one word to be able to use it in the past tense. In this case we just needed to learn
the one word wanted which can be used for all subjects (or people).

Past Tense Regular Verbs

To change a regular verb into its past tense form, we normally add –ED to the end of the verb.

 play – played
 cook – cooked
 rain – rained
 wait – waited

There are some exceptions with a slight change in spelling which you can see here:

Examples of sentences using regular verbs in the

past tense
 Last night I played my guitar loudly and the neighbors complained.
 She kissed me on the cheek.
 It rained yesterday.
 Angela watched TV all night.
 John wanted to go to the museum.

Note: There are three different ways of pronouncing the –ed at the end of a verb in the past tense.
Negative sentences in the Past Tense
We use didn't (did not) to make a negative sentence in the past tense.
This is for regular AND irregular verbs in English.
(Exception is To Be and Modal Verbs such as Can)
Compare the following:
Present: They don't live in Canada.
Past: They didn't live in Canada.
The main verb (live in the example above) is in its base form (of the infinitive). The auxiliary DIDN'T shows that
the sentence is negative AND in the past tense.
NOTICE: The only difference between a negative sentence in the present tense and a negative sentence in the
past tense is the change in the auxiliary verb.
Both don't and doesn't in the present tense become didn't in the past tense.
Compare the negative sentences in the examples below:
Present: You don't need a mechanic.
Past: You didn't need a mechanic.
Present: You don't walk to work.
Past: You didn't walk to work.
Present: He doesn't speak Japanese.
Past: He didn't speak Japanese

Examples of negative sentences in the Past Tense

 I didn't want to go to the dentist.
 She didn't have time.
 You didn't close the door.
 He didn't come to my party.
 They didn't study so they didn't pass the test.
 We didn't sleep well last night.

Questions in the Past Tense

We use did to make a question in the past tense.
This is for regular AND irregular verbs in English.
(Exception is To Be and Modal Verbs such as Can)
Compare the following:
Present: Do they live in France?
Past: Did they live in France?
The main verb (live in the example above) is in its base form (of the infinitive). The auxiliary DID shows that the
question is in the past tense.
NOTICE: The only difference between a question in the present tense and a question in the past tense is the
change in the auxiliary verb.
Both Do and Does in present tense questions become Didn't in past tense questions.
Compare the questions in the examples below:
Present: Do you need a doctor?
Past: Did you need a doctor?
Present: Do you ride your bike to work?
Past: Did you ride your bike to work?
Present: Does he live in Italy?
Past: Did he live in Italy?
We can also use a question word (Who, What, Why etc.) before DID to ask for more information.

 Did you study? – Yes, I did.

 When did you study? – I studied last night.
 Where did you study? – I studied at the library.

Read more about short answers in the past tense.

Examples of Questions in the Past Tense

 Did you go to work yesterday?
 Did they arrive on time?
 Did she like the surprise?
 Where did she go?
 What did you do yesterday?
 What did you say? - I didn't say anything.
 Why did we have to come?

Irregular Verbs in the Past Tense

Irregular verbs are ONLY irregular in affirmative/positive sentences.
(An exception to this is with the verb TO BE in the Past Tense).
For example: The past tense of GO is WENT.
It does not end in –ED so it is considered irregular.
The word went is used for all subjects – I, you, we, they, he, she, it.

 I went to the beach

 He went to the park.
 She went to the zoo.
 They went to the library.

BUT, as we mentioned before, it is only in its irregular form (went) in sentences that are affirmative/positive.
Compare the following using GO in the past tense.

 They went to the beach

 They didn't go to the beach --- Didn't shows that we are talking in the past tense.
 Did they go to the beach? --- Did shows that we are talking in the past tense.

Another example with an irregular verb.

The past of EAT is ATE.

 You ate my cake.

 You didn't eat my cake.
 Did you eat my cake?
 Past Tense Irregular Verbs List

Part One
The following is a list of Irregular Verbs in English:

Verb Past Simple Past Participle

arise arose arisen

babysit babysat babysat
be was / were been
beat beat beaten
become became become
bend bent bent
begin began begun
bet bet bet
bind bound bound
bite bit bitten
bleed bled bled
blow blew blown
break broke broken
breed bred bred
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast broadcast
build built built
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cost cost cost
cut cut cut
deal dealt dealt
dig dug dug
do did done
draw drew drawn
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
fly flew flown
forbid forbade forbidden
forget forgot forgotten
forgive forgave forgiven
freeze froze frozen
got (BrE)
get got
gotten (AmE)
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
hang* hung hung
have had had
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie ** lay lain
light lit lit
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
pay paid paid
put put put
quit quit quit
read *** read read
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
shake shook shaken
shine shone shone
shoot shot shot
show showed shown
 shut shut shut
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid
speak spoke spoken
spend spent spent
spin spun spun
spread spread spread
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
strike struck struck
swear swore sworn
sweep swept swept
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
understand understood understood
wake woke woken
wear wore worn
win won won
withdraw withdrew withdrawn
write wrote written

* HANG - Hang has two different meanings. The first is "to attach (or hang) something in a high position" (e.g.
on the wall or on a hook). In this case we use the above verbs Hang-Hung-Hung.
BUT when Hang means "to kill someone by putting a rope around someone's neck and leaving them in a high
position without any support", we use different verbs: Hang-Hanged-hanged. This verb is typical of public
executions in the past. (e.g. They hanged him in the main square.)
** LIE - Lie has two meanings. When it means "to put your body in a horizontal position" (normally on a bed) it
uses the Lie-Lay-Lain verbs.
BUT it is regular Lie-Lied-Lied when it has the other meaning of "not to say the truth".
*** READ - Even though they are written the same, the pronunciation is different in the Past Tense and Past
Participle form.
Part Two
The following verbs can be regular or irregular:

Verb Past Simple Past Participle

burn burned OR burnt burned OR burnt

dream dreamed OR dreamt dreamed OR dreamt
learn learned OR learnt learned OR learnt
smell smelled OR smelt smelled OR smelt

The second form (burnt, dreamt etc.) is more common in British English.

Part Three
Verbs that have the same form in Present, Past and Past Participle form:

Verb Past Simple Past Participle

bet bet bet

broadcast broadcast broadcast
cut cut cut
hit hit hit
hurt hurt hurt
let let let
put put put
quit quit quit
read read read
set set set
shut shut shut
spread spread spread
All of the verbs above are written and pronounced the same in the three forms EXCEPT for Read which is
written the same but pronounced differently.
 Plural Nouns
In general the plural of a noun is formed by adding -S to the noun.

Singular Plural
car cars
house houses
book books
bird birds
pencil pencils

However:
1. When the noun ends in S, SH, CH, X or Z*, we add -ES to the noun.

Singular Plural
kiss kisses
wish wishes
match matches
fox foxes
quiz quizzes*

 I have a box in my bedroom.

 I have three boxes in my bedroom.
* With words that end in Z sometimes we add an extra Z to the plural form of the word (such as with the plural
of quiz).

2. When the noun ends in a VOWEL + Y, we add -S to the noun.

Singular Plural
boy boys
holiday holidays
key keys
guy guys

3. When the noun ends in a CONSONANT + Y, we remove Y and add -IES to the noun.

Singular Plural
party parties
lady ladies
story stories
nanny nannies
city cities
4. If the noun ends in F or FE, we remove the F/FE and add -VES to the noun.

Singular Plural
life lives
leaf leaves
thief thieves
wife wives
Some exceptions: roof - roofs, cliff - cliffs, chief - chiefs, belief - beliefs, chef - chefs

5. If the noun ends in a CONSONANT + O, we normally add -ES to the noun.

Singular Plural
tomato tomatoes
potato potatoes
echo echoes
hero heroes
Some exceptions: piano - pianos, halo - halos, photo - photos
NOTE: Volcano has two correct forms of plural. Both volcanos and volcanoes are accepted.

6. There are a number of nouns that don't follow these rules. They are irregular and you need to learn them
individually because they don't normally have an S on the end.

Singular Plural
man men
woman women
child children
foot feet
tooth teeth
goose geese
mouse mice

 There is a child in the park.

 There are many children in the park.

7. There are some nouns in English that are the same in the singular and the plural.

Singular Plural
fish fish
sheep sheep
deer deer
moose moose
aircraft aircraft

 I can see a sheep in the field.

 I can see ten sheep in the field.
Sometimes you will hear the word fishes (especially in songs) though it is grammatically incorrect.
The next rules are a lot more advanced and even native speakers have difficulty with these. Unless you are an
advanced student, I wouldn't recommend learning them just now.

8. If the noun ends in IS, we change it to ES. Words that end in IS usually have a Greek root.

Singular Plural
analysis analyses
basis bases
crisis crises

9. If the noun ends in US, we change it to I. Words that end in US usually have a Latin root.

Singular Plural
cactus cacti
fungus fungi
stimulus stimuli
syllabus syllabi
Some exceptions: octupus - octupuses (because it is from Greek, not Latin), walrus - walruses
 Possessive Adjectives
Possessive adjectives are used to show possession or ownership of something. While we use them when we
refer to people, it is more in the sense of relationship than ownership.
The possessive adjectives in English are as follows:

The possessive adjective needs to agree with the possessor and not with the thing that is possessed.
Examples

 My car is very old.

 Her boyfriend is very friendly.
 Our dog is black.
 Their homework is on the table.
Like all adjectives in English, they are always located directly in front of the noun they refer to. (Possessive
Adjective + Noun)
We do not include an S to the adjective when the noun is plural like in many other languages.
Examples:

 Our cars are expensive. (Correct)

Ours cars are expensive. (Incorrect)
However, the verb that is used needs to be in agreement with the noun - if the noun is singular then the verb is
singular; if the noun is plural then the verb is plural.
Examples:

 My pen is black. (Singular)

My pens are black. (Plural)
 Our child is intelligent. (Singular)
Our children are intelligent. (Plural)

Its vs. It's

Be careful not to confuse its and it's.
Its = The possessive adjective for It.
It's = a contraction of it is.
 Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns are used in English to avoid repeating information that is already clear. In general it
makes the sentence less confusing because the same information is not being repeated.
This book is my book, not your book. (Sounds repetitive)
This book is mine, not yours. (Mine and yours are possessive pronouns)
In the sentence, mine is a possessive pronoun that replaces my book.
In the sentence, yours is a possessive pronoun that replaces your book.
The possessive pronouns in English are as follows:

Possessive
Subject
Pronouns
I Mine
You Yours
He His
She Hers
It --- *
We Ours
You (pl) Yours
They Theirs
* We avoid using the possessive pronoun ITS.
Examples:

 I didn't have my umbrella so Marta lent me hers.

(I didn't have my umbrella so Marta lent me her umbrella).
 Her car is faster than mine.
(Her car is faster than my car).
 That food is ours and not theirs.
(That food is our food and not their food).
 I know this drink is yours but I need to drink something.
(I know this drink is your drink but I need to drink something).
Remember that with possessive pronouns there are no apostrophes (').
Of yours
It is also very common to say a friend/some friends + of + possessive pronouns.

 I saw one of your friends last night.

I saw a friend of yours last night.
Both of these sentences are correct and both common in English.

Yours faithfully - Yours sincerely

Yours is also used in English with faithfully or sincerely at the end of a formal letter or e-mail. The two common
expressions are:

 Yours faithfully (If it someone that you don't know)

 Yours sincerely (If it is someone that you know)
 Present Tense - Third Person
Normally in the present tense we add S to the end of the verb in the 3rd person (He, She, It).

Verb 3rd Person

Speak Speaks
Play Plays
Give Gives
Make Makes

 He speaks three languages.

 She drinks coffee every morning.
 My dog hates my cat.

Irregular Verbs
Irregular verbs in English in the present tense follow very simple rules. The only change that is made to these
verbs is in the third person – for He, She or It.
1. If the verb ends in SS, X, CH, SH or the letter O, we add + ES in the third person.

Verb 3rd Person

Kiss Kisses
Fix Fixes
Watch Watches
Crash Crashes
Go Goes

 A mechanic fixes cars.

 She watches soap operas every afternoon.
 He kisses his wife before he goes to work.

2. If the verb ends in a Consonant + Y, we remove the Y and + IES in the third person.

Verb 3rd Person

Carry Carries
Hurry Hurries
Study Studies
Deny Denies

 Isabel studies every night.

 The baby cries all the time.
 He denies all responsibility.

Negative Sentence
To form the negative we use the auxiliary do not. Again, the only variation occurs in the 3rd person where we
use does not.
 Positive Negative
I talk I do not talk
She talks She does not talk
You sleep You do not sleep
He sleeps He does not sleep
Carol studies Carol does not study
We study We do not study

In the negative, the main verb is always in the bare infinitive (without TO). It doesn't change for the third
person. We don't put an S on the end of the verb in the negative form. In the examples above - talk, sleep and
study do not change in the 3rd person.

 He speaks Italian
He doesn't speak Italian.
Remember: Do not can be abbreviated to Don't and Does not can be abbreviated to Doesn't.
 Present Tense vs Progressive Tense
Simple Present Tense
We use the simple present tense:
1. For facts

 Whales live in the ocean.

 Aconcagua is the highest mountain in Latin America.
 The flight from Chile to Australia is thirteen hours.
2. For repeated or regular actions

 Flights to Buenos Aires leave every hour.

 I eat breakfast at the table.
 We work every day of the week.
3. For habits

 I brush my teeth three times a day.

 He only drinks Martinis.
 We celebrate Christmas on the twenty-fifth of December.
4. For things that are generally true in the present time period:

 Boca Juniors is the best team in Argentina at the moment.

 She is my girlfriend.
 We study English.

Present Progressive Tense

We use the present progressive tense:
1. When somebody is doing something at this moment.

 Sarah is changing her clothes right now.

 Her boyfriend is waiting for her.
 We are learning the progressive tense in English.
2. When something is happening at this moment. When the action has started but hasn't finished.

 It is snowing at the moment.

 The economy is growing at an exponential rate.
 The children are sleeping, so please be quiet.
3. To talk about something that is happening around the time of speaking but not necessarily at that exact
moment.

 Alfredo is studying a lot for his exam.

 I'm reading a great book. (not necessary right at this moment)
 We are planning a trip to Jamaica.
Present vs. Progressive Tense
A significant difference between these two tenses is we use the simple present tense for things that are
permanent or are in general and the present progressive tense for things that may change or are temporary.
Compare:

Permanent Temporary
Simon lives in Birmingham. Simon is living with his friends for now.
James smokes. James is smoking in the kitchen.
We walk to work. We're walking in the park.
I speak English. I am speaking English right now.

Verbs that we don't use in the Progressive Tense

Another difference is that there are some verbs in English that we don't use in the progressive tense. These
include:
Belong - Cost - Hate - Have (possession) - Hear - Know - Like - Love - Need - Own - Remember - Seem -
Smell - Understand - Want

Different Meanings
In questions the same verb can change the meaning depending on if it is in the present or the present
progressive tense.

Differences in meaning of verb

Statement Meaning
What do you do? What is your job?
What are you doing? What are you doing at the moment?
What do you read? What do you like to read?
What are you reading? What are you reading right now?
 Present vs Progressive vs Past Tense
Present Tense
We use the present tense:
1. For facts.

 A square has four equal sides.

 Copenhagen is the capital of Denmark.

2. For repeated or regular actions in the present time period.

 Flights to Buenos Aires leave every thirty minutes.

 The bells of the town clock ring every hour.

3. For habits

 I brush my teeth every morning.

 He goes to the gym after work.

4. For things that are generally true in the present time period.

 Manchester United is the best team in European football at the moment.

 My friend lives in San Francisco.

We use the present tense when the beginning or ending of an action, event or condition is unknown or
unimportant to the meaning of the sentence.

Progressive Tense
We use the present progressive tense:
1. When somebody is doing something at the moment.

 Carla is washing her hair.

 Christian is playing table-tennis.

2. When something is happening at the moment.

 It is snowing at the moment.

 The Christmas sales are happening as we speak.

3. To talk about something that is happening around the time of speaking but not necessarily at that
exact moment.

 My brother is learning how to play the violin at school.

 Computers are becoming smaller and faster all the time.

A sentence in the Present Continuous indicates that the action, event or condition is ongoing. It is happening at
this point in time and emphasizing the continuing nature of an act, event or condition.
Past Tense
The Past Tense is used:
1. To indicate that an action, event or condition has started and finished. It can be included with a time
reference (for more information) or without.

 They went to the beach.

 Peter slept for ten hours.

2. To talk about something which was true in the past.

 Kyoto was the capital of Japan for 1100 years.

 Margaret Thatcher was the Prime Minister of Great Britain.

3. When we are talking about a particular time in the past.

 I visited Egypt in 2000.

 Marta spoke to her sister last night.

It can be included with a time reference (for more information) or without it.

Comparing the Tenses

A sentence in the Present Continuous indicates that the action, event or condition is ongoing. It is happening at
this point in time and emphasizing the continuing nature of an act, event or condition.
A significant difference between the simple present tense and the Progressive Tense is:
We use the Simple Present Tense for things that are permanent
We use the Present Progressive for things that may change (are temporary).
Compare:

 Simon lives in Birmingham. (Permanent)

 Simon is living in Birmingham for six months. (Temporary)
 It rains a lot in winter (Permanent)
 It is raining outside (temporary)

Present I live in Chile Right now - Permanent

Progressive I am living in Chile For the moment - Temporary

Past I lived in Chile Happened in the past (not now)

Affirmative Negative Question

Present I live in Peru. I don't live in Peru. Do you live in Peru?

Progressive I'm living in Peru I'm not living in Peru. Are you living in Peru?
Past I lived in Peru. I didn't live in Peru. Did you live in Peru?
 Object Pronouns
The seven basic pronouns have one form when they are used as subjects and another form when they are
used as objects.
Subjects are what the sentence is about. (See more about Subject Pronouns)
Objects are what is affected by the action of the subject.

 I like orange juice. (I is the subject).

 I read books. (Books is the object as it is receiving the action).

PRONOUNS

Subject Pronoun Object Pronoun

I Me
You You
He Him
She Her
It It
We Us
You (plural) You
They Them

Object pronouns are used instead of nouns, usually because we already know what the object is. It makes the
sentence easier to read and understand and avoids repetition. We normally use object pronouns after a verb or
a preposition.

Examples

I like horses. Subject Pronoun

Horses don't like me. Object Pronoun
We talk to our neighbour. Subject Pronoun
She talks to us. Object Pronoun
They listen to the teacher. Subject Pronoun
She listens to them carefully. Object Pronoun
You speak very quickly. Subject Pronoun
We watch you on TV. Object Pronoun

The Object Pronoun - it

Be careful when using 'it' as an object pronoun because it is only in the correct context that it has meaning. It
needs to have already been mentioned or obvious to the listener what you are referring to. Compare;

 You are sitting on it! (The listener probably doesn't know what the speaker refers to).
 The letter is on the sofa. You are sitting on it! (It is obvious in the second sentence that the reference is
to the letter)
 Question Words in English
The most common question words in English are the following:

WHO
WHO is only used when referring to people. (= I want to know the person)

 Who is the best football player in the world?

 Who are your best friends?
 Who is that strange guy over there?

 WHERE
WHERE is used when referring to a place or location. (= I want to know the place)

 Where is the library?

 Where do you live?
 Where are my shoes?

WHEN
WHEN is used to refer to a time or an occasion. (= I want to know the time)

 When do the shops open?

 When is his birthday?
 When are we going to finish?

WHY
WHY is used to obtain an explanation or a reason. (= I want to know the reason)

 Why do we need a nanny?

 Why are they always late?
 Why does he complain all the time?

Normally the response begins with "Because..."

WHAT
WHAT is used to refer to specific information. (= I want to know the thing)

 What is your name?

 What is her favourite colour?
 What is the time?

WHICH
WHICH is used when a choice needs to be made. (= I want to know the thing between alternatives)

 Which dish did you order – the pizza or the pasta?

 Which day do you prefer for a meeting – today or tomorrow?
 Which is better - this one or that one?
HOW
HOW is used to describe the manner that something is done. (= I want to know the way)

 How do you cook lasagna?

 How does he know the answer?
 How can I learn English quickly?

With HOW there are a number of other expressions that are used in questions:
How much – refers to a quantity or a price (uncountable nouns)

 How much time do you have to finish the test?

 How much is the jacket on display in the window?
 How much money will I need?

How many – refers to a quantity (countable nouns)

 How many days are there in April?

 How many people live in this city?
 How many brothers and sister do you have?

Read more about How much vs. How many.

How often – refers to frequency

 How often do you visit your grandmother?

 How often does she study?
 How often are you sick?

How far – refers to distance

 How far is the university from your house?

 How far is the bus stop from here?
 Past Tense - Short Answers
As is the case with any verb tense in English, it is generally possible to give short answers to a question. This
is certainly the case for questions in the past tense.
If the question commences with one of the traditional question words such as WHO, WHERE, WHEN, WHY,
WHAT, WHICH or HOW, it requires a more detailed answer and it is not possible to give a short answer.
Examples of long answers
What did you do on the weekend?
- I went to a party with my friends.
(It is not possible to give a short answer to this question like 'Yes, I did').
Why did you call him?
- Because I needed to borrow his computer.
HOWEVER, if the question is more direct, and commences with a verb or Did, then it is generally possible to
give a short or a long answer to the question.
Examples
Was Chris at the party last night?
- Yes, he was. (short answer)
- Yes, Chris was at the party last night. (long answer)
Did you see Julie on the weekend?
- No, I didn't. (short answer)
- No, I didn't see Julie on the weekend. (long answer)
Could they speak Japanese?
- Yes, they could. (short answer)
- Yes, they could speak Japanese. (long answer)
As you can see, long answers usually sound repetitive and are not commonly used.
Short Answers with DID
Remember that if the question starts with DID, you can give a short answer using DID. It is not necessary to
use the main verb in the answer.
Examples
Did you sleep well last night?
Yes, I did / No, I didn't.
Did the airplane arrive on time?
Yes, it did / No, it didn't.
Did they remember your birthday?
Yes, they did / No, they did not.
Did your parents ring you last week?
Yes, they did / No, they didn't.
Did you lose your dog?
Yes, I did / No, I did not.

In questions that use DID it is possible to give short answers as follows:

Short Answer Short Answer

Sample Questions
(Affirmative) (Negative)
Did I pass the test? Yes, you did. No, you didn't.
Did you need a dictionary? Yes, I did. No, I didn't.
Did you both like the movie? Yes, we did. No, we didn't.
Did they finish their homework? Yes, they did. No, they didn't.
Did he have a good time? Yes, he did. No, he didn't.
Did she want to leave early? Yes, she did. No, she didn't.
Did it have blue buttons? Yes, it did. No, it didn't.
 Short Answers with Was / Were
In questions that use Was or Were it is possible to give short answers as follows:

Short Answer Short Answer

Sample Questions
(Affirmative)* (Negative)
Was I correct? Yes, you were. No, you weren't.
Were you busy yesterday? Yes, I was. No, I wasn't.
Were you both embarrassed? Yes, we were. No, we weren't.
Were they hungry? Yes, they were. No, they weren't.
Was he late again? Yes, he was. No, he wasn't.
Was she a good student? Yes, she was. No, she wasn't.
Was it ready? Yes, it was. No, it wasn't.
 Present Tense - Short Answers
Short Answers with Do and Does
In questions that use do/does it is possible to give short answers, to direct questions as follows:

Short Answer Short Answer

Sample Questions
(Affirmative) (Negative)

Do I need a ticket? Yes, you do. No, you don't.

Do you need a dictionary? Yes, I do. No, I don't.
Do you both speak English? Yes, we do. No, we don't.
Do they need help? Yes, they do. No, they don't.
Does he like chocolate? Yes, he does. No, he doesn't.
Does she want to come? Yes, she does. No, she doesn't.
Does it have four legs? Yes, it does. No, it doesn't.

Short Answers with To Be

In questions that use Is or Are it is possible to give short answers as follows:

Short Answer Short Answer

Sample Questions
(Affirmative) (Negative)

Am I early? Yes, you are. No, you aren't.

Are you busy now? Yes, I am. No, I'm not.
Are you both surprised? Yes, we are. No, we aren't.
Are they hungry? Yes, they are. No, they aren't.
Is he late again? Yes, he is. No, he isn't.
Is she a good student? Yes, she is. No, she isn't.
Is it ready? Yes, it is. No, it isn't.

In most cases, it is possible to give a short answer or a long answer to a question in English. In casual
conversation, short answers are much more common than long answers. Long answers are for more formal
conversations or if you want to give more information in your response.
Examples

 Do you like seafood?

- Yes, I do
- No, I don't.
 Can you speak German?
- Yes, I can
- No, I can't.
 Is there a hotel in this street?
- Yes, there is
- No, there isn't.
 Are they coming to the movies?
- Yes, they are
- No, they aren't.
If you look at the examples above you will notice that the answer uses the first verb in the question (even if it is
an auxiliary verb). This is a common characteristic of short answers in English. Contrast that to long answers to
each of those questions:

 Do you like seafood?

- Yes, I like seafood.
- No, I don't like seafood.
 Can you speak German?
- Yes, I can speak German.
- No, I can't speak German.
 Is there a hotel in this street?
- Yes, there is a hotel at the end of this street.
- No, there isn't a hotel in this street.
 Are they coming to the movies?
- Yes, they are coming to the movies.
- No, they are not coming to the movies.

You will notice that long answers often sound repetitive. A long answer to one of these questions would be
considered very formal in English, and in most cases, unnecessary.
Remember, when you are accepting or refusing something to say 'yes, please' or 'no, thank you'. It is much
more common to give short answers to questions like these:

 Would you like a beer?

Yes, please.
 Do you need any help?
No, thank you.
 Short Answers - To Be
With To Be it is possible to give a short answer or a long answer to a question in English though in casual
conversation, short answers are much more common than long answers. Long answers are for more formal
conversations or if you want to give more information in your response.
In questions that use Is or Are it is possible to give short answers as follows:

Short Answer Short Answer

Sample Questions
(Affirmative) (Negative)
Am I late? Yes, you are. No, you aren't.
Are you tired? Yes, I am. No, I'm not.
Are you both happy? Yes, we are. No, we aren't.
Are they thirsty? Yes, they are. No, they aren't.
Is he sick again? Yes, he is. No, he isn't.
Is she a good teacher? Yes, she is. No, she isn't.
Is it available? Yes, it is. No, it isn't.

Examples
Are you from Chile?
- Yes, I am. (= Yes, I am from Chile)
- No, I'm not. (= No, I am not from Chile)
Is he an engineer?
- Yes, he is. (= Yes, he is an engineer)
- No, he isn't. (= No, he isn't an engineer)
 Simple Present Tense
The simple present tense in English is used to describe an action that is regular, true or normal.
We use the present tense:
1. For repeated or regular actions in the present time period.

 I take the train to the office.

 The train to Berlin leaves every hour.
 John sleeps eight hours every night during the week.
2. For facts.

 The President of The USA lives in The White House.

 A dog has four legs.
 We come from Switzerland.
3. For habits.

 I get up early every day.

 Carol brushes her teeth twice a day.
 They travel to their country house every weekend.
4. For things that are always / generally true.

 It rains a lot in winter.

 The Queen of England lives in Buckingham Palace.
 They speak English at work.

Verb Conjugation & Spelling

We form the present tense using the base form of the infinitive (without the TO).
In general, in the third person we add 'S' in the third person.

Subject Verb The Rest of the sentence

I / you / we / they speak / learn English at home
he / she / it speaks / learns English at home
The spelling for the verb in the third person differs depending on the ending of that verb:
1. For verbs that end in -O, -CH, -SH, -SS, -X, or -Z we add -ES in the third person.

 go – goes
 catch – catches
 wash – washes
 kiss – kisses
 fix – fixes
 buzz – buzzes
2. For verbs that end in a consonant + Y, we remove the Y and add -IES.

 marry – marries
 study – studies
 carry – carries
 worry – worries
NOTE: For verbs that end in a vowel + Y, we just add -S.

 play – plays
 enjoy – enjoys
 say – says
Negative Sentences in the Simple Present Tense
To make a negative sentence in English we normally use Don't or Doesn't with all verbs EXCEPT To
Be and Modal verbs (can, might, should etc.).

 Affirmative: You speak French.

Negative: You don't speak French.
You will see that we add don't between the subject and the verb. We use Don't when the subject
is I, you, we or they.

 Affirmative: He speaks German.

Negative: He doesn't speak German.
When the subject is he, she or it, we add doesn't between the subject and the verb to make a negative
sentence. Notice that the letter S at the end of the verb in the affirmative sentence (because it is in third
person) disappears in the negative sentence. We will see the reason why below.

Negative Contractions
Don't = Do not
Doesn't = Does not
I don't like meat = I do not like meat.
There is no difference in meaning though we normally use contractions in spoken English.

Word Order of Negative Sentences

The following is the word order to construct a basic negative sentence in English in the Present Tense
using Don't or Doesn't.

Subject don't/doesn't Verb* The Rest of the sentence

I / you / we / they don't have / buy
cereal for breakfast
he / she / it doesn't eat / like etc.
* Verb: The verb that goes here is the base form of the infinitive = The infinitive without TO before the verb.
Instead of the infinitive To have it is just the have part.
Remember that the infinitive is the verb before it is conjugated (changed) and it begins with TO. For example:
to have, to eat, to go, to live, to speak etc.
Examples of Negative Sentences with Don't and Doesn't:

 You don't speak Arabic.

 John doesn't speak Italian.
 We don't have time for a rest.
 It doesn't move.
 They don't want to go to the party.
 She doesn't like fish.

Questions in the Simple Present Tense

To make a question in English we normally use Do or Does. It has no translation in Spanish though it is
essential to show we are making a question. It is normally put at the beginning of the question.

 Affirmative: You speak English.

Question: Do you speak English?
You will see that we add DO at the beginning of the affirmative sentence to make it a question. We
use Do when the subject is I, you, we or they.

 Affirmative: He speaks French.

Question: Does he speak French?
When the subject is he, she or it, we add DOES at the beginning to make the affirmative sentence a question.
Notice that the letter S at the end of the verb in the affirmative sentence (because it is in third person)
disappears in the question. We will see the reason why below.
We DON'T use Do or Does in questions that have the verb To Be or Modal Verbs (can, must, might, should
etc.)

Word Order of Questions with Do and Does

The following is the word order to construct a basic question in English using Do or Does.

Do/Does Subject Verb* The Rest of the sentence

Do I / you / we / they have / need
a new bike?
Does he / she / it want etc.
*Verb: The verb that goes here is the base form of the infinitive = The infinitive without TO before the verb.
Instead of the infinitive To have it is just the have part.
Remember that the infinitive is the verb before it is conjugated (changed) and it begins with TO. For example:
to have, to eat, to go, to live, to speak etc.
Examples of Questions with Do and Does:

 Do you need a dictionary?

 Does Mary need a dictionary?
 Do we have a meeting now?
 Does it rain a lot in winter?
 Do they want to go to the party?
 Does he like pizza?

Short Answers with Do and Does

In questions that use do/does it is possible to give short answers to direct questions as follows:

Short Answer Short Answer

Sample Questions
(Affirmative) (Negative)
Do you like chocolate? Yes, I do. No, I don't.
Do I need a pencil? Yes, you do. No, you don't.
Do you both like chocolate? Yes, we do. No, we don't.
Do they like chocolate? Yes, they do. No, they don't.
Does he like chocolate? Yes, he does. No, he doesn't.
Does she like chocolate? Yes, she does. No, she doesn't.
Does it have four wheels? Yes, it does. No, it doesn't.
However, if a question word such as who, when, where, why, which or how is used in the question, you can
not use the short answers above to respond to the question.
 Spelling -ED Ending Rules
The following is a guide to the correct spelling of words ending -ED.
Remember: Not all words that end in -ED are verbs in the past tense. Sometimes they are Past Participles or
they could even be Adjectives ending in -ED. For now we will mostly use verbs in the Past Tense as examples
though the same rules apply to all words ending in -ED
The general rule when changing a word (or verb) into its -ED form is just to add -ED to the end of it.

Infinitive ED form
to play played
to wait waited
to work worked
to rain rained

 He played with his dog in the backyard.

 I waited for them to invite me.
 She worked until late last night.
 It rained all day.

Spelling Exceptions
The following exceptions exist when spelling words ending in ED:
1). If a word ends in an E we just add the D to the end.

Infinitive ED form
to live lived
to love loved
to smile smiled
to dance danced

 I lived in Japan for two years and then moved to Thailand.

 I loved the surprise you had for me.
 He smiled when he saw his wife come through the door.
 They danced until their feet hurt.
2). If the word ends in a Consonant + Vowel + Consonant, we double the final consonant and add ED.

Infinitive ED form
to stop stopped
to admit admitted
to plan planned
to refer referred
to commit committed

 The policeman stopped the thief from escaping.

 He admitted that he was wrong.
 We planned a surprise birthday party for our friend.
 I referred the students to the website where they could practice some more.
 They committed a serious crime and will end up in jail.
3). If a two-syllable verb ends in a Consonant + Vowel + Consonant, we DO NOT double the final consonant
when the stress is on the FIRST syllable.
 Infinitive ED form
to happen happened
to enter entered
to offer offered
to suffer suffered

 What happened?
 I entered through the back door.
 She was offered a new position with a higher salary.
 Many people are suffered from a lack of food and water.
4). BUT, we DO NOT double the final consonant when the word ends in W, X or Y or when the final syllable is
not stressed.

Infinitive ED form
to fix fixed
to enjoy enjoyed
to snow snowed

 He fixed his bike.

 We enjoyed our time in the North of Chile.
 It snowed yesterday.
5). If the verb ends in consonant + vowel + L, we normally double the final L and add ED.
Note: In the United States (US) they DO NOT double the L when the accent is on the first syllable.

ED form ED form
Infinitive
(UK) (US)
to travel travelled traveled
to marvel marveled marveled

 I traveled around South America in 2012.

 Her beauty marveled us.
 Spelling Rules -ING
The following is a guide to the correct spelling of –ing forms of verbs and gerunds.
The general rule when changing a verb into its -ING form is just to add -ING to the end of the verb.

Infinitive ING form

to feel feeling
to go going
to work working
to sleep sleeping

 She wasn't feeling very well.

 He is working on a new project.
 The children are sleeping so be quiet.

Spelling exceptions
The following exceptions exist when spelling words ending in ING:
1). If the verb ends in an E we remove the E and add ING.

Infinitive ING form

to live living
to have having
to make making
to take taking

 People are living longer now than they were 100 years ago.
 We are making a chocolate cake.
 He was taking his time to get ready.
2). If the verb ends in a consonant + vowel + consonant, we double the final consonant and add ING.

Infinitive ING form

to stop stopping
to sit sitting
to plan planning
to get getting
to swim swimming

 The policeman is stopping the traffic.

 We are planning a surprise party for our teacher.
 I think I am getting a cold.
3). If a two-syllable verb ends in a consonant + vowel + consonant, we do not double the final consonant when
the stress is on the first syllable.
 Infinitive ING form
to happen happening
to enter entering
to offer offering
to suffer suffering

 What is happening?
 They are offering a discount.
 Many people are suffering from a lack of food and water.
4). But, we do not double the final consonant when the verb ends in W, X or Y or when the final syllable is not
emphasized.

Infinitive ING form

to fix fixing
to enjoy enjoying
to snow snowing

 He fixing his bike.

 We are enjoying this great weather.
 It's snowing outside.
5). If the verb ends in IE we change it to YING.

Infinitive ING form

to lie lying
to die dying
to tie tying

 I know you are lying to me!

 You should water your plant more because I think it is dying.
 The little boy is tying his shoelaces.
6). If the verb ends in consonant + vowel + L, we normally double the final L and add ING.
Note: In the United States (US) they do not double the L when the accent is on the first syllable.

ING form ING form

Infinitive
(UK) (US)
to travel travelling traveling
to marvel marvelling marveling

 I have been travelling around South America for 6 months.

 He was marvelling at her beauty.
7). If the verb ends in a stressed vowel + R, we double the final R and add ING.

Infinitive ING form

refer referring
defer deferring

 Are you referring to this one or that one?

  They are thinking of deferring payment of their mortgage.
8). If the verb ends in an unstressed vowel + R, we do not double the final R and add ING.

Infinitive ING form

to offer offering
to suffer suffering
to whisper whispering

 I am offering you a special deal.

 He is now suffering the consequences of his actions.
 I wonder what he is whispering in her ear.
 There is - There are

We use there is and there are to say that something exists.

Positive Sentences
We use there is for singular and there are for plural.

 There is one table in the classroom.

 There are three chairs in the classroom.
 There is a spider in the bath.
 There are many people at the bus stop.
We also use There is with uncountable nouns:

 There is milk in the fridge.

 There is some sugar on the table.
 There is ice cream on your shirt.

Contractions
The contraction of there is is there's.

 There's a good song on the radio.

 There's only one chocolate left in the box.
You cannot contract there are.

 There are nine cats on the roof.

 There are only five weeks until my birthday.

Negative Form
The negative is formed by putting not after is or are:

 There is not a horse in the field.

 There are not eight children in the school.
  There is not a tree in the garden.
 There are not two elephants in the zoo.
We almost always use contractions when speaking.
The Negative contractions are:

 There's not = There isn't

 There are not = There aren't

There aren't with ANY

When we want to indicate that a zero quantity of something exists we use there aren't any.

 There aren't any people at the party.

 There aren't any trees in my street.
We also use this structure with uncountable nouns:

 There isn't any water in the swimming pool.

 There isn't any sugar in my coffee.

Questions
To form a question we place is / are in front of there.
Again we use any with plural questions or those which use uncountable nouns.
We also use there is / are in short answers.

 Is there a dog in the supermarket? - No, there isn't.

 Are there any dogs in the park? - Yes, there are.
 Is there a security guard in the shop? - Yes, there is.
 Are there any polar bears in Antarctica? - No, there aren't.
 Is there any ice-cream in the freezer? - Yes, there is.

How Many with Are There

If we want to find out the number of objects that exist we use How many in the following form:
How many + plural noun + are there (+ complement).

 How many dogs are there in the park?

 How many students are there in your class?
 How many countries are there in South America?
 How many Star Wars films are there?
 There vs Their vs They're
Common Mistakes
A common mistake not only for students learning English but also for native speakers is the difference
between There, Their and They're in written English.
This happens because both words sound the same when they are spoken.
Words that sound the same but have different meanings (and sometimes spelling) are called homophones.
Therefore they're, their and there are Homophones.
Which words would make the following sentence correct?

 They're/Their/There playing they're/their/there video games over they're/their/there.

The answer appears at the end of the post so let's learn the rules meanwhile.

What is the difference between There, Their and They're?

THERE
There is the opposite of Here. It means 'in that place' not here.

 A: Where is my book? – B: It's over there.

 I will look for a hotel to stay when I arrive there.
There is/There are = to show that something exists.

 There is a book on the table

 There are many countries in Europe.

THEIR
Their is a possessive adjective which is used before a noun. It shows possession, that something belongs to
them.

 Their house is big.

 All of their friends were crazy.
 The children put their books in their school bags.

THEY'RE
They're is a contraction of they are.
e.g. They're happy = They are happy
They're is usually before an adjective or a verb ending in ING.

 They're very interested in the project.

 I personally think they';re crazy!
 They're singing loudly.

Example sentence...
So now you know the difference let's try the original question:

 They're/Their/There playing they're/their/there video games over they're/their/there.

The answer is:

 They're playing their video games over there.

Why?
They're playing (they're is used before a verb ending in -ing making it the progressive tense)
Their video games (their is a possessive used before a noun to show possession)
Over there (there because it means not here, in that place)

Here is a chart we have created to show you more about the difference:
 This - That - These -Those
- Demonstratives
This, That, These, Those are called demonstratives and they are used to show the relative distance
between the speaker and the noun.

Demonstrative Pronouns
We use this (singular) and these (plural) to refer to something that is here / near.
Examples:

 This is my car. (singular)

 These are our children. (plural)

We use that (singular) and those (plural) to refer to something that is there / far.
Examples:

 That is our house. (singular)

 Those are my shoes. (plural)

Note that the verb changes (i.e. singular / plural) depending on the pronoun that you use.
You can also use Demonstrative Pronouns by themselves:

 Did you do that?

 I'd like to buy these?
 Which of those would you like?

Demonstrative Adjectives
You can also use demonstratives before a noun. These are called demonstrative adjectives.
The Demonstrative Adjective needs to agree (= be the same form) as the noun.
Examples of demonstrative adjectives:

 This party is boring. (singular)

 That city is busy. (singular)
 These chocolates are delicious. (plural)
 Those flowers are beautiful. (plural)

What is the difference between Demonstrative Adjectives

and Demonstrative Pronouns?
Demonstrative Adjectives and Demonstrative Pronouns use the same words. The easiest way to know that
difference is that Demonstrative Adjectives are always before a noun while Demonstrative Pronouns are before
a verb or by themselves.

 This book is old. (Demonstrative Adjective + Noun)

 This is new. (Demonstrative Pronoun + Verb)
 Did you like that? (Demonstrative Pronoun by itself)
Everything else is the same. For example, both Demonstrative Ajectives and Pronouns use the word THIS
(singular) to talk about something that is close to you and the plural of THIS is THESE.

Present vs. Past

If an action is near in time we tend to use this / these.
If an action has finished or is in the past we use that / those.
Examples:

 This is a good meal. (at the time of eating)

 Those girls we met last night were silly. (an event that happened in the past).

This is
The expression this is is commonly used when you talk on the phone or you introduce people.
Examples:

 "Hello, this is Peter."

 Carol, this is my friend Simon. Simon, this is Carol.
 Where + To Be
WHERE is a question word that is used to ask about a place or location.
(= I want to know the place, position or location)
The following table shows you the word order of questions with Where when it is used with To Be.

Where To Be Subject Example Answers

Where am I? You're in the hospital.
Where are you ? I'm at work.
Where is he ? He's at home.
Where is she ? She's in the store.
Where is it ? It's on the table.
Where are we ? You're at my new job
Where are you ? We're at school.
Where are they ? They're at university.

You can also ask where things or places are:

Where To Be Subject Example Answers

Where is my book ? It's on the table.
Where are my books ? They're on the desk.
Remember:
Is + singular word
Are + plural word.

Other examples of Where + To Be

 Where is the Statue of Liberty? It's in New York.
 Where is the Eiffel Tower? It's in Paris.
 Where are your parents right now? They're on holiday.
 Where is your favorite restaurant? It's downtown.
 Your vs You're
A common mistake not only for students learning English but also for native speakers is the difference
between Yourand You're in written English.
This happens because both words sound the same when they are spoken.

What is the difference between Your and You're?

The most simple explanation is that:
Your = a possessive adjective. It shows possession, that something belongs to the person you are talking to.
e.g. This is not my pen, it is your pen.
You're = You are. It is a contraction (or short way of writing). e.g. You're crazy = You are crazy
Here is a chart we have created to show you more about the difference how to know when you are using the
correct one:
 Zero Conditional
When we are thinking about facts which are generally true, we use:

If + Present Simple, Present Simple

 If you put water in the freezer, it becomes ice.
 If you stand in the rain, you get wet.
 If you heat ice, it melts.
You can see in the examples about the the condition always has the same result.
Notice how we use a comma after the first present simple tense clause.
We can also reverse the order and use:

Present Simple + If + Present Simple

 You get wet if you stand in the rain.
 Ice melts if you heat it.
 I can't sleep if I drink coffee at night.
 Plants die if you don't water them.
Notice how the comma is not necessary with this word order.
INTERMEDIATE
 Adjectives ending in ED and ING
There are many adjectives that we have in English that end in -ED or -ING.
Yes, that's correct, they are not only endings that we use for verbs!
An adjective that ends in -ING is used to describe: the characteristic of a person, a thing or a situation.
An adjective that ends in -ED is used to describe: a feeling (or how a person feels) or an emotion. It is used to
describe a temporary thing. Since only people (and some animals) have feelings, -ed adjectives cannot be
used to describe an object or situation.
Compare the difference:

 My girlfriend is bored. - (My girlfriend feels bored)

 My girlfriend is boring. - (My girlfriend is a boring person)
You can use these adjectives to describe people or situations but be careful that you are using the correct
adjective. For example, there is a big difference in meaning between:

 I am confused. - (I don't understand something)

 I am confusing. - (I will cause you to be confused)
Note that the sentences below are to highlight the difference between the two types of adjectives. They are
NOT common to do or say because they sound repetitive.

 I was shocked by how shocking the accident was last night.

 They were frightened by the frightening roller-coaster ride!
 I am annoyed by how annoying that person in front of us is.
 Sally was confused by the confusing street signs in the city.
 Example sentences of adjectives ending in -ED and -
ING
 This grammar lesson is boring. I am bored reading all about these grammar rules.
 I am tired right now. My flight was tiring (because it was a twelve-hour flight).
 Public toilets are usually disgusting. I am disgusted by the smell in some of them.
 Your speech was very inspiring. I am now inspired to do wonderful things with my life.
 List of Adjectives ending in -ED and -ING
There is quite a long list of adjectives ending in -ED and -ING in English, and most of them are based on a
verb that can be changed into an adjective by adding either -ED or -ING.
Some of the more common ones include:

 Alarmed - Alarming
 Aggravated - Aggravating
 Amused - Amusing
 Annoyed - Annoying
 Astonished - Astonishing
 Astounded - Astounding
 Bored - Boring
 Captivated - Captivating
 Challenged - Challenging
 Charmed - Charming
 Comforted - Comforting
 Confused - Confusing
 Convinced - Convincing
 Depressed - Depressing
 Disappointed - Disappointing
 Discouraged - Discouraging
 Disgusted - Disgusting
 Distressed - Distressing
 Disturbed - Disturbing
 Embarrassed - Embarrassing
 Encouraged - Encouraging
 Entertained - Entertaining
 Excited - Exciting
 Exhausted - Exhausting
 Fascinated - Fascinating
 Frightened - Frightening
 Frustrated - Frustrating
 Fulfilled - Fulfilling
 Gratified - Gratifying
 Inspired - Inspiring
 Insulted - Insulting
 Interested - Interesting
 Moved - Moving
 Overwhelmed - Overwhelming
 Perplexed - Perplexing
 Pleased - Pleasing
 Relaxed - Relaxing
 Relieved - Relieving
 Satisfied - Satisfying
 Shocked - Shocking
 Sickened - Sickening
 Soothed - Soothing
 Surprised - Surprising
 Tempted - Tempting
 Terrified - Terrifying
 Threatened - Threatening
 Thrilled - Thrilling
 Tired - Tiring
 Touched - Touching
 Troubled - Troubling
 Unsettled - Unsettling
 Worried - Worrying
 Adjectives - Word Order
An adjective is a word that describes something (a noun) or someone (a person).
Adjectives sometimes appear after the verb To Be

 He is short.
 She is tall.

Adjectives sometimes appear before a noun.

 Red car
 Old hat

BUT… Sometimes you want to use more than one adjective to describe something (or someone).
What happens if a hat is both old AND ugly?
Do we say… an ugly old hat OR an old ugly hat?
An ugly old hat is correct because a certain order for adjectives is expected
(Note, you may hear the other version old ugly hat, though it doesn't sound natural)
So what is the correct order of adjectives when we put them before a noun or the thing they describe?
Here is a chart that shows the main word order for adjectives in English:

IMPORTANT: The order of adjectives before a noun IS NOT FIXED.

This chart is only offered as a guide and is the order that is preferred.
You may see or hear slight variations of the order of adjectives in real life though what appears in the chart
above is order that is expected the most.
Let's look at each type of adjective in more detail (with examples)…
Types of Adjectives
Before the adjectives you will normally have the Determiner.
Determiner: The determiner tells us if the noun is singular or plural, definite or indefinite

 a, an, the, my, your, four, those, some etc

And then we have the adjectives that refer to…

Opinion: Explains what we think about something. This is usually our opinion, attitude or observations. These
adjectives almost always come before all other adjectives.

 beautiful, boring, stupid, delicious, useful, lovely, comfortable

Size: Tells us how big or small something is.

 big, small, tall, huge, tiny

Shape / Weight / Length: Tells about the shape of something or how long or short it is. It can also refer to the
weight of someone or something.

 round, square, circular, skinny, fat, heavy, straight, long, short,

Condition: Tells us the general condition or state of something

 broken, cold, hot, wet, hungry, rich, easy, difficult, dirty

Age: Tells us how old someone or something is.

 old, young, new, ancient, antique

Colour: The colour or approximate colour of something.

 green, white, blue, reddish, purple

Pattern: The pattern or design of something.

 striped, spotted, checked, flowery

Origin: Tells us where something is from.

 American, British, Italian, eastern, Australian, Chilean

Material: What is the thing made of or constructed of?

 gold, wooden, silk, paper, synthetic, cotton, woollen

Purpose/Qualifier/Use: What is it for? These adjectives often end in –ing.

 sleeping (bag), gardening (gloves), shopping (bag), wedding (dress)

If you look at the examples above, you can ask… what are the gloves used for? (gardening) What is the bag
used for? (shopping)
And after these we adjectives we have the…
Noun: The person or thing that is being described

Examples of the order of adjectives before a noun

Something to have in mind is that it does not sound natural using three or more adjectives in the same
sentence and it is very rare to hear four adjectives together before a noun.

 A big fat dog.

 An interesting old Indian rug.
 A striped silk shirt
 Some comfortable black sleeping bags
 Four small round wooden tables
 Those funny little old men
 Adverbs
Adverbs describe verbs (actions). They give more detail about the action.

 My cat eats slowly.

Slowly is an adverb since it describes the way my cat eats.

How does my cat eat? Slowly.
Adverbs will generally answer the question 'How'.
Some adverbs are used to modify an adjective.
Adverbs that do this are: very, extremely, really, totally, absolutely, quite, fairly, well. These are normally placed
before the adjective.

 It was very hot yesterday.

 He is totally crazy.

Types of Adverbs
There are many types of adverbs, such as:
Adverbs of Frequency - always, sometimes, never, once a week, hourly, etc.
Adverbs of Manner - carefully, slowly, loudly
Adverbs of Time - tomorrow, now, this year, next week, soon, then
Adverbs of Place/Location - here, there, above, everywhere
Adverbs of Degree - very, extremely, rather, almost, nearly, too, quite
Adverbs of Quantity - a few, a lot, much
Adverbs of Attitude - fortunately, apparently, clearly

Adverbs Word Order

Adverbs are usually placed after the verb:

 He speaks clearly.

When there is an object, the adverb is usually placed after the verb + object:

 I put the vase carefully on the table.

However, adverbs are never positioned between the verb and the object.

 I read the book quickly. - (Correct)

I read quickly the book. - (Incorrect)

Sometimes adverbs are placed at the beginning of a clause.

 Quickly, I changed my opinion.

There are exceptions these rules such as Adverbs of indefinite frequency that go before the verb. See each
section we have about adverbs for more details and exceptions.
 Adverbs vs. Adjectives
Adjectives
Adjectives describe nouns (things).

 My dog is slow.

Slow is an adjective since it describes the noun (my dog).

 How is my dog? Slow

Adverbs
Adverbs describe verbs (actions).

 My dog eats slowly.

Slowly is an adverb since it describes the way my dog eats.

 How does my dog eat? Slowly.

Some adverbs are used to modify an adjective.

Adverbs that do this are: very, extremely, really, totally, absolutely, quite, fairly, well. These are normally placed
before the adjective.

 He is very rich.
 They are extremely happy.
 She was totally crazy.
 My dog is well trained.

Adverbs and Adjectives with the same form

There are a number of adjectives / adverbs that take the same form. It therefore depends on the sentence
context as to whether it is an adjective or an adverb.
The adjectives / adverbs that take the same form include:
fast, hard, early, late, high, low, right, wrong, straight and long.

 Adam has a fast car. (Adjective)

 Adam speaks fast. (Adverb)

Good vs. Well

Good and Well are two words that tend to create confusion for learners of English.
Good is an adjective
Well is an adverb.

 She is a good singer.

 She sings well.

Though sometimes we use well as an adjective when we are talking about health and well-being.
  A: How are you today?
B: I'm well, thanks.

(I'm well is a better and more common answer to this question than 'Fine' or 'Good', although these are also
reasonably common.)
 All - Every - Each
The difference between All, Every, and Each - Quick
Explanation
All means the total number of people or things considered as a group.
Every means all members of a group considered individually.
Each means all members of a group considered individually though we think of them more one by one.

What is the difference between Each and Every?

Both Each and Every generally have the same meaning. They refer to all members of a group considered
individually. Every is closer in meaning to All than Each is.

 Every book in the course must be read before the end of the semester.
 Each book in the course must be read before the end of the semester.

(= This book and that book and that book etc. of the group of books) We use each when we think of them
more as one by one. There is a little less emphasis on the individual with Every when comparing it to Each.
However notice that every cannot be used when referring to two things and is not common with small
numbers.

 Every (one) of my parents (incorrect)

 Each of my parents (correct)

We cannot use Each with the words Almost or Nearly. Here we use Every.

 Almost each car pollutes the atmosphere. (incorrect)

 Almost every car pollutes the atmosphere. (correct)

More details about Every, Each and All…

-- EVERY --
Every refers to all members of a group though considered individually. It can be used to talk about three or
more people/things.

Every + singular noun

The noun that comes after Every is in singular form.

 I have visited every country in South America (we do NOT say: every countries)
 I can understand every word our teacher says. (we do NOT say: every words)

Note, when you use every + noun as a subject, it uses a singular verb (verb + s)

 Every day is a chance to learn something new.

 Every child needs love and care.
 Every house on the street looks the same.
Every + number + plural noun
Every can be followed by a plural noun when there is a number before that noun. This is common with
periods of time or things at regular intervals.

 He gets his head shaved every three weeks.

 You need to take a break every two hours.

We can also use every without a number and a singular noun to refer to regular intervals:

 He plays football every Saturday.

 She goes to the gym every day.

-- EACH --
Each refers to all members of a group though we think of them more one by one (individually). Each can be
used to talk about two or more people/things.

Each + singular countable noun

You use a singular (countable) noun after the word Each.

 Make sure you enjoy each moment in your life.

 They play the national anthem of each country before the game begins.
 Live each day as if it were your last.

Each + one
One can be used to replace the singular countable noun if it has already been mentioned.

 A: What do I have to do with these antique vases? B: You need to take each one out of the box very
carefully. (each one = each vase)

Each of + determiner + plural noun

Each can be followed by a determiner (my, his, the, etc.) and a plural noun.

 I kiss each of my children before they go to bed at night.

 The teacher had a little kid holding on to each of her hands.
 Each of the guides has a different group to show around the museum.

Notice how after each of the verb is usually in singular form though when speaking informally, you will
sometimes hear a plural verb used.

 Each of my students has a different assignment to complete. (correct use)

 Each of my students have a different assignment to complete. (informal use)

Each of + pronoun (you/us/them)

We can only use the pronouns you/us/them after each of.

 He gave each of us a small gift at the end of the course.

 You need to wash each of them before use.
 Each of you needs to complete the assignment individually.
Again the verb following each of + pronoun should be in the singular form.

Each as a pronoun
Each can be used by itself (without a noun) as a pronoun.

 When the students finished to course, each was given a certificate. (Each = each of the students)

Though it is more common to use each one instead of each by itself.

 …each one was given a certificate.

Noun/Pronoun + each
Each can be used after the noun (or pronoun) it describes.

 The parents gave their children some pocket money. To avoid problems, they each received the same
amount.

Auxiliary Verb/To Be + each

Each can be used after an auxiliary verb or the verbs Are and Were.

 I have four books to sell and they are each worth around five dollars.
 They have each been told their responsibilities.

Object + each
Instead of going before/after the subject, each can appear after the object.
This is common when the noun object refers to an amount, how many of something there is or when giving a
price.

 My paintings are worth $100 each (= Each of my paintings are worth $100)
 I gave my children each an ice cream.

-- ALL --
All refers to the total number of people or things of a group. They are considered as a group and not
individually. There are minimum three things in the group.

All + noun
We can use All with a plural noun to make a generalization about an entire group of something.

 All sharks are dangerous.

 All elephants are slow.

All + of + determiner + noun

The noun can be singular, plural or an uncountable noun. These nouns can also be replaced by pronouns.

 You need to read all of the book.

 All of the pages are yellow and old.
 All of the fish in the pond have died.
  You need to remove all of them before they start to smell bad.

Note that All of + singular noun is not common and Whole or Entire used instead of all of.

 You need to read the whole book (= all of the book)

We can also remove OF before the determiner + noun (but we must use OF before a pronoun)

 You need to read all the book.

 All the pages are yellow and old.

Pronoun + all
Sometimes you can place All after a pronoun to emphasize that every single one of that group is included.

 We all hope you get better soon.

 I hope you all have a great time.
 I have made us all some sandwiches.

Compare All vs. Each

All refers to the entire group as a whole. Each refers to the individual members of the group.

 I say goodbye to each student as they leave the room.

(= Goodbye John, goodbye Mary, goodbye Daniel… etc. until it has been said to ALL of the students
individually… Yes, there is a lot of repetition)

 I say goodbye to all of the students as they leave the room.

(= Goodbye students … I just say goodbye once)

Compare All vs. Every

I simple way to remember is that All is with a plural noun + plural verb while Every is with a singular
noun + singular verb. Every can also suggest “without exception”.

 All students receive a certificate.

 Every student receives a certificate.

We can use All with uncountable nouns (and not Every).

 I like all music (NOT every music)

 Place all luggage on the counter. (NOT every luggage)
 Another vs. Other vs. Others
Quick Summary: What is the difference
between another and other?
A simple rule to help you remember the difference between another and other is:
another + singular noun
other + plural noun
others (a pronoun to replace other + plural noun)

 I need another cup. (cup is singular so we use another)

 I need other cups. (cup is plural so we use other)
 I need others. (refers to other cups)

When to use ANOTHER

Another means:

 one more, an additional, an extra

 a different one; an alternative one

Another is a determiner (and a qualifier) that goes before a singular countable noun or a pronoun.

Another + Singular Countable noun

Another can be followed by a singular countable noun.

 He has bought another motorbike.

 Would you like another cup of coffee?
 Don’t worry about the rain. We can go another day.
 I think you should paint it another color.
 We are having another baby.

Another + One
Another can be placed before “one” when the meaning is clear from the text before it.
  I have already eaten two sandwiches though now I want another one. (= an additional sandwich)
 A: You can borrow more of these books if you like. B: Ok, I’ll take another one. (= another book, one
more book)

Another as a pronoun
Sometimes another is used as a pronoun.

 That piece of cake was tasty. I think I’ll have another. (another = one more piece of cake)
 I don’t like this room. Let’s ask for another. (another = another room)

Note: you can also say: “I think I’ll have another one.” and “Let’s ask for another one.”

Another + number + plural noun

Another can be used before a plural noun when there is a number before that noun or before phrases such
as a couple of, a few etc.

 In another 20 years my laptop is going to be obsolete.

 I like this city so much that I’m going to spend another three days here.
 We need another three teachers before classes begin.
 He was given another couple of months to finish the sculpture.

Remember another is ONE word not two words (an other is incorrect)

When to use OTHER

Other is a determiner that goes before plural countable nouns, uncountable nouns or a pronoun.

Other + Plural Countable Noun

Other can be followed by a plural countable noun.

 We have other styles if you are interested.

 Have you got any other dresses, or are these the only ones?
 Some days are sunny though other days can be very rainy.
 I have invited some other people.
 I can’t help you because I’m busy with other things.

Other + Ones
Other can be placed before the pronoun “ones” when the meaning is clear from the text before it.

 We don’t need those books, we need other ones. (= different books)

 A: You can borrow my books if you like. B: Thanks, but I need other ones. (= other books)

Note: you can say other one when it refers to wanting the alternative.

 I don't want this one, I want the other one.

Others as a pronoun
Others replaces “other ones” or "other + plural noun".
Only others can be used as a pronoun and not other.
  I don’t like these postcards. Let’s ask for others. (others = other postcards)
 Some of the presidents arrived on Monday. Others arrived the following day.

Others - the others

Often “(the) others” refers to “(the) other people”.

 He has no interest in helping others. (= in helping other people)

 What are the others doing tonight?

What is the difference between other and others?

Other is followed by a noun or a pronoun
Others is a pronoun and is NOT followed by a noun.

 These shoes are too small. Do you have any other shoes?
 These shoes are too small. Do you have any others? (no noun after others)
 Articles
Definite, Indefinite and No Article
The Indefinite Article – A / AN
We use A/AN with:
1. Singular nouns and the first time we refer to a person, animal or thing.

 a child
 an elephant
 a television
2. We don't use A/AN with possessive pronouns, demonstratives or cardinal numbers.

 My shirt is dirty.
 This car is expensive.
 One person is in the reception.
3. We use ONE (or more) instead of A/AN when the number is important.

 There is only one exit from the airport.

What is the difference between A and AN?

A is used when the next word begins with a consonant sound (b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k etc).

 a book
 a table
 a clock
 a university (because the beginning of university sounds like YOU-niversity)
AN is used when the next word begins with a vowel sound (a, e, i, o, u).

 an apple
 an elephant
 an umbrella
 an hour (because the H is silent)
The Definite Article – THE
We use THE with:
1. A singular or plural noun when it is clear/obvious which person or thing we are talking about.

 There is a lamp in my bedroom. (we mention the lamp for the first time)
 The lamp is next to the desk.
2. Anything which we identify immediately.

 We watched the new Brad Pitt movie last night.

3. Musical instruments (the violin, the guitar, the drums, the flute, the piccolo).

 She plays the piano.

4. Something that is unique or there is only one.

 the sun
 the moon
 the internet.
5. Names of rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges and deserts (always in capitals).

 The Mississippi River

 The Black Sea
 The Andes
 The Sahara Desert
6. Directions (cardinal points).

 the west
 the south-east
 the north-west.

No Article
We use no article with:
1. When we refer to general ideas, plurals or uncountable nouns we do not use THE.

 Religion is an important issue. (NOT The religion is an important issue)

 Mexican food is spicy. (NOT The Mexican food is spicy).
2. Names of people, books and plays (unless it is part of the title).

 I have read Romeo and Juliet.

3. Towns, cities, states and countries.

 Cape Town
 Montana
 Vietnam
(Exceptions – The USA, The UK, The Netherlands, The Czech Republic, The Philippines).
4. Lakes, single islands, continents or mountains.

 Lake Victoria
 Jamaica
 Asia
 Mt Fuji
5. Planets

 Mars
 Jupiter
  Saturn
6. Sports or games

 soccer
 tennis
 skiing
 monopoly
7. Meals

 breakfast
 lunch
 dinner
 supper
 Both - Either - Neither
We use both, either and neither to refer to two people or things.

BOTH
Both = the two; that one AND the other one; this one AND that one
Both can be used as a pronoun to refer to two things that we have already mentioned.

 A: Do you want the blue shirt or the red one?

B: I’ll buy both (= the blue shirt AND the red shirt = both shirts)

Both X and Y
= not only X but also Y
Both + Adjective + and + Adjective

 He’s both tall and handsome.

 I’m both happy and confused at the same time!
 I have had a long, hard day and I’m both tired and hungry.

Both + Noun + and + Noun

Both can be used with a singular noun + and + singular noun

 She speaks both English and Arabic.

 They have both a cat and a dog.
 He is both an actor and a director.

We can also use Both + plural noun (see more below)

 She speaks both languages.

Both or Both of?

Both or Both of can be used without a difference in meaning though Both of is more common in the United
States.

Both (of) + determiner + plural noun

You can use Both or Both of before a determiner (my, his, these, the etc.) and a plural noun.

 Both (of) my friends arrived late to class.

 Both of the wheels wobble too much.
 A prize was given to both of the players.

When we use Both (without of), we drop the article the.

 Both of the parents were nervous.

 Both parents were nervous.
Both of + Object Pronoun
When using Both with an object pronoun (me, you, him, her, it, us them), we need the preposition OF before
that pronoun.

 He has invited both us. (incorrect)

 He has invited both of us. (correct)
 I’ll take both of them. (correct)
 I need to speak to both of you. (correct)

Verb + Object pronoun + both

We can use both after an object pronoun

 I hope they invite us both (= I hope they invite both of us)

 Do you need them both? (= Do you need both of them)
 The teacher sent them both to the principal’s office.

To be + both
Both comes after To Be (or an auxiliary such as have or modal verbs).

 He is both intelligent and agile.

 My sister and I are both ready for the trip.
 We were both happy with our exam results.

Modal verb + both + verb

 My parents can both speak French.
 They should both try harder.
 My brothers would both be shocked if they knew the truth.

Both + other verbs

Both goes before the other verbs. If there is an accompanying auxiliary verb, then it goes in the middle of the
two verbs (i.e. auxiliary + both + verb)

 We both wanted to stay in bed and not go to work.

 They both liked the surprise.
 My parents both work in the same building.
 They have both studied a lot.

Both - Negative
We don’t use both in negative structures. Instead, we normally use Neither.

 We don’t say: Both of them are not ready (incorrect)

 We say: Neither of them are ready (correct)

See more about Neither below:

NEITHER
Neither = not one and not the other
Neither is a negative word and is accompanied by an affirmative singular verb.

Neither X nor Y
Neither … nor … is used as a conjunction. It is the opposite of “Both … and …” If a verb comes after this
phrase, that verb is in the singular form (Sometimes you will hear it used in the plural form though it is not
grammatically correct)

 Neither John nor Fred likes doing the dishes. (= “Both John and Fred don’t like doing the dishes”)
 I want neither the red shirt nor the blue shirt.
 I neither smoke nor drink.

Neither + singular noun

Neither is used as a determiner before a single noun.

 Neither team wanted to lose.

 That tennis game was very close. Neither player had a clear advantage.
 Neither parent knew about the accident.

Neither of + determiner + plural noun

You can use Neither of before a determiner (my, his, these, the etc.) and a plural noun.

 Neither of my friends came to class today.

 Neither of the parents understood what the baby was trying to say.
 Neither of our cars has enough petrol so we have to take the bus.

Neither of + Pronoun
When using Neither + of + pronoun (you, us, them), we need the preposition OF before that pronoun. (If a verb
comes after this phrase then it is in singular form)

 The present is for neither of us.

 Neither of them is married.
 Neither of us expected to be fired.

Neither in short responses

Neither is frequently used as part of a short response when someone says something negative and you agree
with them.

 A: I have never been to Switzerland

 B: Neither have I.
 A: I don’t want to go.
 B: Neither do I.

Neither can also be used alone.

 A: Would you like a blue tie or a green tie?

 B: Neither. (= Neither tie)
Neither vs. Either
You can use Either with a negative verb to replace Neither with a positive verb

 I have neither time nor money

 I don’t have either time or money.

See more about Either below.

EITHER
Either = any one of the two = this one or the other one
Either is accompanied by an affirmative singular verb and is mostly used in questions or negative sentences

Either X or Y
Either … or … is used as a conjunction. It is used to express alternatives and or a choice between two (and
sometimes more) things. It is used a verb in singular form (Sometimes you will hear it used in the plural form
though it is not grammatically correct).

 Either you or John has to finish the report before 5pm.

 You can have either the red shirt or the blue shirt. (= but not both)
 Either you leave the building now or I call the security guards.

Either + singular noun

Either is used as a determiner before a single noun.

 There are only two options and I’m not interested in either film.
 A: Do you want it ready for Thursday or Friday? B: Either day is fine for me.

Either of + determiner + plural noun

You can use Either of before a determiner (my, his, these, the etc.) and a plural noun.

 We’ve been dating for 6 months and I haven’t met either of her parents.
 I haven’t read either of these books.
 I don’t want either of those apples. Do you have one that is not rotten?

Either + of + Pronoun
When using Either + of + object pronoun (you, us, them), we need the preposition OF before that pronoun.

 I don’t think he is going to invite either of us.

 A: Which photo do you prefer? B: I don’t like either of them
 I think I left my keys and wallet at the office. I don’t want to lose either of them.

Either can also be used alone. It means it doesn’t matter which alternative. Sometimes it is accompanied by
the pronoun “one”.

 A: Would you like a coffee or a tea?

 B: Either (one). (= I don’t mind if it’s coffee or tea, both alternatives are fine)
Either in short responses
Either can be used at the end of a negative sentence when you agree with something negative someone else
has said. It is similar to meaning TOO and ALSO (which are used in affirmative sentences).

 A: I wasn’t thirsty. B: I wasn’t either. (You cannot say “I wasn’t too”)

 A: I’ve never been to Portugal. B: I haven’t either.
 A: I didn’t go to class yesterday. B: I didn’t either

Pronunciation of Either and Neither

You will hear the word Either pronounced two different ways:

 /ˈaɪðər/ (eye-ther – with a long I sound at the beginning) – British English

 /ˈiːðər/ (ee- ther – with a long E sound at the beginning) – American English

Both forms of pronunciation are correct and supposedly one is British English and the other American English.
However within each country you may hear both forms used.
The same happens with the pronunciation of the word Neither:

 /ˈnaɪðər/ – British English

 /ˈniːðər/ – American English

Both, Either, Neither Summary Chart

 Can - Could
Modal Verbs
Both Can and Could are Modal Verbs. In general Could is considered more polite (or formal) that Can.

CAN
The three main uses of Can are: 1) ability 2) possibility and 3) permission. However there are some other used
of Canas we will see below.
1. To express ability
Can means to be (physically) able to do something OR to know how to do something.

 Birds can fly.

 Elephants can't fly.
 I can speak two languages.

2. To express a possibility (in general)

This refers to a theoretical possibility.
Note: we don't use can to talk about future possibilities. For this you would use may or might.

 It can get cold there at night so take a jacket.

 I know you can win the competition.
 Well, I think your car can be repaired, but it's not going to be cheap.

3. To offer to do something for others

Can is used when you offer to help someone or to do something for them.

 You don't need to walk home. I can take you there if you like.
 Can I carry your bags for you?

4. To ask for or give permission / To request something

Can is used to ask for / request permission or to give permission.
Note: Can't is used to refuse permission.

 You can use my umbrella, I don't need it right now.

 Can I sit in that chair please?
 Mary, you can play outside if you like.
 Can I ask you a question?
 You can't go to the park. It will still be wet from the rain last night.
 We can't leave the room until the assignment is completed.

5. Can't: Something that is forbidden or not allowed

 We cannot park the car next to this fire hydrant.

 You can drive as fast as you want on the German motorways.
 You can't smoke in the restaurant.
 You cannot drive a car without a license.

6. Can't: when you are sure that something isn't true or something is surprising
  It can't be dark outside! It's only 4.30pm!
 They can't have landed on the moon, I'm sure it's a hoax.

COULD
Could is similar to Can and often replaces Can in the past tense (though not always)
1. To express ability in the past

 I could ride a horse when I was younger but now I can't.

 She could juggle eight balls when she was only 10 years old.
 He could read when he was three years old.

2. Polite word used to ask for permission or to request something (in the present)

 Could I please use your bathroom?

 Could we move on to the next topic now please?
 Could you pass me the salt please?
 I'm busy right now. Could you call back later?

3. General permission in the past

 In high school, we couldn't leave the classroom without a pass.

 He couldn't go to the concert because his mother wouldn't let him.

4. A suggestion when asked what to do (choices and opportunities)

 He could try and fix it himself.

 We could go to the movies if you are interested.

5. Couldn't: Sure that something is untrue

Just like can't, you can use couldn't when you are sure that something isn't true or real.

 That couldn't be my cat meowing outside, it was hit by a car last week.
 He couldn't have painted that. He has no artistic ability at all.

6. Could + have + past participle: To express a possibility in the past

To express that something was possible but did not happen.

 We were lucky because it could have rained but it didn't.

 Why did you do that? You could have broken your leg.

7. Could + have + past participle: Unrealised past ability

This is used to say that someone was able to do something, but they did not try to do it. Sometimes this is a
form of criticism.

 She could have married anyone she wanted to.

 Why did you sit there doing nothing? You could have helped me.

8. Could: A conditional form of Can

Would + Can = Could. Note: Would be able to can replace could in the following examples.
 If we had some oranges I could make you some fresh juice.
 I could write the letter if you told me what to include.

Can vs Could
 Comparatives and Superlatives
We use Comparatives and Superlatives to compare two or more nouns.
The formation of the comparative and superlative depends on the number of syllables in the adjective:
One-syllable Adjectives
To form the comparative, we add -er to the end of the adjective.
To form the superlative, we add -est to the end of the adjective.

Adjective Comparative Superlative

small smaller the smallest
cold colder the coldest
light lighter the lightest
wide * wider the widest
hot ** hotter the hottest

* When an adjective ends in the letter E, we just add the -R (for comparatives) or -ST (for superlatives). We do
not write two Es together. Wider (correct) not wideer (incorrect).
** When an adjective ends in a consonant + short vowel + consonant (C + V + C), we normally double the last
letter. big - bigger - biggest, wet - wetter - wettest

 London is bigger than Santiago.

 Mike is taller than John but James is the tallest.
 Yesterday was the hottest day of the year.
 It is the oldest building in the village.
 I want a faster car.
Notice how comparatives are often followed by than when comparing two things or people.

Two-syllable Adjectives ending in -Y

To form the comparative, we remove the -y and add -ier to the end of the adjective.
To form the superlative, we remove the -y and add -iest to the end of the adjective.

Adjective Comparative Superlative

crazy crazier the craziest
happy happier the happiest
early earlier the earliest

 It was the happiest day of my life.

 My joke was funnier than your one.
 This section is easier than the rest.
Adjectives with Two or more Syllables
For Adjectives with 2 syllables (that don't end in -y) and higher (3, 4 syllables etc), we use more for
comparatives and the most for superlatives.

Adjective Comparative Superlative

handsome more handsome the most handsome
nervous more nervous the most nervous
enthusiastic more enthusiastic the most enthusiastic

 My girlfriend is more beautiful than yours.

 Alex is more intelligent than you but I am the most intelligent.
 It was the most wonderful day I have ever had.
Some exceptions with two-syllable adjectives ending in -er and -est:
narrow - narrower, simple - simpler, quiet - quieter

Irregular Forms
Adjective Comparative Superlative

good better the best

bad worse the worst
far *** further / farther the furthest / farthest
little less the least
many/much more the most
old **** older/elder the oldest / eldest

 I am a better tennis player than you but Marcelo is the best.

 Steve is a worse liar than me but Adrian is the worst.

*** Farther - Further

Further / farther, furthest / farthest are all used for distance.
Only Further / furthest are used to mean 'additional' or 'more advanced'.

 Puerto Montt is further / farther than Valdivia is from here (in Santiago).
 If you require further information, please contact reception.

Remember that the opposites of 'more' and 'most' are 'less' and 'least', respectively.
**** Older - Eldest
We use elder / eldest when we are talking about family relationships and normally only before a noun (not by
itself unless it is a pronoun).

 He is my elder brother. (We cannot say: My brother is elder than me. - incorrect)
 The eldest sister would pass on her dresses to the younger one.

Comparative and Superlative of ILL

When comparing how ill people are, you will normally hear worse or the worst and not "iller or illest". Some
people may prefer to replace ill with sick (sicker, sickest) when comparing.
 Conditionals - IF Clauses
Conditional sentences have two parts: the if-clause and the main clause.
Example sentence: If it rains, I will cancel the trip.
If it rains is the if-clause and I will cancel the trip is the main clause.
The IF-clause introduces a condition. The main clause is the result of that condition.
What happens in the main clause is conditional to what happens in the if-clause. In other words the main
clause only happens when the events in the if-clause happen.
There are 4 main types of conditional clauses (if-clauses)...

As you can see, each type of conditional has its own combination of tense used in the if-clause and tense used
the main clause. These different pairings of tenses give each type of conditional its own meaning.

Other types of conditional clauses

Now, these four types of conditional clauses are the traditional ones though there are OTHER types of
conditional clauses.

IF + PRESENT SIMPLE, ...+ IMPERATIVE

We use the imperative to give instructions of advice.

 If you see John, tell him he needs to come to my office.

 If you travel abroad, remember your passport
 If you go to Australia, send me a postcard.
 If you go to the supermarket, bring back some milk.
 If Mike comes, call me.
 If you drink, don't drive.

The highlighted words are in the imperative. These sentences are similar to saying: If the first condition
happens, you must do this (in the second/imperative clause).
 Would
Modal Verbs
Would is a modal verb. Would is often used in conditional sentences with a clause beginning with "If..." but it
can also be used in the following situations:

WOULD
1. Used as a polite invitation or to offer

 Would you like to go to the movies with me tonight?

 Would you like some more tea?
 I would be happy to help you with preparation for your exam.
When someone asks a question to invite you or offer you something using Would, the response can be: Yes, I
would OR No, I wouldn't.

 Would you like to have a coffee with me? Yes, I would.

2. Describe a prediction (hypothetical situations)

 It would be nice to have a barbecue.

 Nobody would believe me if I told them I had seen a UFO.
3. To not sound impolite when disagreeing with someone

 It would like to point out that you need to review those numbers.
 I wouldn't agree with that.
4. To describe past habits

 Before internet people would send letters to each other.

 When I was at school I would get up before everyone else in our house.
(This is similar to using Used to)
5. Future in the past
We use would when we are talking about the past but we want to talk about something which was in the future
at that time (in the past).

 When I was in Paris last year I would spend hours sitting at coffee shops writing ideas for my novel.
 She promised she would send a postcard from Peru.
 I told you he would help us.
6. Wouldn't: To describe a past unwillingness (refusal)

 He said he wouldn't help us.

 My son wouldn't eat his food.
 Zero Conditional
When we are thinking about facts which are generally true, we use:

If + Present Simple, Present Simple

 If you put water in the freezer, it becomes ice.
 If you stand in the rain, you get wet.
 If you heat ice, it melts.
You can see in the examples about the the condition always has the same result.
Notice how we use a comma after the first present simple tense clause.
We can also reverse the order and use:

Present Simple + If + Present Simple

 You get wet if you stand in the rain.
 Ice melts if you heat it.
 I can't sleep if I drink coffee at night.
 Plants die if you don't water them.
Notice how the comma is not necessary with this word order.
 First Conditional
When we are thinking about a possible situation in the future, we use:

If + Present verb, future verb

This structure is common when talking about possible plans, promises, warnings, threats or for
persuading someone. We are predicting a likely result in the future if a condition is fulfilled.
If + Simple Present, Will / Won't ...

 If I go to Paris next month for work, I'll visit the Eiffel Tower (Plans)
 If I have time, I will help you. (Promise)
 If you touch that wire, you will get an electric shock. (Warning)
 If you eat my chocolate that is in the fridge, you'll sleep outside with the dog.(Threat)
 If you take me to the mall, I'll buy you an ice cream. (Persuasion)
 If she doesn't go to university, her parents won't be happy.
 If it rains, we will cancel the trip.
 If that candidate becomes President, the country will be in trouble.
 If I win the competition, I will donate half of the prize money to charity.
Notice how we use a comma after the present tense clause.
We can also reverse the order and use:

Future Verb + If + Present Simple

 I will be annoyed if they don't arrive on time.
 You will get a better job if you can speak English.
 You will miss the bus if you don't hurry.
 The dog will bite you if you pull its tail.
 Your boss will be angry if you don't finish the job.
 What will you do if they fire you?
 You will feel better if you take this medicine.
Notice how the comma is not necessary with this word order.

Modal Verbs in First Conditional

Normally WILL is used in the main clause of first conditional sentences. However you can also use the modal
verbs MAY, MIGHT and COULD when something is a possible consequence (and not a certain one) in the
future.

 If you are nice to me, I may buy you a gift when I'm in Peru.
 If they train a little harder, they might win the match.
 If he doesn't do his work, he could get fired.
 Second Conditional
When we are thinking about a situation in the present or future that is hypothetical, unlikely or impossible,
we use:

If + Past Simple, ...Would + Verb

We use a past verb though are imagining the present or the future to be different.
The second clause of subject + would + verb (conditional verb) is conditional to the first clause happening (or
will only happen if the first part/clause happens).
Example: If I won the lottery, I would travel around the world.
= It is unlikely that I will win the lottery, but I'm going to hypothetically imagine that I did win. In that situation I
would travel around the world. So in order for me to travel around the world, I would need the first clause (the
condition or situation) to happen, that is, for me to win the lottery first.

 If I won the lottery, I would travel around the world. (Though I am unlikely to win the lottery)
 If I knew his name, I would tell you.
 If I didn't have a headache, I would go to the party.
 If I became President, I would reduce the salaries of all politicians. (Though it is unlikely I will become
President)
Notice how we use a comma after the past tense clause.
We can also reverse the order and use:

Conditional verb (would + verb) + If + Past Simple

 I would be happy if I had more free time.
 I would tell you the answer if I knew what it was.
 There would be fewer accidents if everyone drove more carefully.
 We would have a lot of money if we sold our house.
 Would she come if I paid for her flight?
 Would you accept the job if they offered it to you?
 What would you do if you won the lottery?
 What would you do if you saw a U.F.O?
Notice how the comma is not necessary with this word order.

If I were ...
Note that with the verb To Be we use IF + I / HE / SHE / IT + WERE
The reason we use WERE instead of WAS is because the sentence is in the Subjunctive mood.

 If I were not in debt, I would quit my job.

 If he were taller, he'd be accepted into the team.
 She would be still be correcting my grammar if she were still alive.
Though in informal English, you will hear some people say If I was... If he was... etc. This usage doesn't sound
good though unfortunately is common.
See our grammar notes about IF I WERE YOU...

Could in Second Conditional sentences

COULD can be used instead of WOULD to make the hypothetical present or future more likely.

 If he trained every day, he could represent his country

 If I had a little more money, I could buy a car.
 Third Conditional
When we are talking about something in the past which cannot be altered now, we use:

If + Past Perfect, would have + past participle

EXAMPLE: If you had studied all of these grammar pages, you would have passed the exam.
You can not alter or change the past. You didn't study in the past (something you cannot change now) so you
didn't pass the exam. It is an imaginary situation that didn't happen.

 If you had been more careful, you wouldn't have had an accident.
 If I had seen you, I would have said hello.
 If he had asked me, I would have helped him.
 If you had studied, they would have passed the exam.
 If I had known, I wouldn't have done that.
Notice how this tense can be used to say that you regret doing something or when you are telling someone off
(reproaching someone). This type of conditional can also be used when making excuses.
We can also change the word order of the sentence...

Would have + If + past perfect

EXAMPLE: You would have passed the exam if you had studied all of these grammar pages.

 I wouldn't have left my job if I had known how difficult it is to find another one.
 I would have taken a photo if I had brought my camera with me.
 He would have died if the ambulance hadn't arrived quickly.
 She would have gone to your birthday party if she hadn't been sick.
 He wouldn't have become lost if he had taken the map with him.
 The team would have won if the referee hadn't taken the bribe.
 You wouldn't haved needed fillings if you had brushed your teeth more frequently.
 Countable vs. Uncountable Nouns
A) Most nouns have singular and plural forms. They are countable nouns.
e.g. One letter, two letters

 There is a letter on the table for you. (singular)

 There are letters on the table for you. (plural)

B) Some nouns only have one form. They are uncountable nouns.
e.g. Money

 There is no money in my bank account.

 There is a lot of money in my bank account.

C) Many uncountable nouns refer to substances:

e.g. Chocolate, water, coffee, milk, sugar, salt, cheese, bread, rice, wood, glass, plastic, soap, toothpaste.

 Do you have any chocolate?

 The milk is sour - let's make cheese.
 Rice is only edible when it has been cooked.

D) Many uncountable nouns refer to abstract ideas or emotions.

e.g. love, sadness, happiness, education, knowledge, and grammar.

 Money can't buy love.

 We like to experience happiness.
 This education is priceless.

E) You can use a/an with singular countable nouns.

e.g. an umbrella, a wheel, a mistake.

 It's raining so I need an umbrella.

 I made a mistake.
 This is a job for superman.

F) You can use plural countable nouns alone.

e.g. apples, bees, clouds.

 There are clouds in the sky today.

 There are bees making honey.
 We eat apples for breakfast.

G) You can't use an article with an uncountable noun.

e.g. time, sand, electricity.

 We need electricity to use our heater.

 I lost track of time and we stayed up very late.
 The beaches in Brazil have very nice sand.
H) It is very common in English to use some / any with plural nouns and uncountable nouns (Refer to grammar
notes on Some Any for more details).
e.g. They don't listen to any advice.

 We don't have any toys for the children.

 There are many lessons in life, this is just one more.
 It is important to have some knowledge of grammar.

I) There are a range of nouns that are uncountable in English but are countable in other languages.
These include: accommodation, advice, baggage, behaviour, bread, chaos, damage, furniture, information,
luck, luggage, news, permission, progress, scenery, traffic, weather and work.
J) For comparison purposes, look at these sentences:

Countable Uncountable

I'm looking for a job. I'm looking for work.

What a beautiful view!
It's a nice day today.
We had a lot of bags and suitcases.
These chairs are mine.
It was a good suggestion.
What beautiful scenery!
It's nice weather today.
We had a lot of luggage.
This furniture is mine.
It was good advice.
 Every day vs. All day
A common mistake in English is the correct use of every day and all day.

The difference between every day and all day.

All day = the entire day, or a large part of the day..
Every day = each day; on all of the days over a certain period of time (weeks, months, years). It can also
mean regularly.

 I studied all day (= the entire day)

 I studied every day. (= all of the days… Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday etc.)

The same concept applies to other periods of time.

All morning (= the entire morning)
Every morning (= all of the mornings …. this week, this month etc.)

 He spent all morning at the gym. (= the entire morning)

 He goes to the gym every morning. (= all of the mornings of the week)

Sometimes both phrases are used in the same sentence to mean that you did something or something
happened non-stop or without pausing.

 I have been studying all day, every day for the last two weeks.

What is something that you do every day?

 Every day vs. Everyday
A common mistake in English is the correct use of the words everyday and every day. Don't worry, this is also
a mistake commonly made by native speakers too.
The word everyday (one word) and phrase every day (two words) are not interchangeable.

The difference between everyday and every day.

Everyday is an adjective so it goes before the noun it describes.
Everyday = ordinary, regular, normal or commonplace. It can refer to something done or used daily or
routinely.

 You should wear an elegant dress for the wedding, not just an everyday one.
 Even though he has won some money, it hasn't changed his everyday life.
 Some everyday activities damage the environment.
 Why do you always use those big words that are not common in everyday language?

Every day is a phrase that usually acts as an adverb.

Every day = all of the days or each day over a period of time. It can also mean very regularly.

 You've been wearing that same shirt every day this week. You need to change it!
 You should take a shower every day.
 Low prices, every day! (A sign in a shop)
 Woodward English publishes new material on Twitter every day.

How to know when to use every day or everyday.

To know which of the words to use in your sentence, replace the word(s) with each day.
If it sounds correct, then write every day (two words).
If it doesn't sound correct (usually because it is before a noun) then use everyday (one word).
For example:

 I do exercises every day. (correct)

 I do exercises each day - This sound correct so we use every day (two words)

 It's not an every day event. (incorrect)

 It's not an each day event. - This doesn't sound correct so we use everyday (one word)

Another way of doing this is by replacing the word(s) with ordinary.

If it sounds correct, then write everyday (one word).
If it doesn't sound correct then use every day (two words).
For example:

 I do exercises everyday. (incorrect)

 I do exercises ordinary - This does not sound correct so we use every day (two words)

 It's not an everyday event. (correct)

 It's not an ordinary event. - This sounds correct so we use everyday (one word)

Another tip is that the word everyday is followed by a noun and is not used by itself at the end of a sentence.
Pronunciation of Every day and Everyday.
The main difference in pronunciation between every day and everyday is where the accent (or word stress) is
placed.
Everyday: the stress is on the first syllable … EVeryday.
Every day: the stress is on the word day … every DAY.
 For - Since
The use of FOR
We use For when we measure the duration – when we say how long something lasts.
For + a period of time
To measure a period of time up to the present, we use the present perfect tense and not the present tense.

 I have known her for a long time. (Correct)

I know her for a long time. (Incorrect)
 I have lived here for ten years. (Correct)
I live here for ten years. (Incorrect)
The present tense with For refers to a period of time that extends into the future.

 How long are you here for? (Until when)

 How long have you been here for? (Since when)
In reality, we can use all verb tenses with For.

Uses of For

Example sentence Verb Tense

They exercise for two hours every day. Present tense
They are exercising for three hours today. Present continuous
He has lived in Moscow for a long time. Present perfect
He has been living in Turin for three months. Present perfect continuous
I worked at the service station for five years. Past tense
He will be in hospital for at least a week. Future tense
However, we don't use For with expressions such as all day or all the time.

 I was there all day. (Correct)

 I was there for all day. (Incorrect)

The use of SINCE

Since gives the starting point of actions, events or states. It refers to when things began.
Since + a point in time (in the past), until now.

 I've been waiting since 7 o'clock.

 I have known him since January.
With since we use the present perfect tense or the past perfect tense.

 I have been here since 5 o'clock and I am getting tired.

 I had been working since 5 o'clock and I was getting tired.
Since can also be used in the structure It has been + period of time + since.

 It has been two months since I last saw her.

 It has been three years since the last earthquake.
For vs. Since
Knowing when to use FOR and when to use SINCE is important. Therefore it is useful to look at a summary of
the contrast between FOR and SINCE.

FOR to mention a specific period (or SINCE to mention the starting point of a period of time
duration) of time. (continues to now).
I have been a doctor for fifteen years.
I have been a doctor since 1992. (starting point = 1994)
(duration = 15 years)
She has been a mother for six months. She has been pregnant since her first child was born.
My sister has lived in Frankfurt for nine
My sister has lived in Frankfurt since the beginning of March.
months.

Both For and Since are most commonly used with the perfect tense - we don't use these expressions in the
present tense.
Correct Incorrect
I have learnt Russian for three years. I learn Russian for three years.
They have taught geography since last year. They teach geography since last year.
He has owned his dog since his cat died. He owns his dog since his cat dies.

While we can use For in the simple past tense we can't use Since in the simple past tense. Since can only be
used in the perfect tense.
Correct Incorrect
She went to Japan for three years. She went to Japan since 2003.
I studied in New Zealand for one month. I studied in New Zealand since one month.
He walked his dog for four hours. He walked his cat since four hours.

It should be remembered that both For and Since have other meanings in English that are not associated with
time.

 This is for you.

 Is this the train for London?
 Since you asked, I'll say yes.
 Since he didn't study he didn't pass the exam.
 Future - Will
We normally use WILL to speak about the future. It is always combined with another verb.
Since WILL is classified as a modal verb (like can, would, could, should) it has the same characteristics:

1. It does not change in the third person (i.e. he, she, it)
2. It is always combined with another verb in the base form (i.e. without 'to')
3. We don't use it with 'Do' in questions or negatives.
Examples of Will:

 I will go to the cinema tonight.

 He will play tennis tomorrow.
 She will be happy with her exam results.
 They will take the bus to the South next week.

When to use WILL

We use WILL in the following circumstances:
1. For things that we decide to do now. (Rapid Decisions)
This is when you make a decision at that moment, in a spontaneous way.

 I'll call a taxi for you.

 I think we'll go right now. (I just decided this right now)
 Which one? Um, I will have the chicken sandwich please.
2. When we think or believe something about the future. (Prediction)
This can be based on personal judgement or opinion.

 The President will not be re-elected at the next election.

 I think it will rain later so take an umbrella with you.
 I think you will find the movie interesting.
Notice how you often use "I think..." before the subject + will.
3. To make an offer, a promise or a threat.

 You look tired. I'll finish the dishes for you.

 I will do my best to help you.
 If you say anything I will kill you!
 I will have it ready by tomorrow.
 I'll drive you to work if you want.
 Don't worry, I won't tell anyone. (won't = will not)
4. For a habit that is a predictable behaviour

 My daughter will fall asleep as soon as she is put into bed.

 He will give up if he starts losing. He always does that.
5. You use WON'T when someone refuses to do something.

 I told him to clean his room but he won't do it.

 She won't listen to anything I say.

Negative Sentences with WILL

In the negative, we add NOT to the end of WILL and not to the main verb. (= will not)
Examples:
  I will not be in the office tomorrow. (correct)
I will be not in the office tomorrow. (Incorrect)
 They will not stay here. (correct)
They will stay not here. (Incorrect)

Contractions
It is possible to use contractions in both positive and negative sentences.
With positive contractions WILL becomes 'LL and is joined to the subject:

Positive
Contraction
I will I'll
You will you'll
He will he'll
She will she'll
It will it'll
We will we'll
You will you'll
They will they'll

With negative contractions, will not becomes won't:

Negative
Contraction
I will not I won't
You will not you won't
He will not he won't
She will not she won't
It will not it won't
We will not we won't
You will not you won't
They will not they won't

Questions
To form a question using WILL, we reverse the order of the subject and WILL:

Affirmative He will be here tomorrow.

Subject WILL Verb

Question Will he be here tomorrow?

WILL Subject Verb
Examples:
Will they win the cup?
- Yes, they will.
- No, they won't.
Will you tell him the truth?
- Yes, I will.
- No, I won't.
Will she get angry?
- Yes, she will.
- No, she won't.
 Future - Will vs. Going to
A very confusing concept is when to use WILL and when to use BE GOING TO when we refer the future.
Both refer to the future and there is a slight difference between the two though in most cases they can be used
interchangeably with no difference in meaning. Even if you misuse them, a native speaker is going to
understand you without any problems.

When to use GOING TO

The structure BE GOING TO is normally used to indicate the future but with some type of connection to the
present. We use it in the following situations:
1. When we have already decided or we INTEND to do something in the future. (Prior Plan)
The decision has been made before the moment of speaking.

 They're going to retire to the beach - in fact they have already bought a little beach house.
 I'm going to accept the job offer.
2. When there are definite signs that something is going to happen. (Evidence)
Something is likely to happen based on the evidence or experience you have.

 I think it is going to rain - I just felt a drop.

 I don't feel well. I think I'm going to throw up. (throw up = vomit)
3. When something is about to happen:

 Get back! The bomb is going to explode.

When to use WILL

In other cases, where there is no implicit or explicit connection to the present, use WILL:
1. For things that we decide to do now. (Rapid Decisions)
This is when you make a decision at that moment, in a spontaneous way.

 I'll buy one for you too.

 I think I'll try one of those. (I just decided this right now)
2. When we think or believe something about the future. (Prediction)
  My team will not win the league this season.
 I think it will rain later so take an umbrella with you.
Note: You can use both Will and Going to for making future predictions.
3. To make an offer, a promise or a threat.

 I'll give you a discount if you buy it right now.

 I promise I will behave next time.
 I'll take you to the movies if you'd like.
4. You use WON'T when someone refuses to do something.

 I told him to take out the trash but he won't do it.

 My kids won't listen to anything I say.
 My car won't start.

Future Predictions
As you can see, both Will and Going to can be used for making future predictions without having a real
difference in meaning.

 The weather report says it will rain tomorrow. (Correct)

 The weather report says it is going to rain tomorrow. (Correct)

Compare Will vs. Going To

If someone asks: "Are you busy this evening?"
If I respond: "Yes, I'm going to the movies." I use going to because it is a plan I made earlier (before I was
asked the question). - In this case we cannot use Will.
If I haven't made plans, then you can say either: "I will probably watch TV." OR "I'm probably going to watch
TV."
Both will and going to are possible in this situation because we are predicting what will happen (since we
haven't made any plans).
 Be going to
Positive & Negative Sentences
The positive and negative structures for Be Going To are as follows:

Positive Negative

I am going to I am not going to

You are going to You are not going to
He is going to He is not going to
She is going to She is not going to
It is going to It is not going to
We are going to We are not going to
You are going to You are not going to
They are going to They are not going to

The structure BE GOING TO is normally used to indicate the future in English. We use this structure:
1. When we have already decided or we INTEND to do something in the future. (Prior Plan)
The decision has been made before the moment of speaking.

 I'm going to India next year.

 We talked about it yesterday and I'm going to quit my job tomorrow.

2. When there are definite signs that something is going to happen. (Evidence)
Something is likely to happen based on the evidence or experience you have.

 It's so cold! I think it is going to snow

3. When something is about to happen:

 Get back! The bomb is going to explode.

Questions with BE GOING TO

Questions are formed by changing the order of the subject and the verb BE:

Affirmative You are going to win the race.

Subject BE GOING TO

Question Are you going to win the race?

BE Subject GOING TO
You are going to be sick if you eat that. (Positive sentence)
Are you going to be sick if you eat that? (Question)
We are going to take orange juice to the party. (Positive sentence)
Are we going to take orange juice to the party? (Question)
BE GOING TO in the Past Tense
When BE GOING TO is used in the past tense, it refers to something that was going to happen but in the end it
did not happen.
Examples:

 I was going to call you but I lost your phone number.

 It was going to rain but suddenly the sun appeared.
 We were going to buy a new TV but then we changed our minds.
 You were going to be my bridesmaid but then you slept with my fiancée.

Gonna
Sometimes when we speak quickly, GOING TO sounds like GONNA. While it is grammatically incorrect, it is
used a lot in very informal English. You will also occasionally see the word Gonna written in song titles or in
song lyrics.
I'm gonna go to the beach tomorrow.
= I'm going to go to the beach tomorrow.
He's gonna bring his girlfriend to the party.
= He's going to bring his girlfriend to the party.
 How much? - How many?
When we want to know the quantity or amount of something, we ask questions starting with How
much and How many.

HOW MUCH ...? - (Quantity)

How much is used with uncountable nouns.
HOW MUCH + UNCOUNTABLE NOUN

 How much time do we have to finish the test?

 How much money did you spend?
 How much sugar would you like in your coffee?
 How much paper will I need?
 How much milk is in the fridge?
 How much traffic was there on the way to work?

If the verb To Be is used with an uncountable noun, it is in singular form (= IS or WAS etc.)

HOW MUCH ...? - (Price)

How much can also be used when we want to know the PRICE of something.
In this case, we can use How much with countable nouns (both singular and plural nouns).

 How much is that painting?

 How much are those shoes?
 How much did your jacket cost?
 How much is the dress on display in the window?
 How much will it cost me?
 How much does it cost ?

HOW MANY ...? - (Quantity)

How many is used when we want to know the QUANTITY of something.
It is only used with plural countable nouns.
HOW MANY + PLURAL NOUN

 How many days are there in January?

 How many people work in your company?
 How many cousins do you have?
 How many books did you buy?
 How many countries are there in the world?
 How many students are in the class right now?
 How many chairs are there in this room?
 How many pieces of chocolate would you like?

Omitting the noun

Often the noun is omitted in the question when it is obvious what we are talking about.
A: I would like to buy some cheese. B: How much (cheese) would you like?
The noun cheese is not necessary after how much since we already know we are talking about cheese. In
fact, it is normally omitted to avoid sounding repetitive.
More examples:

 A: I need some coins. - B: How many do you need?

 A: I need some sugar. - B: How much do you need?
 May - Might
Modal Verbs
May and Might are modal verbs. They can normally be interchanged without a significant difference in
meaning however Might often implies a smaller chance of something happening (when expressing possibility).

May and Might

1. To express (future) possibility
There is a chance that something is true or that there is a possibility of something happening.
Note: Might is used more frequently than May in spoken English.

 It might rain later (= it is possible that it will rain)

 I might go to the movies tonight. (Though I'm not sure)
 I wouldn't talk to Tim right now. He may still be angry after his team lost.
 He's very good, in fact, I think he may win the competition.
 She might be late because of the public transport strike.

2. To give permission

 You may leave the table once you have finished your meal.
 You may take only one brochure.
 If you have finished the exam, you may leave the room.

May not can be used to NOT give permission or to prohibit someone from doing something.

 You may not park your car in front of the gate.

 You may not take more than one brochure.

3. To ask for permission

Note: Can is used more frequently than May in spoken English though May sounds more polite.

 May I sit next to you?

 May I borrow your pen?
 May I use your bathroom please?

Note: Might could also be used to request permission but it sounds very old and is not common.
4. May: to talk about typical occurrences
May is used in academic (or scientific) language to refer to things that typically happen in certain situations.

 Drivers may feel tired if they do not take a break every 2 hours.
 Adults may find it difficult to sleep if they use technology before going to bed.
 These tablets may produce serious side effects if not taken in the correct dosage.

5. Speculate about past actions (May + have + past participle)

 She is late. I think she may have missed her plane.

 It may have already been broken before you bought it.
 What was that noise? It may have been a dog outside our window.
6. To express wishes

 May you both live a long and happy life together.

 May the New Year bring you love and happiness.
 May all your wishes come true.
 May the odds be ever in your favor.
 May the Force be with you. :)

May as well - Might as well

These are expressions can be used to suggest that you will do something because there is nothing better or
more interesting to do.

 There is nothing on TV. I might as well go to bed.

 (At the stadium) Our team is losing by 50 points. We may as well go home because they're not going
to win.
 Modal Verbs
Modal verbs are a part of the larger category called auxiliary verbs which are verbs that cannot be used on
their own. They need to be accompanied by another (main) verb. Sometimes modal verbs are called modal
auxiliaries.

The following words are modal verbs: Can, Could, May, Might, Must, Shall, Should, Will, Would.

They are modal auxiliary verbs that provide additional information about the verb that follows it.

Modal verbs are used to express ability, obligation, permission, assumptions, probability and possibility,
requests and offers, and advice. Each modal verb can have more than meaning which depends on the context
of that sentence (or question).

 You can go now. (= permission)

 I can play the guitar. (= ability)

Structure with Modal Verbs

A Modal verb is followed by another verb in the base form (the infinitive without the 'To') and they are not
conjugated (we don't add an 'S' in third person). See the following structure:

Subject + Modal Verb + Verb (base form of the infinitive)

 I can speak English (NOT: I can to speak English)

 He can speak Spanish (NOT: He can speaks Spanish)

 She can speak Spanish (NOT: She cans speak Spanish)

Modal Verbs in Negative Sentences

Subject + Modal Verb + not + Verb (base form of the infinitive)

 You must not walk on the grass. (= You mustn't walk on the grass.)

 He cannot speak Arabic. (= He can't speak Arabic.)

 We should not be late. (= We shouldn't be late.)

As you can see in the examples above, contractions of the Modal verb + not are normally possible.

The negative of can is cannot ('not' is joined to 'can') and the contraction is can't

Modal Verbs in Questions

Modal Verb + Subject + Verb (base form of the infinitive)

 May I help you?

 Can I have another piece of cake please?

 Would you like to come with us?

Uses of Modal Verbs
Below we have a list of Modal verbs and the different uses of each with examples.

 Can - Could

 May - Might

 Must

 Should

 Shall

 Will

 Would
 Much - Many - Lot - Few - Little
We use these words as quantifiers that come at the start of noun phrases and they tell us something
about quantity.

A lot of vs. Lots of

A lot of and lots of are used to express that there is a large quantity of something.
We use a lot of in positive sentences, negative sentences and questions. This expression can be
used with countable or uncountable nouns.

 There are a lot of dogs in the street. (Countable noun)

 I have a lot of time to answer your questions. (Uncountable noun)
 I saw a lot of people waiting in the queue. (Countable)
 We did have a lot of fun, didn't we? (Uncountable)
We use lots of in positive and negative sentences, however it is more informal. It can be used with
countable or uncountable nouns, and occasionally in questions.

 We have lots of time to catch the plane, let's relax. (Uncountable noun)
 There are lots of people in the queue today. (Countable)
 Oh my, you have spent lots of money on clothes! (Uncountable)
 I have lots of questions. (Countable)
She has a lot of money = She has lots of money
Much vs. Many
Much and Many are used to express that there is a large quantity of something.
Much and Many are used in negative sentences and questions.
Many is used with countable nouns
Much is used with uncountable nouns.

 I don't have many CDs in my collection. (Countable noun)

 They don't have much money to buy a present. (Uncountable noun)
 How many brothers do you have? (Countable noun)
 Is there much milk in the fridge? (Uncountable noun)
Note: we almost never use Much and Many in positive sentences, we almost always use a lot
of or lots of.
I have much money. (Incorrect because the sentence is positive / affirmative)
I have a lot of money. (Correct)
With the word "times" we use many times more than a lot of times / lots of times. It sometimes
means frequently or often.

 That is my favourite book. I've read it many times.

 Don't worry, I've done this many times.
 We have stayed at this hotel many times over the years.
 Few vs. Little
We use a few and a little to suggest a small quantity or not much of something.
A few is used with countable nouns (= some; not many)
A little is used with uncountable nouns (= some; not much)

 There are only a few days left until Christmas. (Countable noun)
 I have a few crazy friends. (Countable noun)
 I would like a little milk for my coffee. (Uncountable noun)
 There is little hope of finding your wallet. (Uncountable noun)
While Few and Little usually have negative meanings, especially when used with very.

 He is sad because he has few friends. (Countable noun)

 There are few honest politicians. (Countable noun)
 There is little hope of finding your wallet. (Uncountable noun)
 They have very little knowledge about politics. (Uncountable noun)
 Must
Modal Verbs
Must is a modal verb

MUST
1. To express obligation or duty
This also refers to laws and regulations.

 I must memorize all of these rules about modal verbs.

 People must remain seated until the show is over.
 You must wear a seatbelt at all times.
2. To emphasize the necessity of something

 Humans must have drinking water at least every two days.

 You must give up smoking, it's bad for you.
 We must have a special permit to camp in the national park.
 You must study the last two chapters before the test.
 Plants must have light and water to grow.
 You must drive carefully.
3. Deduction - Sure that something is true (Certainty)
We use this when we don't know but we are certain that it is true (based on evidence).

 Look at all of that snow. It must be really cold outside.

 The ground was wet this morning. It must have rained last night.
 Dinosaurs were very big, they must have eaten a lot.
 It's five in the morning and you still haven't gone to bed? You must be tired!
 Jack must be home. I heard a noise coming from his room.
4. Expresses positive logical assumptions (Must + have + past participle)

 That must have been my mother calling me last night, nobody else has my number.
 He must have won the lottery with the new house and car he has just bought.
 She must have been at home - her car was there.
5. A strong recommendation
Something that is highly recommended (stronger than using should)

 We really must get together for dinner sometime.

 You must see the new Peter Jackson movie, it's fantastic.
 The ice cream here is delicious. You must try some.
Mustn't
The negative is Mustn't which refers to prohibition (negative obligation)
Mustn't = Must not

 You mustn't use your smartphone while you are driving.

 You mustn't get on the subway if you haven't paid for the ride.
 You must not open the gift until it is your birthday.
 We must not tell anyone.

Must vs. Have to

Must can be replaced by Have to with little difference in meaning:

 You have to study. (= you must study)

 He has to finish the report by Friday. (= He must finish the report by Friday)
 They have to resit the test. (= They must resit the test)
Have to is a more informal while Must is mostly used in written orders or instructions.
Also, Must expresses obligation imposed by the speaker while Have to expresses external
obligation.

 Teacher: You must complete this essay by Friday

 Student: We have to complete this essay by Friday.
When we are mentioning someone else's obligations, we use Have to.

 John has to quit smoking.

For questions it is more common to use Have to instead of Must (which sounds very formal):

 When do you have to pay finish the report?

 Does he have to take a blood test?
The past tense of Must is Had to:

 I had to pay my speeding ticket yesterday.

Mustn't vs. Don't have to
Be careful with the negative of Must and Have to where they DO have a different
meaning. Mustn't is a negative obligation (= it is important that you do NOT do something)
while Don't have to is an absence of obligation.
Mustn't = it is prohibited; it is not allowed
Don't have to = no obligation; you are not required to do something, especially if you don't want to.

 You must not drink that. (= it is forbidden to drink that; it is not allowed)
 You don't have to drink that. (= you don't need to drink that but you can if you want)
 You mustn't tell John (= Do not tell John)
 You don't have to tell John (= you can tell John if you want to but it is not necessary)
 Types of Nouns
A noun is a word that functions as the name of something. Nouns are the most common class of word
in English.
Below we have a list of the different types of nouns in English with an explanation of what each one is
and with examples of each type of noun.

Common Nouns
Common nouns are used to name a GENERAL type of person, place or thing.
Common nouns can be divided into smaller classes such as countable and uncountable nouns,
concrete and abstract nouns and collective nouns.
Examples of common nouns: girl, city, animal, friend, house, food

Proper Nouns
Proper nouns are used to name a SPECIFIC person, place or thing. In English, proper nouns begin
with a capital letter. Proper nouns do not normally have a determiner before them
(e.g. the London, the Mary etc.) though there are some exceptions (e.g. Is she the Mary that we met
at the conference?).
Examples of proper nouns: John, London, Pluto, Monday, France

Compound Nouns
Compound nouns are two or more words that create a noun. Compound nouns are sometimes one
word (haircut), words joined by a hyphen (son-in-law) or as separate words (bus stop). The main
stress is normally on the first part of the compound word (sunglasses, swimming pool)
Examples of compound nouns: toothbrush, rainfall, sailboat, mother-in-law, well-being, alarm clock,
credit card

Countable Nouns
Countable nouns are nouns that CAN be counted. They have a singular and a plural form and can be
used with a number. Sometimes countable nouns are called count nouns.
Examples of countable nouns: car, desk, cup, house, bike, eye, butterfly
See more information about Countable vs Uncountable Nouns.

Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns are nouns that CANNOT be counted. These are sometimes called Mass Nouns.
Uncountable nouns often refer to:

 substances: paper, wood, plastic

 liquids: milk, oil , juice
 gases: air, oxygen
 abstract ideas: happiness, time, information
Examples of uncountable nouns: water, coffee, cheese, sand, furniture, skin, wool, gold, fur
See more information about Countable vs Uncountable Nouns.

Collective Nouns
Collective nouns are words that refer to a set or group of people, animals or things.
Examples of collective nouns: staff, team, crew, herd, flock, bunch
See our list of Collective Nouns
Concrete Nouns
Concrete nouns are nouns which refer to people and things that exist physically and that at least one
of the senses can detect (can be seen, felt, heard, smelled/smelt, or tasted).
Examples of concrete nouns: dog, tree, apple, moon, coin, sock, ball, water

Abstract Nouns
Abstract nouns are nouns that have no physical existence and are not concrete. They refer to ideas,
emotions or concepts so you CANNOT see, touch, hear, smell or taste something that is an abstract
noun. Many abstract nouns are uncountable.
Examples of abstract nouns: love, time, happiness, bravery, creativity, justice, freedom, speed

Gerunds
A gerund, sometimes called a verbal noun, is a noun formed from a verb. Since all gerunds end in -
ing, they are sometimes confused as being a verb (present participle).
Example: Running is good for you.
Here running looks like a verb because of its -ing ending but it is a noun (gerund) because we are
talking about the concept of running, we are talking about a thing.
Examples of gerunds: reading, writing, dancing, thinking, flying
 Parts of Speech
The parts of speech explain how a word is used in a sentence.
There are eight main parts of speech (also know as word classes): nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs,
adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.
Most parts of speech can be divided into sub-classes.Prepositions can be divided into prepositions of time,
prepositions of place etc. Nouns can be divided into proper nouns, common nouns, concrete nouns etc.
It is important to know that a word can sometimes be in more than one part of speech. For example with the
word increase.
Increase can be a verb e.g. Prices increased
and increase can also be a noun e.g. There was an increase in the number of followers.

The eight main parts of speech in English are:

NOUN - (Naming word)

A noun is the name of a person, place, thing or idea.
Examples of nouns: Daniel, London, table, dog, teacher, pen, city, happiness, hope
Example sentences: Steve lives in Sydney. Mary uses pen and paper to write letters.
Learn more about the different types of nouns.

PRONOUN - (Replaces a Noun)

A pronoun is used in place of a noun or noun phrase to avoid repetition.
Examples of pronouns: I, you, we, they, he, she, it, me, us, them, him, her, this, those
Example sentences: Mary is tired. She wants to sleep. I want her to dance with me.

ADJECTIVE - (Describing word)

An adjective describes, modifies or gives more information about a noun or pronoun.
Examples: big, happy, green, young, fun, crazy, three
Example sentences: The little girl had a pink hat.

VERB - (Action Word)

A verb shows an action or state of being. A verb shows what someone or something is doing.
Examples: go, speak, run, eat, play, live, walk, have, like, are, is
Example sentences: I like Woodward English. I study their charts and play their games.

ADVERB - (Describes a verb)

An adverb describes/modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. It tells how, where, when, how often or
to what extent. Many adverbs end in -LY
Examples: slowly, quietly, very, always, never, too, well, tomorrow, here
Example sentences: I am usually busy. Yesterday, I ate my lunch quickly.

PREPOSITION - (Shows relationship)

A preposition shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another word. They can indicate time, place, or
relationship.
Examples: at, on, in, from, with, near, between, about, under
Example sentences: I left my keys on the table for you.
CONJUNCTION - (Joining word)
A conjunction joins two words, ideas, phrases or clauses together in a sentence and shows how they are
connected.
Examples: and, or, but, because, so, yet, unless, since, if.
Example sentences: I was hot and exhausted but I still finished the marathon.

INTERJECTION - (Expressive word)

An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses a strong feeling or emotion. It is a short exclamation.
Examples: Ouch! Wow! Great! Help! Oh! Hey! Hi!
Example sentences: Wow! I passed my English test. Great! – Ouch! That hurt.

Sometimes teachers include Articles as a ninth part of speech so we have included it here. Note, an article is a
type of adjective.

ARTICLE - (Defining word)

An article is used before a noun. These are divided into definite (the) and indefinite (a, an). Articles help define
nouns.
Examples: a, an, the
Example sentences: I need a dictionary. The dictionary needs to be in English.
 Past Participles
Past participles are used for all perfect tense forms of a verb and in the passive voice in English.
For regular verbs, we normally add ED to form its past participle. Unfortunately for irregular verbs there are no
rules and it is just a matter of practice.
The highlighted words below are examples of past participles:
1. Present perfect

 She hasn't finished her assignment yet.

 I still haven't found my keys.
2. Past perfect

 Chris was ill because he had eaten too much chocolate.

 She missed the bus because she hadn't set her alarm.
3. Future perfect

 Jamie will have been in Australia for one year in April.

 He will have gone by the time you arrive.
4. Conditional perfect

 If his passport had not been stolen, Adam would have gone to Brazil.
 I wouldn't have known if you hadn't told me.
5. Passive Voice

 The west coast of The USA was struck by torrential rain last night.
 The painting was stolen in the middle of the night.

Participles as adjectives
Past Participles can also be used like an adjective in front of a noun:

 The stolen baby was found by the police unharmed.

 Dean's broken arm was set in plaster by the doctor at the hospital.
 Please bring all of the required documents for your interview tomorrow.

List of Prepositions
The following is a list of prepositions in English:

 About
 Above
 Across
 After
 Against
 Along
 Alongside
 Around
 At
 Before
 Behind
 Below
 Beneath
 Beside
 Besides
 Between
 Beyond
 By
 Despite
 Down
 During
 Except
 For
 From
 In
 Inside
 Into
 Near
 Of
 Off
 On
 Onto
 Opposite
 Out
 Outside
 Past
 Round
 Since
 Through
 Throughout
 To
 Towards
 Under
 Underneath
 Until
 Up
 Upon
 With
 Within
 Without
Prepositions of Place
The chart demonstrates some of the most common prepositions of place in English.
Prepositions of Place are used to show the position or location of one thing with another.
It answers the question "Where?"
Below we have some more examples of Prepositions of Place:
In front of
 A band plays their music in front of an audience.
 The teacher stands in front of the students.
 The man standing in the line in front of me smells bad.
 Teenagers normally squeeze their zits in front of a mirror.

Behind
Behind is the opposite of In front of. It means at the back (part) of something.

 When the teacher writes on the whiteboard, the students are behind him (or her).
 Who is that person behind the mask?
 I slowly down because there was a police car behind me.

Between
Between normally refers to something in the middle of two objects or things (or places).

 There are mountains between Chile and Argentina.

 The number 5 is between the number 4 and 6.
 There is a sea (The English Channel) between England and France.

Across From / Opposite

Across from and Opposite mean the same thing. It usually refers to something being in front of something else
BUT there is normally something between them like a street or table. It is similar to saying that someone (or a
place) is on the other side of something.

 I live across from a supermarket (= it is on the other side of the road)

 The chess players sat opposite each other before they began their game.
(= They are in front of each other and there is a table between them)

Next to / Beside
Next to and Beside mean the same thing. It usually refers to a thing (or person) that is at the side of another
thing.

 At a wedding, the bride stands next to the groom.

 Guards stand next to the entrance of the bank.
 He walked beside me as we went down the street.
 In this part of town there isn't a footpath beside the road so you have to be careful.

Near / Close to
Near and Close to mean the same thing. It is similar to next to / beside but there is more of a distance between
the two things.

 The receptionist is near the front door.

 This building is near a subway station.
 We couldn't park the car close to the store.
 Our house is close to a supermarket.
On
On means that something is in a position that is physically touching, covering or attached to something.

 The clock on the wall is slow.

 He put the food on the table.
 I can see a spider on the ceiling.
 We were told not to walk on the grass.

Above / Over
Above and Over have a similar meaning. The both mean "at a higher position than X" but above normally
refers to being directly (vertically) above you.

 Planes normally fly above the clouds.

 There is a ceiling above you.
 There is a halo over my head. ;)
 We put a sun umbrella over the table so we wouldn't get so hot.
 Our neighbors in the apartment above us are rally noisy.
Over can also mean: physically covering the surface of something and is often used with the word All as in All
over.

 There water all over the floor.

 I accidentally spilled red wine all over the new carpet.
Over is often used as a Preposition of Movement too.

Under / Below
Under and Below have a similar meaning. They mean at a lower level. (Something is above it).

 Your legs are under the table.

 Monsters live under your bed.
 A river flows under a bridge.
 How long can you stay under the water?
 Miners work below the surface of the Earth.
Sometimes we use the word underneath instead of under and beneath instead of below. There is no difference
in meaning those they are less common nowadays.
Under is often used as a Preposition of Movement too.
 AT - ON - IN - Prepositions of Time
AT
We use AT with specific times (hour / minutes):

 I get up at 7 o'clock.
 My English class starts at 10am.
 She finishes work at 6.15
 I left the party at midnight.
Midnight (and midday) is a specific hour which is why we use AT.
12am = midnight
12pm = midday / noon
We use AT for a holiday period of two or more days:

 Do you normally get together with your relatives at Christmas?

 Did you eat a lot of chocolate at Easter?
ON
We use ON for specific days and dates:

 I will return it to you on Wednesday.

 They got married on Friday the 13th.
 We get paid on the 20th of every month.
 I drank too much milk on New Year's eve.
Remember that for dates, we use ordinal numbers.
E.g. the First of September (not the one of September)
IN
We use IN for specific months, years, seasons, centuries and lengths of time.

 My birthday is in January. (I don't mention the date, just the month)

 My grandmother was born in 1927.
 The river near my house is dry in Summer.
 The company was founded in the 19th century.
 We need to have this report ready in 15 minutes.
Compare:
The New Zealand National day is in February.
(I don't mention the day - only the month)
The New Zealand National day is on February 6th.
(I mention the day - the order is not important)
The Weekend
Sometimes you will hear AT the weekend and sometimes ON the weekend.
They are both correct. ON the weekend is used in United States.

 Where did you go on the weekend? (American English)

 Where did you go at the weekend? (British English)
See our video about: AT the weekend vs. ON the weekend

We don't use Prepositions

Remember! We do not use at, on, in or the with the following expressions:

 Today, tomorrow, yesterday, this morning, tonight, last, next, every.

Prepositions with Parts of the Day

Prepositions of Time
I have updated the old green AT ON IN chart (it was one of the first charts I did as I was learning how to create
them) to the newer version below which I created for our video.
 Pronunciation of ED
Past Tense, Past Participles and Adjectives
ED appears at the end of regular verbs in the past tense (e.g. wanted, helped, lived) sometimes in adjectives
ending in ED (e.g. tired, embarrassed, relaxed) as well as in some Past Participles.
However the pronunciation of ED sometimes causes problems for non-native speakers because it can be
pronounced in three different ways: as / id /, as / t / or as / d /
(Note: whenever you see letters or symbols between two slash marks (/ /), it refers to the pronunciation of that
letter or sound)
Before we learn the difference ways to pronounce ED, we must first know what voiced and voiceless
consonants are.

Voiced Consonants vs. Voiceless Consonants

A voiced consonant (or sound) means that it uses the vocal cords and they produce a vibration or humming
sound in the throat when they are said. Put your finger on your throat and then pronounce the letter L. You will
notice a slight vibration in your neck / throat. That is because it is a voiced sound.
A voiceless sound (sometimes called an unvoiced sound) is when there is no vibration in your throat and the
sound comes from the mouth area. Pronounce the letter P. You will notice how it comes from your mouth (in
fact near your lips at the front of your mouth). The P sound doesn't come from your throat.
Try this with the other letters and you will "feel" the difference between a voiced and a voiceless consonant (or
sound).
Now we know the difference between voiced and voiceless sounds we can look at the following rules for the
correct pronunciation of ED in English:

1. The /id/ sound

If the last letter of the word is spelled with D or T, the ED is pronounced as a separate syllable with an /id/
sound (it rhymes with kid and lid).

 wanted (sounds like "want-id")

 waited
 needed
 folded

2. The /t/ sound

If the last consonant of the word is voiceless, then the ED is pronounced as a T. Be careful not to create an
extra syllable or "id" sound.

 talked (sounds like "talkt")

 kissed (the S sound comes from the front of mouth so it would sound like "kisst")
 parked
 helped
NOTE: As an example, with the word "helped", if you say "help-id" as a two syllable word, then it is very likely
that people will NOT understand the word or what you are saying. (It is pronounced like "helpt")

3. The /d/ sound

If the last letter of the words ends in a voiced consonant (or sound), then the ED is pronounced like a D
(without creating another syllable)

 played (sounds like "playd")

 closed (the S sounds like a vibrating Z so the word would sound like "clozd")
 opened
  lived

An easy way to remember how to pronounce ED words

The most important thing to remember is that there are two main divisions:

1. The words that end in T or D

- the ED is pronounced as a syllable /id/
2. and the REST of the words
- you can pronounce the ED as /t/ and people will understand.
In time you will learn when to pronounce the ED as /t/ or /d/.
 Pronunciation of Final -S
Plural Nouns and Verbs in Third Person
The pronunciation of S at the end of plural nouns, verbs in third person and as a part of the possessive
casesometimes causes problems for non-native speakers because it can be pronounced in three different
ways: / ɪz /, / s / or / z /.
(Note: whenever you see letters or symbols between two slash marks (/ /), it refers to the pronunciation of that
letter or sound)
The pronunciation depends on the last sound of the verb or noun which is usually a consonant. Before we
learn the difference ways to pronounce the final S, we must first know what voiced and voiceless consonants
are as well as sibilant sounds:

Voiced Consonants vs. Voiceless Consonants

A voiced consonant (or sound) means that it uses the vocal cords and they produce a vibration or humming
sound in the throat when they are said. Put your finger on your throat and then pronounce the letter L. You will
notice a slight vibration in your neck / throat. That is because it is a voiced sound.
A voiceless sound (sometimes called unvoiced sound) is when there is no vibration in your throat and the
sound comes from the mouth area. Pronounce the letter P. You will notice how it comes from your mouth (in
fact near your lips at the front of your mouth). The P sound doesn't come from your throat.
Try this with the other letters and you will "feel" the difference between a voiced and a voiceless consonant (or
sound).
Sibilant Sounds
Another sound which is relevant to this is the sibilant sound which is produced by forcing air out toward your
teeth. Is is characterized by a hissing sound (sssss), a buzzing sound (zzzzz) or the sound teachers make
when they want you to be quiet (shhhh!).

 Z like the sound a bee makes... zzzzzz

 S like the sound a snake makes... sssssss
 SH like the sound a teacher makes when they want you to be quiet... shhhhh
Now we know the difference between voiced, voiceless and sibilant sounds we can look at the following rules
for the correct pronunciation of S at the end of words in English:

The pronunciation of the S at the end of words in

English
The pronunciation of the final S in plural words and verbs in the third person depend on the final consonant
sound before that S.
The ending is pronounced /s/ after a voiceless sound, it is pronounced /z/ after a voiced sound and is
pronounced /ɪz / or /əz/ after a sibilant sound:

 Voiceless: helps /ps/ -- sits /ts/ -- looks /ks/

 Voiced: crabs /bz/ -- words /dz/ -- gloves /vz/,
 Sibilant: buses /sɪz / or /səz /, bridges /dʒɪz / or /dʒəz /, wishes /shɪz / or /shəz /

1. The /ɪz/ sound (or /əz/ sound)

Sometimes this sound is written as /əz/ and uses the symbol "schwa" or "upside down e" before the z. For
ease we will write this sound as /ɪz/ or /iz/
If the last consonant sound of the word is a sibilant sound (a hissing or buzzing sound), the final S is
pronounced as /ɪz/. This /ɪz/ sound is pronounced like an extra syllable. (e.g. the word buses has two syllables)
If the sound has a J sound (/dʒ/ like the letter J at the beginning of the word jacket or /ʒ/ like the S in pleasure),
then the final S is also pronounced as /ɪz/.
Examples of words ending in the /ɪz/ sound:

 C: races (sounds like "race-iz")

 S: pauses, nurses, buses, rises
 X: fixes, boxes, hoaxes
 Z: amazes, freezes, prizes, quizzes
 SS: kisses, misses, passes, bosses
 CH: churches, sandwiches, witches, teaches
 SH: dishes, wishes, pushes, crashes
 GE: garages, changes, ages, judges
Remember: after verbs ending in -sh, -ch, -ss and -x, we add the -es to the end of the verb (in third person)
and the pronunciation is /iz/ as an extra syllable.

2. The /s/ sound

If the last consonant of the word is voiceless, then the S is pronounced as /s/. Be careful not to create an extra
syllable.
NOTE: The consonants c, s, sh, ch and x are voiceless though they use the sibilants ending seen above.
Examples of words ending in the /s/ sound:

 P: cups stops, sleeps

 T: hats, students, hits, writes
 K: cooks, books, drinks, walks
 F: cliffs, sniffs, beliefs, laughs, graphs, apostrophes (the -gh and -ph here are pronounced like a F)
 TH: myths, tablecloths, months (voiceless th)

3. The /z/ sound

If the last letter of the words ends in a voiced consonant (or sound), then the S is pronounced like a
Z /z/(without creating another syllable). This Z sound is similar to the sound a bee makes zzzz.
We also use this ending when the word ends in a vowel sound (e.g. bees, flies etc.)
Examples of words ending in the /z/ sound:

 B: crabs, rubs
 D: cards, words, rides, ends
 G: rugs, bags, begs
 L: deals calls, falls, hills
 M: plums, dreams
 N: fans, drains, runs, pens
 NG: kings, belongs, sings
 R: wears, cures
 V: gloves, wives, shelves, drives
 Y: plays, boys, says,
 THE: clothes, bathes, breathes
 VOWEL SOUNDS: sees, fleas
Pronunciation of S cheat sheet
 Quantifiers
What are quantifiers?
Quantifiers tell us something about the amount or quantity of something (a noun).
Some quantifiers express a small or large quantity:

 Small: I have a few things to do before finishing work.

 Large: I have many things to do before finishing work.
Some quantifiers express part of or all of a quantity:

 Part: It rains most days in winter.

 All: It rained all day yesterday.
Quantifiers belong to a larger class called Determiner.

Examples of quantifiers
Quantifiers can be a single word (e.g. some) or a phrase (e.g. a lot of). Quantifiers that appear as a phrase are
often called Complex Quantifiers.
Simple Quantifiers: all, another, any, both, each, either, enough, every, few, fewer, little, less, many, more,
much, neither, no, several, some.
Complex Quantifiers: a few, a little, a lot of, lots of

The position of quantifiers

We put quantifiers at the beginning of noun phrases.
quantifier + noun

 some people
quantifier + adjective + noun

 many old books

quantifier + adverb + adjective + noun

 a lot of very crazy drivers

We can also use quantifiers without a noun, like a pronoun.

 These books are old but some are still in good condition. (Some refers to some books)

Quantifier + Noun
CHART COMING SOON

Formal and Informal Quantifiers

Sometimes we can make a sentence more formal or more informal (or natural) just by changing the quantifier.
Many people where invited to the wedding. (formal)
A lot of people arrived late. (informal/natural)
They made little progress. (formal)
They didn't make much progress. (informal/natural)
 Question Tags
Question tags are short questions at the end of statements.
They are mainly used in speech when we want to:

 confirm that something is true or not, or

 to encourage a reply from the person we are speaking to.
Question tags are formed with the auxiliary or modal verb from the statement and the appropriate subject.
A positive statement is followed by a negative question tag.

 Jack is from Spain, isn't he?

 Mary can speak English, can't she?
A negative statement is followed by a positive question tag.

 They aren't funny, are they?

 He shouldn't say things like that, should he?
When the verb in the main sentence is in the present simple we form the question tag with do / does.

 You play the guitar, don't you?

 Alison likes tennis, doesn't she?
If the verb is in the past simple we use did.

 They went to the cinema, didn't they?

 She studied in New Zealand, didn't she?
When the statement contains a word with a negative meaning, the question tag needs to be positive

 He hardly ever speaks, does he?

 They rarely eat in restaurants, do they?
 Reflexive Pronouns
When the Subject and the Object in a sentence refer to the same person or thing we use a Reflexive
Pronoun.
It is the only area of English grammar that is reflexive.

Subject Reflexive
Pronouns Pronouns
I Myself
You Yourself
He Himself
She Herself
It Itself
We Ourselves
You (pl) Yourselves
They Themselves
If you are using YOU in the plural, the reflexive pronoun is yourselves.
Examples of sentences using reflexive pronouns:

 My daughter likes to dress herself without my help.

 I taught myself to play the guitar.
 My cat always licks itself.

When to use reflexive pronouns

1. When the subject and the object refer to the same person or thing.

 He accidentally cut himself while he was chopping the vegetables.

 She bought a present for herself.
 We helped ourselves to the free drinks at the launch party.
 They injured themselves during the rugby match.
 I enjoyed myself at the concert.
 The dog is scratching itself – it must have fleas!
2. We use them for emphasis.

 The author signed the book for me herself!

 I did it myself.
3. In some cases we use it to have a similar meaning to also.

 Annabelle was pretty happy last night. I was pretty happy myself.

When NOT to use reflexive pronouns

1. There are a number of verbs in English with which we rarely or never use reflexive pronouns (as they are in
other languages).
They include: adapt, complain, concentrate, get up, hide, lie down, meet, move, relax, remember, shave,
shower, sit down.
2. After a preposition of place or location we use a personal pronoun and not a reflexive pronoun.

 He put the backpack next to him.

Ourselves, Themselves and Each Other
1. We use each other when two or more people or things perform the same action to the other.

 Our neighbors were shouting at each other all night.

 My brothers always compete with each other in sport.
2. Take note of the difference between these two sentences:

 Mark and Sarah killed themselves. (They each committed suicide).

 Mark and Sarah killed each other. (Mark killed Sarah and she killed Mark).

More about Each Other

We use the reciprocal pronoun each other when the action is between two people, and not reflexive.

 They stared into each other's eyes.

 The hate each other.
And to make the contrast clearer:

 Mike and Carol bought each other presents for Christmas

(Mike bought a present for Carol and Carol bought a present for Mike).
is very different to

 Mike and Carol bought themselves presents for Christmas

(Mike bought a present for himself and Carol bought a present for herself).

Reflexive Pronouns with Objects

We use verb + reflexive pronoun + object when we do something for ourselves.

 She cooked herself a quiche.

 We taught ourselves French.
We use verb + object + reflexive pronoun when we want to emphasize that another person did not do the
action (or assist).

 I repaired the tire myself.

 They did the homework themselves.
 My brother spoke to his boss himself about a raise.

By + Reflexive Pronouns
We use by + myself/yourself/himself etc when we are alone or not with another person.

 Jacob went to the party by himself.

 Emma was sitting by herself.
 Shall
Modal Verbs
SHALL
Shall is not used very much nowadays and mostly in formal speech and some legal documents.
Originally Shall was used instead of Will in first person (with I and We) when talking about the future. Now
almost everyone uses Will with all subjects.
Nowadays, the most common use of shall in everyday English (although not in American English) is in
questions that serve as offers or suggestions: "Shall I ...?" or "Shall we ...?"
Situations where Shall is still occasionally used:
1. Suggestion
Notice how each of these can easily be replaced by should.

 Shall I get a pizza for dinner tonight?

 Shall we take a taxi home?
 It's cold. Shall I close the window?
 Shall we go now?
2. Offers / Volunteering to do something

 That bag looks heavy. Shall I carry it for you?

 Shall I wait for you?
 I shall make the arrangements for you.
3. Instructions (asking for or giving)

 What shall I do with your mail when it arrives?

 I shall meet you there at 7.
 You shall not pass! (said Gandalf to the Balrog in Lord of the Rings)
4. Promises

 You shall be the first person to know. (= I promise that you will be the first person)
 I shall get you a new bike for your birthday.
5. Confirmation (Statement of Fact)
Notice how each of these can easily be replaced by will.

 I shall turn 30 next week.

 We shall know the results of the exam next week.
 I shall meet you there at 7.
6. Formal written regulations and rules
This is very formal and normally avoided in spoken English. The passive is most often used in this situation.

 A record shall be kept of all students arriving late to class (= school regulations)
 Members of the board of directors shall be elected annually (= company regulations)

The Negative of Shall

The negative of shall is shall not (= will not). The contraction of shall not is shan't (= won't). It is very rare to
hear this used nowadays though you may find it written in older texts.

 I shan't let the children bother you.

Shall in Question Tags

Shall is used in questions tags when the main verb is Let's.
  Let's go to the beach, shall we?

Shall
 Should
Modal Verbs
Should is a modal verb.
After Should you use the base form of the infinitive (= verb without To e.g. Go instead of To Go)
Should + Verb (base form of infinitive)
e.g. You should go now (do not say: You should to go now.)
SHOULD
1. To give advice, a recommendation or a suggestion
This is to say that it is the right thing to do or the correct thing.

 Does your tooth still hurt? You should make an appointment with the dentist.
 I think you should study for the test so that you don't fail.
 Your hair is too long. You should get a haircut.
 You really should go to the new restaurant on Main Street.
2. Expresses that a situation is likely in the present

 Mary should be at home by now. Give her a call.

 He should have the letter by now. I sent it a couple of weeks ago.
3. Expresses that a situation is likely in the future (prediction)

 They should win the game because they are a much better team.
 I posted the cheque yesterday so it should arrive this week.
 It should be fine tomorrow.
4. Expresses an obligation that is not as strong as Must.
Sometimes Should is used instead of Must to make rules, orders or instructions sound more polite. This may
appear more frequently on formal notices or on information sheets.

 On hearing the fire alarm, hotel guests should leave their room immediately.
 Passengers should check in at least 2 hours before departure time.
 You should never lie to your doctor.
 You should pay more attention in class.
 You should be at work before 9.
All of the above example sentences can have must instead of should making the obligation stronger and less
polite.
5. Was expected in the past but didn't happen (should + have + past participle)
This expresses the idea that the subject did not fulfill their obligation in the past or did not act responsibly.

 You should have given your boss the report yesterday when he asked for it.
 I should have studied more but I was too tired.
6. Not fulfilling an obligation (should + be + verb-ing)
This expresses the idea that the subject is not fulfilling their obligation or is not acting sensibly.

 You should be wearing your seatbelt. (The person isn't wearing one right now)
 We should be studying for the test. (We are not studying right now and we should)
7. Sometimes should is replaced by ought to without a change in meaning. Note that ought to sounds
more formal and is used less frequently.

 You ought to study more. (= you should study more)

 He ought to go home. (= He should go home)
 They ought to stop doing that. (= They should stop doing that)

Shouldn't
We use shouldn't to advise not to do something, usually because it is bad or wrong to do.

 You shouldn't throw your litter onto the street.

 We shouldn't leave without saying goodbye.
 He shouldn't play with those wires if he doesn't know what he is doing.
 Are you tired? You shouldn't work so much.
 You shouldn't talk like that to your grandmother.

Should
 So vs Such
The following rules explain the difference between So and Such in English.

So … that, Such … that

We use so ... that, such ... that:
a) to show a fact (usually with a result or consequence)

 Pamela Ander's feet are big.

(Expresses a fact).
 Pamela Ander's feet are so big that she can't find shoes her size.
(Emphasizes that you feel strongly about the size of her feet).
b) to show extreme feelings or an opinion about something

 George Bushoff is an idiot.

(Merely a statement of fact/opinion).
 George Bushoff is such an idiot that he doesn't even know the capital of his own country.
(Emphasizes the speaker's opinion of the intensity of George Bushoff's idiocy).

SO with adjectives and adverbs

so + adjective/adverb + that + result

 The teacher speaks so clearly that everyone can understand her.

 The sun was so strong that they got burned within 15 minutes.

SUCH + Nouns
such + a + (adjective) + singular noun + that + result
(It is common to put an adjective before the noun)

 He is such a tight person that he even reuses his servillettes.

 Christopher is such a handsome man that all the ladies want him.
 She had such a long speech that everyone stopped paying attention to her.
such + plural/uncountable noun + that + result

 She has such big feet that she has to buy special shoes.
 Woodward Restaurant has such good food that it's always full of people.

SO / SUCH in exclamations
In exclamations we drop the word 'that' and use:
i) such + noun (singular/plural)
ii) so + adjective

 You are such an idiot! (noun)

 Celebrities have such weird tastes! (noun)
 You are so stupid! (adjective)
 It's so sunny outside! (adjective)

Such-and-such
This is used to talk about a particular type of person or thing that doesn't need to be specified. It is an unstated
generic placeholder.

 People from such-and-such areas tend to be wealthy.

 If you do such-and-such a job, you will become famous.
 Some - Any - A - An
A and AN
We use A/AN (articles) with singular countable nouns.

 My brother has a dog and my sister has a cat.

 There is an accident on the corner.
A is used when the next word starts with a consonant sound.

 A book
 A guitar
 A friend
 A university (The start of the word university sounds like YOU, a consonant sound).
AN is used when the next word starts with a vowel sound.

 An apple
 An ice-cream
 An orange
 An hour (the letter H in this word is silent so it sounds like it starts with a vowel).
Learn more about Definite and Indefinite Articles.
Some and Any
We use SOME and ANY with plural nouns and uncountable nouns.
Some is generally used in positive sentences.
Any is generally used in negative sentences.

 I have some information for you about flights to Paris.

(Positive - Uncountable)
 I don't have any information for you about flights to Paris.
(Negative - Uncountable)

 We met some friends for drinks after work yesterday.

(Positive - Plural Countable)
 I didn't see any friends there on Thursday.
(Negative - Plural Countable)

 I think he will have some time to speak to you today.

(Positive - Uncountable)
 I don't think he will have any time to speak to you today.
(Negative - Uncountable)

You can also use SOME and ANY in a sentence without a noun if the meaning of the sentence is clear.

 I didn't eat any salad but Peter ate some. (salad)

 Sean took lots of photos of the mountains but Emma didn't take any. (photos)
Questions with Some and Any
Generally, we use ANY in questions.

 Do you know any famous people?

 Do you have any children?
But, SOME is used in the following circumstances:
1. When we are offering something.

 Would you like some coffee?

 Do you want some sugar for your coffee?
2. When we are asking for something.

 Could I have some salt, please?

 Can I have some fries with that?
3. When we are suggesting something.

 Why don't we watch some movies on TV tonight?

 Why don't you give her some advice?

You can also use SOME and ANY in a sentence without a noun if the meaning of the sentence is clear.
I didn't eat any salad but Peter ate some. (salad)
Sean took lots of photos of the mountains but Emma didn't take any. (photos)
 Still - Yet - Already
Three adverbs that often cause difficulty are still, yet, and already.
They are all used when actions are going to happen, or are expected to happen, or were unexpected around
the present time. Here we go into more detail about the difference between still, yet and already:

STILL
Still is used to say an action or situation continues to the present because it has not finished.
It often refers to something happening for longer than expected.
Notice the position of still before the verb or adjective.

 My grandfather is sixty-nine and he still works every day at the kiosk he owns.
 Do you still live with your parents?
 It's 8pm, and I can't leave the office because I still have work to do.
 Are you still angry with your partner?
 He is still asleep so don't wake him up.
If the verb has two parts, still goes between both the verbs:

 She started her exam an hour ago and she is still answering the questions.
 Is it still snowing? (= it continues to snow, it hasn't stopped)
 When I went to bed, Angelica was still working.
But if one of the two verbs is negative, still goes before that negative verb:

 Lucy has stopped smoking but her brother still hasn't quit.
 I took the clock to the repair shop though it still isn't working.

YET
Yet refers to an action that is expected in the future. It is not used in the past.
To ask if something expected has happened. It is usually placed at the end of the sentence or question.

 Are we there yet? (A typical question kids ask while taking car trips with their parents)
 Is the report ready yet?
 Hasn't your mother told you yet? We're moving to Alaska!
To say that something expected hasn't happened:

 Mary can't go home yet, she hasn't finished her work.

 They haven't paid me yet. (I was expecting to paid before now.)
 My parents haven't kicked me out of their house yet.
Yet is occasionally used in affirmative sentences, giving the sentences a similar meaning as the use of still.
Note that this is more formal and not common.

 We have yet to hear the big news from Aunt Martha.

= We are still waiting to hear the big news from Aunt Martha.
Often, we use still and yet together to explain why an action is continuing.

 I am still studying at the university because I haven’t graduated yet.

 We still don’t know who will be our new boss. The owners haven’t told us yet.
 I haven’t decided yet if I’m going to quit my job to go travel. I’m still thinking about it.
ALREADY
Already is used to refer to an action that happened sooner than expected.
It is used in affirmative sentences in the present or past, but never future.

 A: Ask Katie to send the article to her editor. B: She has already sent it.
 I already know what I'm going to buy you for your birthday.
 They've already seen "Spiderman 15" and really don't want to see it again.
Notice the placement of already in the examples below:

 Is Mary already here? She must have driven very fast to get here before me.
 How does he already have the answers to tomorrow's test?
 Have they already obtained their visas?
In present tense sentences, it is placed between the subject and verb.
In present and present perfect questions, it comes immediately after the subject.
However, in present perfect sentences, the order is subject + have+ already + past participle.
 To - Too - Two
The Difference between To, Too and Two is frequently confused in English, sometimes even for native
speakers.
Why? Because they are homophones, words that have the same pronunciation but have a different spelling
and meaning.
Sometimes To, Too and Two can all be used in the same sentence. While they all sound the same, it is in the
context that you can understand the meaning.
Examples:

 It was too late to buy two bottles of water.

 Don't take too long as there are two other people who want to use the internet.

TO
Can be used as a preposition of movement or direction. It indicates the place you arrive at as a result of
moving.

 I will take a taxi to the airport.

 We are going to the stadium tonight.
 The train to Montreal leaves in twenty minutes.
 What is the quickest way to the beach?
From X to Y: To refers to the end point of a time period.

 The office is open from 8.30am to 6.30pm.

 She works from 9 to 5.
Note: when we do NOT have the starting time, we use until.

 Today I think I'll only work until 5.

It identifies the person or thing affected or receiving something

 I gave a present to my friend Paulina.

 Can you give my keys to Jack?
 They were not very nice to him.
Can be used to show a change of state, condition or quality

 We waited for the traffic lights to change from red to green.

 She tore the letter to pieces.
Can be used as the first part of an infinitive (To + Verb = Infinitive). Notice when two verbs are together, the
second verb is in the infinitive form (except Modal verbs and To Be)

 Next year I want to spend six months in Europe.

 He needs to study more.

TOO
Can be used before an adjective or an adverb for reinforcement to mean 'very' or 'more than...'

 This dress is too big for me. (too + adjective)

 He was driving too fast so the police gave him a fine. (too + adverb)
Can be used as an adverb to mean 'also' or 'in addition'

 She has been to Switzerland too. (= also)

 I was very tired last night and my friend was too. (= also)
Too much and Too many refer to an excessive amount of something.
Too much (+ uncountable noun)
Too many (+ plural noun)

 Sorry, I can't go. I have too much work to do.

 There were too many people in the room.
 I have eaten too much. (= too much food)
See our notes about Too vs Very vs Enough

TWO
Only used as a number. Two = 2
Examples:

 There are two cars in the car park.

 I can speak two languages, English and Spanish.
 Used to vs. Use to
Common Mistakes in English
A common mistake both for learners of English as well as native speakers is the difference between “Used to”
and “Use to” and when (or if) we put the letter D at the end of the verb.
First let’s look at the meaning of it:
Used to = an action or habit that was common in the PAST but not anymore.
This should not be confused with
To be used to = accustomed to something (normally out of habit or experience)
Notice how Used to ends in –ed which normally means the verb is in the past tense.

 I used to drink coffee every morning but now I drink tea.

 She used to live in London but now she lives in New York.
 He used to play football professionally but he had to quit because of an injury.
These sentences refer to a past habit or a continuous action in the past and they are affirmative.
BUT…

Used to in Negative
If we want to make a negative sentence, the didn’t part shows that we are talking about the past tense.
It is NOT common to use Used to in negative form though we will show you how to do it anyway.
Compare the normal past tense:

 I played rugby on Saturday. (past - affirmative)

 I didn’t play rugby on Saturday. (past – negative – play doesn’t have the –ed at the end because the
auxiliary didn’t tells us that the sentence is in the past tense)
And now let’s see a sentence with Used to:

 I used to like her, but now I hate her.

 I didn’t use to like her but now I think she is great.
Many times we use never instead of didn’t. In this case we use “used” in past tense. Compare:

 I didn’t use to smoke.

 I never used to smoke.

Used to in Questions
As with normal questions in the past tense, we use the base form of the verb (not the verb in past tense), since
the auxiliary DID shows us that the question is in the past tense.

 + I used to ride a bike to school every day.

 - I didn’t use to ride a bike to school. I would normally go by bus.
 ? Did you use to ride a bike to school when you were a child?
Some more examples

 What did you use to do after school when you were a kid?
 Where did you use to go on vacation with your parents?

Why do people sometimes write Use to instead of Used

to in English?
Well, when we say used to, the final D in the verb used is pronounced like a T and since the next word (TO)
also begins with the T sound, it seems like there is only one T (that belonging to the word TO).
When speaking, we frequently run words together (join words) so it would sound like Use-to.
Used to and Would
Sometimes we can replace Used to with Would.

 My grandfather used to do exercises every day before work.

 My grandfather would do exercises every day before work.
See more about the uses of Would.

So… you used to find this difficult, didn't you? (And now you don't)
 Very - Too - Enough
The following grammar notes show the difference uses (and word order) of Very, Too and Enough.

Very and Too + adjective

1. The exam is very difficult, but Jim can complete it.
2. The exam is too difficult. Jim can't complete it.
Very difficult = it is difficult but possible for Jim to complete the exam.
Too difficult = It is impossible for Jim to complete the exam.
Remember that Too implies a negative result.

Too + adjective + infinitive

 Alex couldn't play basketball because he was too short.
 Alex was too short to play basketball.
 We are too tired to go to the gym.
 Mary was too ill to finish her food.
Too + adjective + for (someone) + infinitive
 I can't walk to Valparaiso because it is too far.
 Valparaiso is too far for me to walk.
 It is too late for me to go out.
 The soup is too cold for Tim to eat.
 The price of the ticket is too expensive for Mike to fly to Europe.
Enough + noun
Enough (pronounced "enuff")
Enough = sufficient

 There was enough food for everybody at the party.

 I had enough money to pay for dinner with my girlfriend.
 Is there enough time to finish the test?
Adjective + Enough
 She is pretty enough for everybody to notice her. (Everybody notices her because she is very pretty.)
 My friend lives close enough to my house to walk.
 Last summer it was hot enough to go swimming every day.
Enough + infinitive
 When she lost her dog, it was enough to make her cry.
 He was sick enough to stay home from work today.
 I arrived at the airport early enough to make my flight to New York.
 Would
Modal Verbs
Would is a modal verb. Would is often used in conditional sentences with a clause beginning with "If..." but it
can also be used in the following situations:

WOULD
1. Used as a polite invitation or to offer

 Would you like to go to the movies with me tonight?

 Would you like some more tea?
 I would be happy to help you with preparation for your exam.
When someone asks a question to invite you or offer you something using Would, the response can be: Yes, I
would OR No, I wouldn't.

 Would you like to have a coffee with me? Yes, I would.

2. Describe a prediction (hypothetical situations)

 It would be nice to have a barbecue.

 Nobody would believe me if I told them I had seen a UFO.
3. To not sound impolite when disagreeing with someone

 It would like to point out that you need to review those numbers.
 I wouldn't agree with that.
4. To describe past habits

 Before internet people would send letters to each other.

 When I was at school I would get up before everyone else in our house.
(This is similar to using Used to)
5. Future in the past
We use would when we are talking about the past but we want to talk about something which was in the future
at that time (in the past).

 When I was in Paris last year I would spend hours sitting at coffee shops writing ideas for my novel.
 She promised she would send a postcard from Peru.
 I told you he would help us.
6. Wouldn't: To describe a past unwillingness (refusal)

 He said he wouldn't help us.

 My son wouldn't eat his food.
ADVANCED
 Compound Adjectives
A compound adjective is sometimes called a hyphenated adjective. What are they?
Let's look at the following sentences:

 I saw a man-eating alligator.

 I saw a man eating alligator.
The first sentence contains a compound adjective.
The second sentence doesn't.
However the meaning of the two sentences are very different as can be seen in the picture below:

I saw a man-eating alligator.

We are describing the alligator. What type of alligator is it? It is one that eats men (or people).
I saw a man eating alligator.
This sentence without the hyphen sounds like a man is eating an alligator.
(man is the subject, eating is the verb, alligator is the object or thing that is being eaten).
As you can see, the hyphen (or lack of it) makes a big difference in the meaning of the sentence.
Before we explain in more detail why we put that hyphen between those two words in the first sentence, we
need to do a quick review of Adjectives.

What is an adjective?
An adjective is a word that describes something.
A red car (red is an adjective because it describes the car. How is the car? Red)
A big book (big is an adjective because it describes the book. How is the book? Big)
See our other grammar notes about Adjectives in English. (LINK)
But sometimes we use more than one adjective to describe something.
Compound adjectives
A compound adjective is an adjective that contains two or more words.
In general we put a hyphen between two or more words (before a noun) when we want them to act as a single
idea (adjective) that describes something.

 I live in an English-speaking country.

English-speaking is an adjective (used to describe the country). We use a hyphen to connect the
word English with speaking to show that it is one adjective (or one idea).
This adjective with two words joined by the hyphen is called a compound adjective.
Some more examples of compound adjectives are:

 Our office is in a twenty-storey building.

 I have just finished reading a 300-page book.
 He is a well-known writer.
There are many types of Compound Adjectives. Here is a list of the most common types:

Compound Adjectives + Periods of Time

When he have compound adjectives using numbers + a time period, that word referring to a time period is in
singular form and is joined to the number with a hyphen.

 I work eight hours every day --> I work an eight-hour day

 I'm going on vacation for three weeks --> I have a three-week vacation
 There was a delay of 5 seconds --> There was a five-second delay
Notice how we normally write the number as a word, not in numerical form.

Adverbs and Compound Adjectives

Adverbs modify a verb.

 She walks slowly.

How does she walk? Slowly. Slowly is an adverb that modifies (or describes) the verb.
Adverbs can also be used to modify an adjective.

 It is very hot today. (Very is an adverb)

 She is extremely intelligent. (Extremely is an adverb)
Notice how we do not put a hyphen between an adverb and an adjective (not even before a noun).

 It is a very hot day.

 She is an extremely intelligent girl.

Adverb + Past Participle

However when we have an Adverb + past participle, we put a hyphen between the two words to make it a
compound adjective.

 This is a brightly-lit room.

 She is a well-known actress.
 We live in a densely-populated city.

Noun + Past Participle

When we have a noun + past participle, we put a hyphen between the two words to make it a compound
adjective.

 We should start using wind-powered generators to cut costs.

 I love eating sun-dried raisins.

Noun + Present Participle

When we have a noun + present participle, we put a hyphen between the two words to make it a compound
adjective.
  I bought some mouth-watering strawberries.
 That was a record-breaking jump.

Noun + Adjective
When we have a noun + adjective, we put a hyphen between the two words to make it a compound adjective.

 She is a world-famous singer.

 This is a smoke-free restaurant.

Adjective + Noun
When we have an adjective + noun, we put a hyphen between the two words to make it a compound adjective.

 It was a last-minute decision.

 We watched the full-length version of the movie.

Adjective + Past Participle

When we have an adjective + past participle, we put a hyphen between the two words to make it a compound
adjective.

 That is an old-fashioned dress

 Reptiles are cold-blooded creatures.

Adjective + Present Participle

When we have an adjective + present participle, we put a hyphen between the two words to make it a
compound adjective.

 She is a good-looking girl.

 It left a long-lasting taste in my mouth.

Compound Adjectives with Proper Nouns

A proper noun is the name of something or someone (e.g. John, Susan Sanders).
Compound Adjectives made from Proper nouns don't need a hyphen though must have capital letters.

 I bought the James Jackson tickets for us.

James Jackson is a compound adjective describing the tickets (What type of tickets? James Jackson tickets).
Since the adjective is a Proper noun, we don't need a hyphen between the two names.

How do we know when to put a hyphen?

If you can use the word “and” between the two adjectives or words, then a hyphen isn't necessary.

 She has a big blue book.

(Big and Blue are adjectives)
Can we say: She has a big and blue book. (Yes, it is possible)

 He is a world famous singer

Can we say: He is a world and famous singer. No, it doesn't sound correct so we need a hyphen to join the
words worldand famous.
Also, look at the following:

 It's an old coal-mining town

Notice how we didn't put a hyphen between the word old and coal. If we had have done that, we would have
been referring to old coal, as in coal that is old. We want to emphasis that the town in old and not the coal.
Here we can say it is old and a coal-mining one.
 If I were you...
At school or in grammar books you are normally taught the following rule:

 I / he / she / it - WAS
 We / you / they - WERE
This is correct when we are talking about the PAST TENSE.
BUT there is another situation in which WERE appears that is not the past tense. It also appears in the
SUBJUNCTIVE mood.
First, let's look at the following structure and meaning before explaining why it happens...

If I were you
If I were you ... is used when giving ADVICE about what you would do in the same situation as the other
person. You imagine yourself in their position or situation and what you would do or how you would react.

 If I were you, I would study more.

 If I were you, I would stop doing that.
 If I were you, I would go to the doctor.
 if I were you, I would subscribe to the Woodward English YouTube channel right now. :)
 If I were you, I wouldn't play with those wires.
Though in informal (and grammatically incorrect) English, you may hear some people say If I was... This usage
doesn't sound good, so avoid it.
You can also change the order of the sentence

 I would study more if I were you.

 I would be more careful if I were you.
 I wouldn't do that if I were you.
Notice how the comma is not necessary with this word order.

Why do you use IF I WERE and not IF I WAS?

The reason we use WERE instead of WAS is because the sentence is in the SUBJUNCTIVE mood which is
used for hypothetical situations. This is a condition which is contrary to fact or reality (the fact is, I am NOT
you).
In the subjunctive mood we use IF + I / HE / SHE / IT + WERE for the verb To Be.

 If I were not in debt, I would quit my job. (But the contrary is true, I AM in debt, so I cannot quit my job)
  If he were taller, he'd be accepted into the team.
 She would be still be correcting my grammar if she were still alive.
In informal English, you will hear some people say If I was... If he was... etc. Again, this usage doesn't sound
good though unfortunately it is common, especially on the internet (and social media sites).

Can IF I WAS ever be correct?

Yes, though the sentence is not in the Subjunctive mood but the Indicative instead. Note that it is not common
to use the indicative mood with IF. Let's compare:

 If I was sick, she would give me medicine that tasted terrible. (indicative = states facts or asks
questions - in this case, IF can be replaced by WHENEVER)
 If I were sick, I wouldn't be here. (subjunctive = hypothetical - I am not sick, but I'm imagining that
hypothetical situation)

If I was your boyfriend... NOOO JB!

There is a song on the radio that goes... "If I was your boyfriend, I'd never let you go..."
Well, sorry Justin Bieber fans but this is grammatically incorrect.
It should be "If I WERE your boyfriend, I'd never let you go."
Why? Because we are talking about a hypothetical situation of me being your boyfriend. It is not real, it is just a
situation I am imagining so we need to use the Subjunctive Mood here.
This song is why English teachers don't like JB - well, one of the reasons. :)
But hey, at least Beyoncé got it right with her song "If I were a boy".
 Like vs. As
We generally use LIKE and AS to make comparisons.
LIKE
LIKE = similar to; the same as.
The structure of the sentence is usually: VERB + LIKE + NOUN / PRONOUN.

 He speaks like a native speaker. (= He speaks similar to a native speaker)

 She looks like a supermodel.
 You look like him.
 Stop behaving like animals!
LIKE is mainly used as a comparison.

AS
AS = the way; in the same way; in the same condition
The structure of the sentence is usually: AS + SUBJECT + VERB.

 Nobody sings as she does. (= Nobody sings in the same way she does)
 They went to the party as they were.
 Please don't use my plate as an ashtray.
 As I said before, we have to get ready.
Notice how you could replace AS with 'the way' or 'in the same way' and maintain the same meaning.
It is common in American English to use LIKE instead of AS. However, it is generally considered informal to
use it in this way.

 We play football like champions do.

Another use of AS is to say what the role/position/function of a person/thing is.

 He started work as a carpenter.

 She used the tapestry as decoration in her living room.
 I worked as an English teacher at the school.

LIKE vs. AS
Be careful, in similar sentences that use LIKE and AS, the meanings of each sentence are very different. For
example:

 As your boss, I must warn you to be careful. (I am your boss - I am in the role of boss - REALITY.)
 Like your boss, I must warn you to be careful. (I am not your boss, but he/she and I have a similar
opinion. - COMPARISON)
Another example with different meanings:

 This curry is hot, like all good curries. (Like + Noun Phrase)
= Similar to all good curries
 This curry is hot, as it should be. (As + Clause)
= Comparing to the way a curry should be. Notice how after AS there is a Subject + Verb (= a clause)
AS IF
In English we also use as if to make comparisons. However it has a few distinct characteristics to its use:
1. The verb after AS IF is always in the past subjunctive, no matter what tense the sentence is.
2. If the verb BE directly follows AS IF, we use were for all personal pronouns.

 He looks as if he knew the answer... but he doesn't.

(The verbs LOOKS indicates this sentence is in the present – but the verb after AS IF – knew - is in the past
subjuntive).

 She walks as if she were a supermodel.

(The verb after AS IF – be – has been changed to were and not was).

 He boarded the airplane as if he were a seasoned traveller.

 He spends money as if he owned a bank.

Using AS + Adjective + AS
We use this structure to talk about people, animals or things which are equal in some way. This is a form of
comparison.

 Chris is as tall as his brother.

 Passive Voice
The Passive Voice is used in English when the person or thing that is receiving the action is more
important than the person or thing that is performing the action.
The structure of a sentence in the passive is as follows:
Object + To Be + Past Participle
Look at the structure of the following sentences in the active and the passive voice to understand the
difference in structure.

 I sent Christmas cards to all my friends. (Active)

 Christmas cards were sent to all my friends. (Passive)

 The earthquake destroyed the town last night. (Active)

 The town was destroyed last night. (Passive)
In these examples, you can see it is the action / result that is the most important factor in the passive
sentences.

When to use the Passive Voice

1. It is used when the person/thing performing the action is unimportant or unknown.
e.g. Our car was stolen last night.
2. It is used when it is obvious who/what is performing the action.
e.g. Cameron was sacked last week.
3. It is used to describe factual information, especially when describing a process.
e.g. The lasagna is baked in an oven for 35 minutes at 250 degrees Celsius.
4. It is used in news reports and to give instructions.
e.g. Five people were arrested at a nightclub last night.
While it is possible to use this structure in a large variety of tenses in English, it is rare to use the passive in
Future Continuous, Present Perfect Continuous, Past Perfect Continuous or Future Perfect Continuous tenses.
Below are examples of the passive in a range of verb tenses.

To Be Past Participle Tense

The butter is kept here. Present Simple
The window was broken. Past Simple
The work will be done soon. Future Simple
The bridge is being repaired. Present Continuous
The cheese was being eaten by mice. Past Continuous
Our work has been finished. Present Perfect
The car hadn't been used much. Past Perfect
The house will have been built by then. Future Perfect
The shelf can't be reached. Modal Verb - Can
The task must be done now. Modal Verb - Must
The lesson may be finished. Modal Verb - May
The car ought to be repaired. Modal Verb
 So - Neither - Either
SO
SO is used to show agreement with positive statements.
SO + Auxiliary/Be + Subject (pronoun)
The Auxiliary (or To Be/Have) needs to agree with the verb tense in the original statement.
It is similar to using TOO at the end of a sentence.

Person A Person B
I am happy. So am I. = I am happy too.
I'm going to Brazil in the summer. So am I. = I am going to Brazil too.
You look nice today. So do you. = You look nice too.
Stephanie has a new boyfriend. So does Mary. = Mary has a new one too.
We went to the concert last night. So did I. = I went to the concert too.
I would love a coffee right now. So would I. = I would love a coffee too.
He will win a prize. So will I. = I will win one too.
They have finished their homework. So have I. = I have finished too.
I can speak two languages. So can I. = I can speak two too.
He should study more. So should I. = I should study more too.
We could see the mountains. So could we. = We could see them too.
My brother had eaten too much. So had I. = I had eaten too much too.
Sometimes you can use So + Auxiliary + Subject as a continuation of the first part of the sentence.

 John can sing well and so can his brother.

(= John can sing will and his brother can sing well too)

NEITHER
Neither is used to show agreement with negative statements.
Neither + Auxiliary + Subject (pronoun)
The Auxiliary needs to agree with the verb tense in the original statement.
It is similar to using either at the end of a sentence, although Neither is more commonly used, especially in
spoken English.
A: I don't understand Spanish.
B: Neither do I. (= I don't understand Spanish either.)
A: I cannot swim.
B: Neither can I. (= I can't swim either.)
Sometimes people respond Me Neither instead of Neither + Auxiliary + Subject though this is very informal
spoken English.

Person A
I am not hungry.
I'm not going to quit.
They don't speak French.
Stephanie doesn't eat meat.
Mary didn't go to the party.
I wouldn't like to do his job.
He won't stop talking.
You haven't finished your meal.
Person B
Neither am I. = I'm not hungry either.
Neither am I. = I'm not going to quit either.
Neither do I. = I don't speak French either.
Neither does Mary. = Mary doesn't eat meat either.
Neither did I. = I didn't go either.
Neither would I. = I wouldn't like to do it either.
Neither will you. = You won't stop either.
Neither have you. = You haven't finished either.
I can't reach the top shelf. Neither can I. = I can't reach it either.
You shouldn't talk in the movie. Neither should you. = You shouldn't talk either.
We couldn't hear him. Neither could we. = We couldn't hear him either.
I hadn't seen her before. Neither had I. = I hadn't seen her before either.
 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Verbs in English can be divided into two groups:
Transitive verbs and Intransitive verbs.

TRANSITIVE VERBS
Transitive verbs require an object to complete their meaning.
Imagine that I say:

 I bought.
This sentence is incomplete. There is information that is missing.
You are probably wondering what I bought. (What did you buy Rob?)
Why is this sentence incomplete?
Because BOUGHT (the past of buy) is a transitive verb and a transitive verb needs an object after it to
complete the sentence. The object after a transitive verb can be a noun or a pronoun.

 I bought a car.
Now the sentence is complete and we can understand it. We added the object “a car” after the verb.
Let’s look at some other examples.
If someone says:

 She likes. (incomplete - incorrect)

You probably think … She likes WHAT? (What does she like?)
Like is a transitive verb so we need an object after the verb.

 She likes chocolate.

Now we know what she likes so this sentence is complete and correct.

 I invited Angelica.
You cannot just say I invited because the sentence is incomplete. The person who is listening would probably
ask “Whom did you invite?” So we need an object (in this case a person) after the transitive verb invite.

 I cut my finger.
You cannot just say I cut because the sentence is incomplete. The person who is listening would probably ask
“Cut what?”
Cut is a transitive verb because you need to cut something (an object, a thing).

 The man stole a bike.

We need to say WHAT the man stole in order to understand the sentence/situation. Steal (stole is the past
tense of steal) is a transitive verb. The object in this sentence is the bike.
So we have seen that transitive verbs need an object after them.
This object receives the action of the verb.
Transitive verbs always ask “what?” or “whom?”

 What did you buy? – I bought a car.

 What did you cut? – I cut my finger.
 Whom did she invite? – I invited Angelica.
Subject + transitive verb + object
The same rules apply to phrasal verbs.
If someone says: “I’m looking for”
You would automatically think “Looking for what? Looking for whom?”
We need to add an object to make the sentence complete.
  I am looking for my passport.
My passport is the object (that you are looking for)
More about transitive phrasal verbs here: (Coming March 2016)

Transitive Verbs – Passive Form

Transitive verbs can have a passive form.
Active: Subject + transitive verb + object
Passive: Object + was/were + transitive verb (+ by subject)

 Thieves stole his car. (active)

 His car was stolen. (passive)
 Thomas Edison invented the light bulb. (active)
 The light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison. (passive)
 They sold some books. (active)
 Some books were sold. (passive)
More about the passive voice (LINK)

Example sentences using TRANSITIVE verbs

 We enjoyed the concert.
 I opened the door.
 She kicked the ball.
 He took me to a restaurant.
 I saw an accident.
 He copied my answer.

INTRANSITIVE VERBS
Intransitive verbs cannot have a direct object after them.
The subject is doing the action of the verb and nothing receives the action. An intransitive verb does not pass
the action to an object.

 He arrived.
Here we cannot have an object after the intransitive verb arrive.
You cannot “arrive something” (incorrect).
An intransitive verb expresses an action that is complete in itself and it doesn’t need an object to receive the
action.

 The baby smiled.

Here we cannot have an object after the intransitive verb smiled.
You cannot “smile something” (incorrect).

 The apple fell from the tree.

You cannot “fall something” so the verb is intransitive.
“From the tree” is not an object, it is an adverbial phrase ( = it acts like an adverb and tells us where it
happened).
The same rules apply to intransitive phrasal verbs. You cannot have an object after an intransitive phrasal
verb.

 I get up at 6 every morning.

Example sentences using INTRANSITIVE verbs
 We arrived around midday.
 She sneezed loudly.
 Your baby cries a lot.
 His grandfather died last year.
 The rain fell heavily.
 I was waiting but nothing happened.
 The jokes were not funny and nobody laughed.
 I walk to work every day.
 We sat on the bench.
 He stood in the corner.
 We waited but nobody came.

Verbs that are Transitive and Intransitive

Many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive.
They can be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another sentence.
(These are called ambitransitive verbs)

 You have grown since I last saw you. (intransitive)

 You have grown a beard since I last saw you. (transitive)
Sometimes the meaning changes depending on whether the verb is transitive or intransitive

 He runs along the beach every morning (intransitive: run – the action/sport)
 He runs a small grocery store (transitive: run = manage)
 The plane will take off in five minutes. (intransitive: take off = to leave the ground and begin to fly)
 Please take off your shoes before entering the house. (transitive: take off = to remove something)

Example sentences of verbs that are both transitive and

intransitive
(transitive) - (intransitive)
I stopped the car. – The car stopped.
I broke my coffee mug. – My coffee mug broke.
The summer heat melted my ice cream. – My ice cream melted.
She speaks Arabic. – She speaks very quickly.
Mike is reading a book. – Mike is reading.
New Zealand won the match. – New Zealand won.
A good dictionary will tell you whether a verb is transitive (usually vt. or tr. next to the verb in dictionaries) or
intransitive (vi. or intr.)
 Whoever - Whatever - Whenever
We can think about the W-ever words semantically as the 'W' word + the quantifier 'any'. The trick to
understanding these terms is to realise that they apply to any single one of the referents, and at the same time
refer to all of the referents.

 Whatever - Any thing (This could also be every thing)

 Whenever - Any time (This could also be 'every time')
 Wherever - Any 'where' (Anywhere or everywhere).
 Whoever - Anyone (Any person or every person, or sometimes used to refer to a person unknown to
the speaker)
 Whichever - Any 'which' (Choice between a group or set).
 However - Any 'way' (In any manner or way, regardless of how).
Basically each one means:
"It does not matter what / when / where etc." OR
"An unknown thing / time / place etc."

Examples of Whatever
Whatever you do, pay attention to the road when you are driving.
(You can do anything as long as you pay attention to the road)
They say you can buy whatever you desire in Harrods, as long as you have the money.
(You can buy anything in Harrods, if you have enough money)
The student was so intelligent that whatever we taught, she understood.
(She understood everything that she was taught)
The criminal said he would do whatever he could in order to get out of jail.
(He would do everything or anything he could to get out of jail)

Examples of Whenever
Whenever the neighbours flush the toilet, water comes through our ceiling.
(Every time they flush the toilet it happens)
Whenever she calls, the landlord is busy.
(Every time she calls the landlord, he/she is busy)
Call me whenever you need something.
(Call me any time you need something)
Whenever he comes home, he acts like a hungry dog.
(Ever time he comes home, she is like that)
Whenever I go to sleep early, I have extraordinary dreams.
(Every time I go to sleep early, I have these dreams)

Examples of Wherever
Wherever you go in the world, remember where you came from and where you are going.
(Anywhere you go in the world, remember those things)
With a good education in English, wherever you go, you will have a good time.
(If you are taught well, you will have a good time anywhere)
Wherever we put the TV in the room, the reception is bad.
(Anywhere we put the TV the reception is bad)
You can put the present that she gave you wherever you want, just don't let her know if you put it in the trash.
(You can put that present anywhere)

Examples of Whoever
Whoever broke the vase, can you please replace it?
(Any specific person who broke the vase, please replace it)
Whoever goes to the shop, please don't steal anything.
(Any one or more of the people who will go to the shop, don't steal anything)
Whoever it was that knocked on the door last night must have been drunk, because they dropped twenty
dollars as they ran away.
(The unknown person who knocked on the door dropped twenty dollars)
Whoever you just spoke to, she must have some special powers, because you look like you fell in love.
(The unknown person who you spoke with must have some special powers)

Examples of Whichever
You can drive whichever of the cars you want.
(You can choose to drive any of the cars)
Whichever dress I wear tonight, I'm worried that my butt will look fat. What do you think?
(Person is worried that the person's butt looks fat in any of the selected dresses)
Whichever road you take to Rome, you will need to drive carefully.
(There are a number of roads to take, and it is necessary to drive carefully on any one that you take)
Whichever pizza you ordered for her, it must have had some very delicious ingredients.
(The pizza that was ordered from those available had some special ingredients)

Examples of However
You can dress however you like for the party, it's not formal.
(You can dress the way that you want for the party)
However much she eats, she never puts on weight.
(It doesn't matter how much she eats, she never gets fat)
You can do it however you like, I don't really care as long as it gets done.
(you can do it any way that you want)
However rich they may be, it still isn't enough for them.
(It doesn't matter how rich they may be)
Describing Trends in IELTS Writing Task 1
IELTS Academic Writing

In IELTS Academic Writing Task 1 you will be tested on your ability to describe and interpret information
presented in a graph, table, chart or diagram.
You will need to describe trends, compare and contrast data or report statistical information. Occasionally you
will need to describe a process (which we will explain in another section).
In order to do well in this section, you need to know specific vocabulary related to describing trends.

Verbs to describe an upward trend

The following verbs can be used to describe a trend or pattern that goes up.

 climb (past: climbed)

 go up (past: went up)
 grow (past: grew)
 increase (past: increased)
 jump (past: jumped)
 rise (past: rose)
 rocket (past: rocketed)

Sentence examples using words that show an upward trend:

 The number of enrolments increased significantly between 2005 and 2010.

 Production rose from 800 units in May to 1000 units the following month.

Verbs to describe a downward trend

The following verbs can be used to describe a trend or pattern that goes down.

 decline (past: declined)

 decrease (past: decreased)
 drop (past: dropped)
 fall (past: fell)
 go down (past: went down)
 plummet (past: plummeted) = to fall or drop suddenly in amount or value
 plunge (past: plunged) = to fall or drop suddenly in amount or value

Plunge and Plummet, when describing trends, have the same meaning.
Sentence examples using words that show a downward trend:

 Prices of Model X dropped significantly once Model Y became available on the market.
 Company profits decreased in 2013 by 15%.

Words and phrases used to describe a stable trend

To describe a more or less stable pattern, you can use the following expressions:

 maintain (past: maintained)

 remain (past: remained)
  stay (past: stayed)
 constant
 stable
 steady
 unchanged

Adverbs used when describing trends

Adverbs describe HOW something happens. They usually come after a verb.

 sharply, rapidly, quickly, steeply

 considerably, significantly, substantially
 steadily, gradually, moderately
 slightly, slowly

To see the degree of intensity of these adverbs, look at the chart below.

Academic Writing Task 1 Summary Chart

Nouns used when describing trends

 decline
 decrease
 dip (a momentarily small drop in the level of something)
 drop
 fall
 fluctuation (= an irregular rising and falling in number or amount; a variation)
 growth
 increase
 peak (= the highest point)
 rise
 slump (= a severe or prolonged fall in the price, value, or amount of something)
 variation (= a change or difference in condition, amount, or level)
Quick IELTS Academic Writing Tips when describing
trends
Do not describe every small upwards or downwards movement. You need to look at the important trends or
characteristics and give a general overview.
You will normally use verbs in the past tense when describing trends though always look for dates to confirm
which tense to use.
Do not write about things that do not appear in the graph. You shouldn't give an opinion, just describe the
information that appears.
Even if your grammar (and vocabulary) is perfect, you will lose marks for not showing an accurate
understanding.
VOCABULARIO DE
INGLES BASICO
 Baby Room - Nursery Room
Babies need many special things made just for them.
Everything is made special, from baby clothes that are their small size to baby shampoo to wash their
delicate hair.
A special type of underwear for a baby is called a diaper or a nappy. It holds all of the baby's body wastes
until they learn to go to the toilet by themselves. There are two types of them, the disposal ones where you
throw them away each time you change the baby, but there are also cloth diapers that you wash after every
use.
The ones that you throw away have adhesive, but the cloth nappies are closed with a safety pin. A safety pin
is a small needle that goes through the fabric and then closes, so that it never hurts the baby.
A changing table is where the mum or dad changes the diapers of the baby and makes him/her clean.
Baby lotion is rubbed on the baby's skin to keep it soft.
Baby powder is a white powder that is rubbed on the baby's skin to keep the baby dry and many times smell
nice.
Ointment is a type of medicine put on a baby's bottom to keep him or her from having a rash.
Baby wipes are like toilet paper for adults, but are thicker and wet so that they clean the baby better.
Cotton swabs are small pieces of cotton on both ends of a type of small stick. They are used to help clean the
baby.
Tissues are thin sheets of cotton that you use when you sneeze and wipe your nose.
A bib is what a baby wears when it eats so that the baby doesn't get his/her clothes dirty. Babies eat special
food called baby food that is normal food mashed to become soft and easy for the baby to eat.
Before babies can eat baby food they drink milk. Milk can come from their mother or from a special formula.
The milk that does not come directly from the mother is put in a baby bottle for the baby to suck on.
A nipple is named for the part of the mother's breast from where the baby drinks the milk. It is also the name
of the rubber part of the bottle where the baby drinks. It is sometimes also called the teat.
A mobile is a decoration that hangs over the crib. There are different objects hanging down for the baby to
see while he is awake in his crib which is the special small bed for a baby. It normally has a type of fence or
wall around the four sides so that the baby does not fall out.
A cradle is a small bed for a newly born baby that rocks, it is also sometimes called a cot.
A bouncer is a great toy for a baby. It has a seat for the baby to sit in and hangs from the ceiling so that the
baby can bounce up and down.
A walker is a toy on wheels that a baby can hold on to while it is learning how to walk.
A potty is the name for a small portable toilet for a young child to learn how to use the toilet.
A pacifier is a piece of plastic that is placed in the baby's mouth to keep the baby busy sucking on the object.
Mums use the pacifier to keep the baby from crying. Another name for a pacifier is a dummy.
A booster seat or a baby seat is a special chair for a baby that is placed on top of a normal chair. It helps
them to be taller so that they can reach the table when then eat. For younger babies they have a special chair
called a highchair that has a little table attached to the chair so that the baby can eat and cannot fall out of the
chair.
A car seat is a special chair that is placed in a car on top of the normal seat that is made special so that the
baby is always safe while riding in the car.
A doll is a special toy for a baby that looks like a person. Often little children carry around their own doll like it
is their own baby. Another special type of soft toy is a stuffed animal. It is a soft toy in the shape of an
animal. The most famous kind of stuffed animal is the teddy bear.
Other toys for babies include blocks. Blocks are small cubes of wood or plastic. The babies play with the
blocks and learn to build different objects by stacking the blocks.
A rattle is a small toy for a baby that has small objects inside of a ball with a handle. The rattle lets the baby
shake it and make a noise.
Babies are often in pain when they have new teeth coming in. A teething ring is a special toy that a baby can
chew on to help then with the pain of their new teeth.
A toy chest is a box where the parents keep all of the baby's toys.
A baby carrier is a special object that attaches to the dad or mum and allows them to carry the baby without
using his or her hands.
A pushchair or stroller is a chair for the baby to sit in that has wheels on the bottom so that the parent can
walk and push the baby in the chair at the same time. A pram is similar, but the baby lays down in a bed,
rather than sitting up in a chair.
A play pen is a small area with four walls around it so that the baby has a space to play, but cannot get out to
the rest of the room. It provides a safe place for the baby to play.
A nightlight is a small light that shines so that it is bright enough that the child can see in the darkness and
isn't afraid, but not bright enough to bother the child while he/she sleeps. Some adults who are afraid of the
dark still sleep with a nightlight.
 The Bathroom
There are two main uses for the bathroom. One is to have a shower or bath to clean yourself. The other is to
go to the toilet.
When you want to clean yourself you use the shower (where you stand up) or the bathtub (where you sit in a
lot of water).
Almost every house has a shower. This is where you clean yourself by standing in a cubicle where water
comes out of a shower head which is situated on the wall above your head.
Sometimes the shower is not in a cubicle but combined with a bathtub. When this happens, you usually need
a shower curtain so that the water doesn't splash onto the bathroom floor. This shower curtain usually
has curtain ringswhich are then held in position by a curtain rod.
A rubber mat is placed on the floor of the shower so that you don't accidentally slip.
When you are in the shower and you don't want your hair to get wet you put on a shower cap which is a
plastic covering for your hair.
To clean the dirt off your body you use soap. You can find this in the soap dish. Some people like to
use shower gelwhich comes in a plastic bottle instead of soap.
You can use a facecloth or flannel to help you remove the soap from your body.
You use shampoo to clean your hair and then conditioner to make it softer and easier to comb.
After you have washed your hair, you can use a hair dryer to dry it. This is an electrical appliance which blow
hot air at your hair.
You can dry yourself with a towel which is normally hanging on the towel rail.
Another use for the bathroom is to go the toilet. Remember to use toilet paper to clean your private parts
when you have finished.
You finish using the toilet you have to flush it. If whatever is in the toilet doesn't disappear, you might have to
use a plunger to help push it down the drain. A toilet brush is used to clean the inside of the toilet.
Women usually hate it when men leave the toilet seat up.
If the toilet smells bad after someone has used it, you might want to use air freshener so that smells nice
again.
Remember to wash your hands after going to the toilet. You use the sink to do this. Another way of saying sink
iswashbasin or hand basin.
The sink contains a faucet or tap where the cold water and hot water come out. The water then goes into
the sink. If there isn't a plug, the water then disappears down the drain. To dry your hands, you can use
a hand towel.
Above the hand basin you will normally find a mirror. You use a mirror to see yourself and to help you brush
your hair. Sometimes the mirror is actually the door of a medicine cabinet which is a place to keep your
medicine. This is sometimes called a medicine chest too.
After every meal you should brush your teeth. You need to put some toothpaste on your toothbrush to clean
them properly.
Men often have hair that grows on their face. If there is a lot of hair, it is called a beard. BUT if a man doesn't
want a beard he uses a shaver to remove it. The razor is the sharp blade that is used to cut.
You leave all of your dirty clothes in the laundry basket. Sometimes this basket is called a hamper.
When you want to see how much you weigh, you use a scale.

The Bedroom
A bedside table, a night table, and a nightstand are all different names for a small table that is next to a bed.
This table normally has a lamp and an alarm clock on it. It is called an alarm clock because the clock makes a
loud sound in the morning to wake you up. Sometimes the clock is called a clock radio, because it plays
music from the radio instead of making a loud noise.
Also a box of tissues is often set on a nightstand. This way you can blow your nose at night before you go to
sleep or other emergencies.
Sometimes people use their bedrooms for other things. They change the furniture depending on the time of
day. A daybed, for example, is a bed at night, but becomes a sofa during the day with large pillows. The name
for the large pillows on a sofa is a cushion. A convertible sofa has a mattress underneath that can be pulled
out at night to sleep on. Some people also call it a sofa bed. A cot is small bed where babies sleep and is also
used to describe a small temporary bed, something that you do not sleep on normally.
The bed is the most important piece of furniture in a bedroom. It has many different parts. The mattress is the
large soft part of the bed where you sleep. Below the mattress is the box spring that holds the mattress up
and makes the bed comfortable.
The pillow is where you put your head when you sleep. It is smaller than a cushion and is covered with a piece
of cloth called a pillowcase. The pillowcase normally matches the sheets on the bed. There are two sheets for
every bed. One is a fitted sheet that covers the mattress and has a piece of elastic around the edge. The
other sheet is called the flat sheet, because it doesn't have any elastic. The person sleeps between the two
sheets. On top of the sheets there are blankets that are thicker to keep you warm. The blanket on the very top
is called a bedspread. It is a blanket that is made special for the size of the bed.
A dust ruffle, sometimes called a bed skirt, is a piece of fabric that hangs off the side of the bed, so that you
cannot see what is underneath the mattress and box spring.

There are many different sizes for beds. The smallest one is called a twin bed; it is a bed only for one person,
also called a single bed. Then there is a queen size bed, where two people can sleep. Bigger than that there
is a king size bed.
A canopy bed is a fancy bed with four large posts (one at each corner of the bed) holding a piece of fabric
high above the bed.
Kids like to sleep in bunk beds. Often there are two beds, one on top of the other.
A waterbed is when the mattress is filled with water instead of fabric. The bed moves with the person as he
sleeps.
A special type of blanket is called a quilt. It is made by sewing many small pieces of cloth together. It was a
traditional gift for families to give young couples on their wedding. Many woman would sew together to create a
large quilt. It takes many hours of work to make a quilt.
A duvet is a set of two thick sheets sewn together on the ends. You put a type of blanket inside the duvet. This
way you can change the look of the bed and change the thickness of the blankets on the bed depending on the
season.
An electric blanket keep you extra warm by running electricity through it to create heat. Some people have
a hot water bottle which is a container filled with hot water and sealed with a stopper.
A headboard is a large piece of wood or other material that goes above the bed against the wall.
A bureau is a large piece of furniture where people place their clothes that do not go in
the closet or wardrobe which are the same thing through a part of the house. Sometimes there is also a
small chest of drawers where people place their clean folded clothes and other small things like socks.
Clothes that are not folded go on coat hangers in the closet or wardrobe. Another name for the chest of
drawers is a dresser.
There are many different types of floor covering for bedrooms. Carpet is a common type that covers the floor
from wall to wall with a soft fabric. Many people however have wood or tile floors and cover only a small part of
the floor with small pieces of fabric called rugs.
Curtains hang on the wall near the window. They are large pieces of fabric that are used for
decoration. Blinds are smaller, either made of wood or plastic, and are used to block out the light.
Sometimes rather than paint the walls people glue large pieces of paper to the walls with designs on it. This is
called wallpaper.
Many times in the bedroom there is an area for the person to get ready in the morning. This area normally has
a mirror, so that the person can see how beautiful he or she is. Near the mirror, on top of the dresser the
person normally keeps a hairbrush or a comb, to fix their hair. Also on the dresser there is a small box that
holds all different types of jewellery that a woman wears. She keeps earrings, necklaces and bracelets in
her jewellery box.
 Colors - Colours
What is the difference betwen Color and Colour?
Both words mean the same thing and its spelling depends on the country where the word is written.
The word Color is used in United States.
The word Colour is used in the rest of the English-speaking countries (England, Australia, NZ etc.)
The names of the more common colours in English appear in the chart below:

What is the difference betwen Gray and Grey?

The same as with the difference between color and colour, it depends on the country.
The word Gray is used in United States.
The word Grey is used in the rest of the English-speaking countries (England, Australia, NZ etc.)

Word order with colours

There are three ways that you can use a colour in a sentence to describe something:
1. To Be + Colour. e.g. My car is blue.
2. Colour + Noun. e.g. The blue car is mine.
3. Colour is the Noun. e.g. Blue is the colour of my car.
Did you know that, because colours give us more information about a person or a thing, they are adjectives in
English?

Light - Dark - Bright

You can also talk in shades (or intensity) of colour in English by using such expressions as:
Light is the opposite of Dark.
Bright: a strong colour that is easy to see.

 Helen has dark green eyes.

 His light grey hair made him look very distinguished.
 Her bright pink lipstick doesn't look good.

The words Light, Dark and Bright are placed before the colour.

Colours + ISH
If you are not exactly sure how to describe a colour, we normally use the suffix -ish.
e.g. Greenish (= approximately green but not exactly green)

 The sunset is a beautiful pinkish-purplish colour today.

 His shirt is lightish blue in colour.
 Daily Routines

Daily Activities at Home

What are some of the daily activities that you do at home?
I wake up at 7am every morning.
I press the snooze button five times every morning before I turn off the alarm and get up.
I have a cup of coffee and make breakfast. I usually read the newspaper while I have breakfast. My
children like to have a shower after they have breakfast but I like to have a shower before I get dressed.
My wife brushes her long hair, and I have short hair so I comb my hair. How do you do your hair in the
morning?
It is important to brush your teeth, and some women like to put make-up on.
After I have finished work, I go home to cook dinner. In my house I usually make dinner. The family eat
dinner together at 7:30pm.
After dinner I make sure that my children do their homework, and then I chill out on the sofa and watch
television.
On television I usually watch the News. My wife usually comes to tell me to take the rubbish out, or wash
the dishes.
Our children feed the dog and the cat before they go to bed and I tell them to go to the bathroom too.
If I am sick I have to take my medication, but then I get into my pyjamas and set the alarm so I wake up in
the morning.
The last things I do is lock the door, turn off the lights, and go to bed.
It doesn't take me long to fall asleep.

Daily Activities at Work

What are some daily activities that you do at work?
I go to work at 8.45am every morning.
I usually drive to work.
I always check my emails when I get to work, but I don't always reply to them immediately.
I take a taxi or a train if I have a lunch meeting. I never take the bus because it is too slow.
When I am at my desk I usually work on the computer, even during morning tea.
At 1pm most days I have lunch.
At 3pm we have afternoon tea, and that is when we usually talk and eat cake.
When you are in the office you probably have a lot of papers. It is important for you to file your papers, and so
that you can find them again you need to organise your files.
When I work I have to make telephone calls. If an important issue happens I ask my secretary to organise a
meeting.
Once a month I report to my boss, but maybe you have to report to your boss more often. I usually write a
documentthat my boss can read.

Other Daily Activities

What are some other daily activities that you do?
I exercise at least three times a week.
I usually go to the gym before work, but sometimes I go after work.
I meditate every morning so that I feel less stressed during the day.

Weekly Activities
What are some weekly activities that you do?
I go grocery shopping once a week at the local supermarket.
My family does the housework together every Saturday morning.
I usually do the washing on Sunday morning and when the machine is finished I hang the clothes out to dry.
On Sunday morning we go to church, and if there is lots of noise coming from next door, sometimes we fight
with the neighbour.
On Saturday night my parents stay at home and I go out with friends.
Even my friends that live at home call their parents each week.
Every evening, I water the garden.
I usually pay someone to wash the car, but my partner says I should do it, so sometimes I argue with my
partnerabout that.
If we are angry at the neighbour, we seek vengeance by annoying his dogs.
I work in an important office, so I have to shine my shoes each day.
Sometimes we hire a movie, because we don't like to illegally download music and films. I make sure that I
synchronise my iPod so I always have new music on it.
To get our shopping, we go to the mall in the car.
Last week I forgot to recharge my travel card, and I had to argue with a bus driver. I couldn't call the office
because I forgot to recharge my cellphone!
 Days, Months & Seasons
Days of the Week
The days of the week in English begin with CAPITAL letters.

 Monday
 Tuesday
 Wednesday
 Thursday
 Friday
 Saturday
 Sunday
Saturday and Sunday are known as the weekend.

Months of the Year

The months of the year in English begin with CAPITAL letters.

 January
 February
 March
 April
 May
 June
 July
 August
 September
 October
 November
 December
Seasons of the Year
 summer
 winter
 spring
 autumn / fall
Fall is used in United States, Autumn in the rest of the world.

Capital Letters
Remember, in English that the first letter of the day or month is always in capital letters.

 January correct - january incorrect

 Thursday correct - thursday incorrect
Though the first letter of the seasons does not begin with a capital letters.

 Spring incorrect - spring correct

 Dead - Death - Die - Died
Four words that often confuse learners of English are dead, death, die and died.
Compare:

 My cat is dead.
 It died yesterday.
 Its death was a surprise.

The explanation is quite simple:

 Dead is an Adjective (a descriptive word)

 Death is a Noun (a naming word)
 Die is a Verb (an action word)
 Died is the past tense of the verb Die

Look at the following explanations containing a lot more details and examples. We have also included
popular idiomatic expressions for each one.

Dead = Adjective
We use the word dead to describe the lifeless state of something; it is the opposite of alive.

 I forgot to water my plants and now they are dead

= they were alive and now they are without life
 A dead planet
= a planet with no life on it

We can use dead in an informal way to describe a boring place with not many people or much activity

 The bar was dead

= there was nobody (or very few people) at the bar

To go dead means to loose feeling in the part of the body due to temporary lack of circulation

 My leg went dead after sitting on the floor for three hours
= My leg was numb, I couldn't feel it.

To be + dead + adjective (e.g. dead boring) is a slightly outdated British slang for 'completely' or
'totally'

 The test was dead easy

Dead calm or dead silence means total/complete calm/silence, as if there was no life in an area

 After the storm there was dead calm

Expressions using Dead:

I wouldn't be caught dead… (there/wearing that/doing that etc)
= To refuse to and affirm that you would never do something
To stop dead in your tracks
= To stop suddenly or abruptly
Dead as a doornail
= Something that is completely/obviously/certainly dead
In the dead of winter/night
= In the middle of winter/night

Death = Noun
The concept or idea of the state after life. Death is the opposite of life.

 Death comes to us all.

= The state of being dead is inevitable
 Death scares some people
= The idea of dying scares some people
 Drinking alcohol and driving can cause death
= you, or someone else could die if you drink and drive

Expressions using Death:

To be on death's door
= To be very close to dying. Here death is personified.
You'll catch your death outside!
= An expression used to warn people about how cold the weather is outside. "You'll catch a cold, or
worse!"
To do something to death
= To do something over and over again until it is no longer popular. They've played that song to death
on the radio!
A matter of life and death
= A usually figurative way if saying something's extremely important

Die = Verb
The event (action) of death. The opposite of to be born
The past of die is died.
Michael Jackson died in 2009
= the moment in time when MJ stopped living.
My plants have died from thirst
= My plants are no longer living because I didn't water them
I nearly died when the waiter gave me the bill at the restaurant
= I was shocked by the amount of the bill
I almost died with embarrassment when I fell over in the street
= I was extremely embarrassed when I fell over.
He died a very rich/happy/lonely (etc) man
= He was very rich/happy/lonely (etc) when he died
She died a painful/peaceful (etc) death
= The moment of her death was painful/peaceful (etc)
Expressions using Die:
To be dying to do something
= to be desperate to do something e.g. "I'm dying to go on holiday"
To be dying of something
= literal or figurative, e.g. "I'm dying of hunger/heat"
Never say die
= never surrender/give up
 The Dining Room
In the dining room there is usually a dinner table. This is the place where the family usually eat dinner. If you
have soup for dinner, or cereal for breakfast you will eat it out of a bowl. If you eat soup, you will use a soup
spoon, which is rounder and deeper than a dessert spoon. A soup bowl is sometimes deeper than a cereal
bowl.
When you eat dinner, you eat your food off a plate. The table might have a big salad bowl in the middle that
you can take salad from.
If you eat a lot of bread your table will probably have a breadbasket, and you might probably also have
a butter dish, which is a little plate especially for the butter. A butter knife is a knife that doesn't have a
serrated edge, while a steak knife is sharper, and does have teeth (a serrated edge). Most of the time the
table has just a knife to cut the food and fork to pick it up and put it in your mouth.
A cup is what you drink tea or coffee out of, but a mug is a bigger, heavier cup. In the morning the part of
the coffee machine that contains the liquid is the coffee pot, and the teapot is the pot (usually made of metal)
that you brew the tea in. You use the little spoon called a teaspoon for putting sugar in your coffee or tea. You
will get the sugar from the sugar bowl. When you drink tea you might use a saucer, which is the
little plate that goes with your tea cup. Some people pour milk or cream from a creamer into their coffee or
tea.
Sometimes in the morning you just have a glass of juice, and some families have a large jug or a pitcher of
juice on the table, because a jug holds more liquid.
For afternoon tea, you might have a cake on a cake stand, which is a raised flat plate that you put the cake
on. Sometimes people use a small plate called a side dish, for the cake. Usually there is always a little piece
of paper called a napkin or serviette, so you can wipe your mouth (or your fingers) after you eat the cake or
other food.
Cutlery is generic term for spoons, forks, and knives, and a placemat is the piece of material you put on the
table under your plates and cutlery to protect the tablecloth that covers the table. But, for putting under your
glass, cup or mug, you use a coaster, not a placemat!
The silverware doesn't have to be made of silver, but it includes the candlestick and sometimes the cutlery
too. For a romantic dinner you will usually use candles to have a little bit of light, or you might have
a chandelier - the big old style lights that hang from the ceiling.
When you want to drink wine, you usually drink from a wine glass, which is different from a champagne
flute which is tall and thin especially used for champagne.
Before you sit down, make sure the pepper shaker (for the pepper) and the salt shaker (for the salt) are both
on the table.
If you like flowers, the centerpiece of the table might be a vase of flowers in the middle of the table.
In an expensive restaurant the waiter may use the little cart with wheels called a serving cart, to bring your
food to the table. You probably use a serving platter at home, which is a big platter to carry a few different
types of food on it, maybe in bowls or on plates or if at a party, it might be food for eating with your fingers.
You might be surprised that we sometimes have china on the table. China is not just a country, china
or chinaware is also the name we use for fine porcelain. Most people don't use it everyday, instead they keep
it in the china cabinet. The buffet is where we might keep the other cups and plates.
Finally, before you ask people to come to the table, make sure there is a chair for each person to sit on!
 Members of the Family
Immediate Family
Masculine Feminine

father mother
son daughter
brother sister
husband wife
When you have children, you are a parent.
If you are a male parent, you are a father.
If you are female parent, you are a mother.
If one of your children is a boy, he is your son.
If one of your children is a girl, she is your daughter.
When a couple gets married, the man is the husband, and the woman is his wife.
A brother and sister both have the same parents.
One collective word to describe brothers and sisters is siblings. However this word is normally only used in
written English, not orally.

Different Generations
Masculine Feminine

Forefathers
Great-great grandfather Great-great grandmother
Great grandfather Great grandmother
Grandfather Grandmother
Father Mother
Son Daughter
Grandson Granddaughter
Great grandson Great granddaughter
Great-great grandson Great-great granddaughter
Descendents

Relatives and Extended Family

grandparents: the parents of your parents
grandfather: the father of your father/mother
grandmother: the mother of your father/mother
grandchildren: the children of your children
grandson: the son of one of your children
granddaughter:the daughter of one of your children
great grandfather: the father of your grandfather/grandmother
great grandmother: the mother of your grandfather/grandmother
uncle: the brother (or brother-in-law) of your mother/father
aunt: the sister (or sister-in-law)of your mother/father
cousin: the child of your aunt/uncle
nephew: the male child of your brother/sister
niece: the female child of your brother/sister

The In-Laws
The in-laws are the members of the family of your spouse (the person you are married to) or via a marriage in
your family:
father-in-law: the father of your spouse
mother-in-law: the mother of your spouse
son-in-law: the husband of your daughter
daughter-in-law: the wife of your son
brother-in-law: the husband of your sister
sister-in-law: the wife of your brother
Note: To refer to more than one brother-in-law or sister-in-law etc. we has an S to the brother/sister part.
e.g. My brothers-in-law are fun. My sisters-in-laws are crazy.

The Family Mix

Nowadays in many countries a person can get married more than once. These are the terms used to describe
the "new" members of the family when someone gets remarried.
"Step-" means that you are related as a result of one parent marrying again

stepfather: the (new) husband of your mother but not your biological father
stepmother: the (new) wife of your father but not your biological mother
stepson: the son of your (new) husband / wife (he is not your biological son)
stepdaughter: the daughter of your (new) husband / wife (she is not your biological daughter)
stepsister: the daughter of your stepmother or stepfather
stepbrother: the son of your stepmother or stepfather
Sometimes one of your parents gets married again and they have more children. There
half-brother: the brother you have only one parent in common with .
half-sister: the sister you only have one parent in common with.
Even if your parent didn't get married (and had the child outside of marriage), they are still your half-brother or
half-sister.
However, note that it is common to still call your half-brother or half-sister just your brother or sister (without
adding the half- part).

Check out this chart comparing the relationships between different members of the family:
 Free Time Activities
Free time = The time when you are not working, when you can choose what you do.
Free time = leisure time
What do you do in your free time?

General Free Time Activities

Go to the cinema - to see Hollywood blockbuster movies, Bollywood movies (from India), art films, animated
films. You can also say go to the movies.
Some film categories are: Comedy, Drama, Horror, Thriller, Action, Science Fiction (Sci-Fi), Fantasy,
Documentary, Musical.
Watch TV - Different types of television programs are: The News, Soap Operas, Criminal Investigation
Dramas, Medical Dramas, Reality TV, Situation Comedies (Sit-Coms), Talk Shows, Documentaries, Cartoons,
Game Shows, Sports programs, Movies, Political programs, Religious programs.
Spend time with family - You can do many things with your family. Usually, the fact that you are together is
more important than the activity.
Go out with friends - You can also do many things with your friends, like go out to a bar, go dancing at a club,
have dinner at a restaurant, play a sport, sit down and talk, go out for a coffee, have a barbecue, or any other
activity that you all enjoy. Or sometimes when you don't do anything specific, you can say hang out with
friends.
Surf the internet - On the internet, you can research a topic you are interested in using a search engine, visit
your favourite websites, watch music videos, create your own video and upload it for other people to see,
maintain contact with your friends using a social networking site, write your thoughts in a blog, learn what is
happening in the world by reading news websites, etc.
Play video games - You can play games on your computer or on a game consoles, like PlayStation, X-Box,
Wii, PSP, Gameboy, etc. You can play on your own or with your friends or family.
Play a musical instrument - Learn to play the piano, guitar, violin, cello, flute, piano accordion, mouth organ,
panpipes, clarinet, saxophone, trumpet, etc. You can play on your own or with a group, such as a band or an
orchestra.
Listen to music - Turn up the volume and listen to your favourite type of music, such as pop, rock, hip hop,
rhythm & blues, blues, jazz, classical, soul, heavy metal.
Read - Many people love to read both fiction and non-fiction books and magazines. If you like fiction, you can
read novels, short stories, crime fiction, romance, etc. If you like non-fiction, you can read biographies,
autobiographies, or books on history, science, philosophy, religion, or any other topic you are interested in.
Write - Many people like to write in their diary. Another name for a diary is a journal. You can also write many
other things, such as poetry, novels, letters, short stories, etc. (See under Read for more options).
Go to the park - You can go to the park alone, with family or with friends. You can take a picnic rug and a
picnic basket and have a picnic. You can read, sleep, kick a football around, climb trees or play on the
children's playground.
Go to cultural locations and events - There are many types of cultural locations and events. You can go to
the museum, to an art gallery or to the zoo to see animals from around the world. You can go to concerts,
plays, musicals, dance recitals and opera performances.
Go shopping - Many people like to go to shopping malls and areas of the city that are known for shopping to
buy clothes or items for their houses and gardens.
Cook - Many people like to cook different types of food. You can make meals for breakfast, lunch and dinner.
You can bake cakes, cookies, slices and pastries in the oven. Some people boast that they have a special
recipe - ask them to cook it for you!
Study something - There are many things that you can study just because you find it interesting! You can
study a language; you can learn a skill, such as cooking or making furniture; or you can even study the
hieroglyphs of the ancient Egyptians, if you want to!
Art and crafts - There are many, many arts and crafts that you can learn and practice. You can paint, draw,
sew, crochet, knit, sculpt, engrave, make furniture, make jewelry, or you can even create your own new art
form!
Gardening - You can plant flowers, vegetables or herbs and maintain your garden by watering it, pulling the
weeds and feeding it with fertilizer.
Exercise and play a sport - To stay fit and healthy, you can do exercise alone, such as swimming or working
out at a gym, or you can play a team sport, such as football or basketball. For more information on sports and
exercise, go to our Sports Page.
 Fruit
A fruit is the part of a plant that has seeds and flesh (edible covering). A fruit is normally sweet (or sometimes
sour) and can be eaten in its raw (uncooked) state. Fruit are the way plants disseminate their seeds.

Grammatically, do you say Fruit or Fruits?

The word Fruit is a noun. The word is an exception where the noun is both countable and uncountable. So the
plural of Fruit can be either Fruit OR Fruits.
When we think of Fruit as a group collectively and in a non-specific way, then we tend to use the word Fruit
(without S).
 You should eat five servings of fruit and vegetables every day.
 Fruit is good for your health.
 Would you like some fruit?
 There isn't much fresh fruit available in winter.
If you are emphasising the different kinds of fruit, then you can use fruits.
 My three favorite fruits are bananas, melons and strawberries.
 The supermarket has a wide selection of exotic fruits such as Papaya and Mango.
 The juice is made from a variety of fresh fruits.
 I love oranges and other citrus fruits.
If you are not sure which to use, the safest thing is to just use Fruit all the time.
Chart with Fruit and their names in English
List of Fruit in English
 apple
 apricot
 avocado - the plural is avocados though you may see avocadoes (less frequently).
 banana
 blackberry
 blackcurrant
 blueberry
 boysenberry - is a cross between a raspberry and a blackberry
 cherry
 coconut
 fig
 grape
 grapefruit
 kiwifruit - sometimes written as two words kiwi fruit. It has the same form in singular and plural kiwifruit.
 lemon
 lime
 lychee - sometimes called litchi in US English
 mandarin
 mango - the plural of mango can be either mangos or mangoes.
 melon - the generic name for most types of melon
 nectarine - the same a peach but without fur on its skin
 orange
 papaya - In some countries it is called pawpaw.
 passion fruit - In United States it is written as two words while in some countries it is written as one
word: passionfruit. The plural of passion fruit is either passion fruit or passion fruits. See our notes
about the plural of fruit above.
 peach - same as a nectarine but with a slight fur on its skin
 pear
 pineapple
 plum
 pomegranate
 quince
 raspberry
 strawberry
 watermelon

Fruits that people think are Vegetables

The following are actually fruits in a botanical sense, though are commonly thought of as vegetables due to
their culinary uses:

 avocado, cucumber, eggplant, green beans, peppers, pumpkin, squash, tomato, zucchini

Yes, that's right, the so called vegetables above are in reality fruit, not vegetables.

A piece of fruit
We often say a piece of fruit when we refer to one fruit (one apple, one orange etc) without specifying which
one it is.

 She always has a piece of fruit with her breakfast.

The fruit of something
The fruit (or fruits) of something is an expression which means the good results that you obtain from something
such as hard work.

 The award he received is the fruit of his hard work and always trying to do his best.
 The Living Room
Sometimes the living room is called a lounge. There are many things in a typical living room:
A bookcase is not only a place to put your books, but also the shelves can be used to display other things that
are important to you. Often people place photos or pictures on bookcases.
The words photos and pictures can be used interchangeably, but a picture also has the potential to be
a painting, where as a photo does not. Photos are often placed inside of picture frames that can either hang
on a wall or sit on a shelf.
It is often common to place books and pictures on your coffee table, a large low table in front of the sofa.
Another option is to place a small potted plant or vase of flowers on your coffee table, but not so large that
you can't see over it to watch television or talk to another person.
Unlike a coffee table a side table is normally much higher so that people sitting on the sofa (for two or more
people) or armchair (for one person) can easily place a glass or other object on the table. It is always next to
the seat or placed in between two seats.
A side table is also a good location to place a lamp. A lampshade helps direct the light downward to help you
see well.
People also like to decorate the windows in a room by hanging curtains on the wall, but sometimes these are
also referred to as drapes. The curtains are not only decorations but also help keep the light out of the room,
along with theshades that are placed in the windows.
Many homes have carpet on the floor of the living room. A carpet goes from one wall to the other, covering the
entire floor. Rugs on the other hand cover a small area of the floor and are placed over a wooden or tiled floor
to create a warmer feeling.
Some living rooms include a writing table, which is similar to a desk, but are often smaller.
Couch is another name for sofa. A fancy name for a sofa is called a settee. A settee is normally an antique.
A loveseat is a piece of furniture that is smaller than a couch and larger than a chair, just big enough for two
people to sit on.
An armchair is the name for a type of chair that is large and comfortable in a living room. It normally has large
padded cushions.
Pillows are smaller than cushions, which are the larges soft object on a chair or sofa where a person sits.
The fireplace is the area in the room where the fire is placed sot that it keeps the room warm, but also allows
the smoke to go up the chimney and not into the room. When you light the fire it is common to place
a fireguard in front, so that the warm air still comes through but that children stay safe. The type of wood that
is burned for a fire in general is called firewood, but the large pieces are often called logs. Above the fireplace
is the mantelpiece, which is normally a long piece of wood that provides a shelf on which to display things.
At Christmas time children hang their stocking from the mantelpiece to receive presents from Santa Claus.
Men are generally more concerned with the electronic equipment in the living room rather than the decorations.
Today videocassettes are rare; most people now watch DVDs on their DVD players rather than VCRs. People
have also started watching more Blu-ray Discs.
Along with the television and DVD player there is also often a stereo system on the shelves of the wall
unit holding all of the electronics used for entertainment. Of course with the stereo system it is vital to have a
good set of speakers in order to listen to the music.
The most important part of the living room to most men is the recliner. A recliner is a special chair that has the
ability to lean backwards so the person sitting in the chair is in a very relaxed position. Often men consider
their recliners to be their thrones, as if they were all kings. From the recliner the men use the remote
control to change the channels on the television or adjust the volume of the music from the stereo.
People often decorate the floors with rugs and the walls with pictures, but they often do not decorate the
ceiling of the room. Normally the only decoration from the above comes from the lights or the ceiling
fan which keeps you cool in summer.
 Countries & Nationalities
The word 'Nationality' is not often used in spoken English. It is a formal and official word and it appears more
frequently in written English. You will find the word 'Nationality' is used a lot in the travel industry and for
immigration.
We almost never say: What is your nationality?
We usually say: Where are you from? OR Where do you come from?
To tell someone your nationality you DON'T say: My nationality is Chilean.
You say: I'm Chilean

Singular Plural
Country Countries
Nationality Nationalities

List of Countries, Nationalities and their Languages

Below is a list of countries with the appropriate nationality. The Language that appears is the main language
that is spoken in the country. We have not included all the languages that they may speak in that country.

Country Nationality Language

Afghanistan Afghan Persian - Pashto
Argentine
Argentina Spanish
Argentinian
Australia Australian English
Belgium Belgian French / Flemish
Bolivia Bolivian Spanish
Brazil Brazilian Portuguese
Cambodia Cambodian Cambodian
Cameroon Cameroonian French / English
Canada Canadian English / French
Chile Chilean Spanish
China Chinese Chinese
Colombia * Colombian Spanish
Costa Rica Costa Rican Spanish
Cuba Cuban Spanish
Denmark Danish (Dane) Danish
Dominican Republic Dominican Spanish
Ecuador Ecuadorian Spanish
Egypt Egyptian Arabic
El Salvador Salvadorian Spanish
England English English
Estonia Estonian Estonian
Ethiopia Ethiopian Amharic
Finland Finnish Finnish
France French French
Germany German German
Ghana Ghanaian English
Greece Greek Greek
Guatemala Guatemalan Spanish
Haiti Haitian French / Creole
Honduras Honduran Spanish
Indonesia Indonesian Indonesian
Iran Iranian Persian
Ireland Irish Irish / English
Israel Israeli Hebrew
Italy Italian Italian
Japan Japanese Japanese
Jordan Jordanian Arabic
Kenya Kenyan Swahili
Laos Laotian Laotian
Latvia Latvian Latvian
Lebanon Lebanese Arabic
Lithuania Lithuanian Lithuanian
Malaysia Malaysian Malay / Malaysian
Mexico Mexican Spanish
Morocco Moroccan Arabic / French
Netherlands Dutch Dutch
New Zealand New Zealander English / Maori
Nicaragua Nicaraguan Spanish
Norway Norwegian Norwegian
Panama Panamanian Spanish
Paraguay Paraguayan Spanish
Peru Peruvian Spanish
Philippines Filipino Tagalog / Filipino
Poland Polish Polish
Portugal Portuguese Portuguese
Puerto Rico Puerto Rican Spanish
Romania Romanian Romanian
Russia Russian Russian
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabic
Scotland Scottish English
South Korea Korean Korean
Spain Spanish Spanish
Sweden Swedish Swedish
Switzerland Swiss German, French, Italian, Romansh
Taiwan Taiwanese Chinese
Tajikistan Tajik Tajik (Persian)
Thailand Thai Thai
Turkey Turkish Turkish
Ukraine Ukrainian Ukrainian
(The) United Kingdom British English
(The) United States American ** English
 Uruguay Uruguayan Spanish
Venezuela Venezuelan Spanish
Vietnam Vietnamese Vietnamese
Wales Welsh Welsh / English
* NOTE: Colombia is the correct spelling of the country and not "Columbia".
** You will notice that people from United States have the nationality 'American'. Some people from other parts
of the American continent (especially Central and South America) tend not to like the word American for people
from the United States. You will find that they will call them North American.
 Numbers in English
There are two main types of numbers:
Cardinal Numbers - 1 (one), 2 (two) etc. (Used mainly for counting)
Ordinal Numbers - 1st (first), 2nd (second) etc. (Used mainly for putting things in a sequence)

Cardinal Numbers
Cardinal numbers are normally used when you:

 count things: I have two brothers. There are thirty-one days in January.
 give your age: I am thirty-three years old. My sister is twenty-seven years old.
 give your telephone number: Our phone number is two-six-three, three-eight-four-seven. (481-2240)
 give years: She was born in nineteen seventy-five (1975). America was discovered in fourteen ninety-
two

Notice how we divide the year into two parts. This is the form for year up to 1999. For the year 2000 and on,
we say two thousand (2000), two thousand and one (2001), two thousand and two (2002) etc.

Ordinal Numbers
You can normally create Ordinal numbers by adding -TH to the end of a Cardinal Number.
Ordinal numbers are normally used when you:

 give a date: My birthday is on the 27th of January. (Twenty-seventh of January)

 put things in a sequence or order: Liverpool came second in the football league last year.
 give the floor of a building: His office is on the tenth floor.
 have birthdays: He had a huge party for his twenty-first birthday.
 refer to centuries: Shakespeare was born in the 16th century.

For the name of a king or queen in written English, Roman numerals are used = Henry VIII
but in Spoken English you would say Henry the Eighth.

Cardinal Numbers
 1 - one
 2 - two
 3 - three
 4 - four
 5 - five
 6 - six
 7 - seven
 8 - eight
 9 - nine
 10 - ten
 11 - eleven
 12 - twelve
 13 - thirteen
 14 - fourteen
 15 - fifteen
 16 - sixteen
 17 - seventeen
 18 - eighteen
 19 - nineteen
  20 - twenty
 21 - twenty-one
 22 - twenty-two
 23 - twenty-three
 30 - thirty
 40 - forty
 50 - fifty
 60 - sixty
 70 - seventy
 80 - eighty
 90 - ninety
 100 - one hundred*
 101 - one hundred and one
 200 - two hundred
 300 - three hundred
 1000 - one thousand
 1,000,000 - one million
 10,000,000 - ten million

* Instead of saying One Hundred, you can say A hundred.

e.g. (127) one hundred and twenty-seven OR (127) a hundred and twenty-seven.
The same rule applies for one thousand (a thousand) and one million (a million)
Notice that you need to use a hyphen (-) when you write the numbers between 21 and 99.
With long numbers, we usually divide them into groups of three which are divided by a comma. e.g. 5000000
(5 million) is normally written as 5,000,000
Version of this chart for Parents and Teachers (each purchase helps us to create more free ESL material)

Ordinal Numbers
 1st - first
 2nd - second
 3rd - third
 4th - fourth
 5th - fifth
 6th - sixth
 7th - seventh
 8th - eighth
 9th - ninth
 10th - tenth
 11th - eleventh
 12th - twelfth
 13th - thirteenth
 14th - fourteenth
 15th - fifteenth
 16th - sixteenth
 17th - seventeenth
 18th - eighteenth
 19th - nineteenth
 20th - twentieth
 21st - twenty-first
 22nd - twenty-second
 23rd - twenty-third
 30th - thirtieth
 40th - fortieth
 50th - fiftieth
 60th - sixtieth
 70th - seventieth
 80th - eightieth
 90th - ninetieth
 100th - hundredth
 101st - hundred and first
 200th - two hundredth
 300th - three hundredth
 1,000th - thousandth
 1,000,000th - ten millionth
The Number 0
We normally say 'zero' for the number '0'.
BUT when we give our telephone number, we often say O like the name of the letter O.
e.g. 505-1023 = five-O-five, one-O-two-three
See our page about telephone numbers in English

Fractions and Decimals

We use ordinal numbers (at the end position) to talk about fractions.

 1/2 - a half
 1/3 - a third
 2/3 - two thirds
 1/4 - a quarter (a fourth)
 3/4 - three quarters (three fourths)
 1/5 - a fifth
 2/5 - two fifths
 1/6 - a sixth
 5/6 - five sixths
 1/7 - a seventh
 1/8 - an eighth
 1/10 - a tenth
 7/10 - seven tenths
 1/20 - a twentieth
 47/100 - forty-seven hundredths
 1/100 - a hundredth
 1/1,000 - a thousandth
Notice that for 1/4, you can say a quarter OR a fourth.
IF we have a whole number with a fraction, we use the word AND between the two parts.
e.g. 2 3/5 = two and a three-fifths
For parts of whole numbers, we use a decimal point (and NOT a comma).
e.g. 2 1/2 (two and a half) = 2.5 (two point five)

If there is more than one number after the decimal point, we say each number individually.
e.g. 3,456.789 = three thousand, four hundred and fifty-six point seven eight nine.
The exception to this rule is when we are talking about dollars and cents (or pound and pence)
e.g. $21.95 = twenty-one dollars, ninety-five (cents). Saying the word cents at the end is optional.
 Opposites - Adjectives
The following sentences contain examples of adjectives. They are in pairs that contain adjectives that are
opposite to each other:
I am happy when it is my birthday.
She was sad when her puppy died.
We were excited about going to the concert.
She was bored because there were many grammar exercises.
She is beautiful and wants to be a model.
A witch is normally very ugly.
The desert is very dry.
My towel is wet because it fell into the pool.
Children can be naughty when they are two years old.
Your children can visit me any time because they are well-behaved.
The party next door was noisy.
The mountains are very quiet when it snows.
A weightlifter is very strong.
He lost a lot of blood and was very weak.
The dogs were horrible to the cat.
The bird sang a nice song.
There was only enough space for one car on the narrow road.
The main avenue of the city was very wide.
There was a great disturbance when the bank was robbed.
There was a minor problem at work today though it wasn't serious.
I was late to work so my boss was angry.
It is important to be early.
I am tired after running for three hours.
I slept very well last night so I was energetic this morning.
When I have lots of money I am rich.
The people who don't have money are poor.
I didn't feel a thing. It was painless.
Having a tooth removed can be painful.
The lights didn't work, so it was very dark.
The sun was out in the middle of the day so it was very bright.
Be careful when you test-drive a new car.
He was careless with money is money and had many debts.
A new Porsche is expensive.
A potato is cheap.
Studying online has been very helpful to me.
During the exam I forgot everything, I was helpless.
Taking notes is a useful way to help learning.
Trying to memorise the dictionary is useless.
Learning a new language is not difficult.
Learning a new language is easy if you practice.
Eating and sleeping well will make you healthy.
She was sick so she went to the doctor.
After you wear your socks for three days they are dirty.
When I get out of the shower I am clean.
I bought a new car!
I sold my old car because it was slow.
A cup of coffee is hot.
I don't like winter because it is cold.
After I had diarrhea for a month I was very thin.
He is fat because he always eats a lot of burgers and fries.
Bacteria are so tiny that we can't see them.
The Pacific Ocean is enormous.
A mouse is small.
An elephant is large.
A lemon is sour.
I like sugar because it is sweet.
My baby is young.
My grandfather is old.
I drank all the water, now the glass is empty.
I put some more water into my glass and now it is full.
They had a beautiful wedding. They are married.
I don't have a wife. I am single.
Fire is dangerous.
Don't worry, the area is safe for children.
We need to be polite at the dinner table.
Eating with your feet on the table is rude.
Planes fly very high.
Before the plane crashed it was flying very low.
Sandpaper is rough.
Silk sheets are smooth.
She doesn't like to talk to strangers - she is very shy.
He loves meeting new people, he is very outgoing.
The ice was very hard.
The custard was soft.
A dwarf is short.
A basketball player is very tall.
A feather is light.
A cannonball is heavy.
 Opposites - Verbs
We go when the traffic light is green.
We stop when the traffic light is red light.
I sleep at night.
I wake up in the morning.
He lived until he was eighty years old.
He died in the war.
People push their shopping cart around the supermarket.
The tow truck pulled the car behind it.
A boat floats on water.
Lead sinks when it is dropped into the water.
The room is cooled by the air conditioner.
Food can be heated in the microwave.
We throw the ball to the dog.
The dog likes to catch the ball in its mouth.
I want to pass my examination.
I failed the test because all of my answers were wrong.
I teach English to the students in my class.
My students learn a lot.
While you are waiting, you can sit on that chair.
The guard was standing next to the door.
The snow falls on the ground.
The sun rises in the East.
It was so cold I decided to put on a sweater.
You should take off your shoes before you go to bed.
He is very funny and I laugh at his jokes.
When I watch a sad movie I have to take tissues in case I cry.
We should smile when we meet someone new.
Sometimes we frown when we can't figure out a problem.
I do exercise at the gym to strengthen my muscles.
The earthquake had weakened the bridge and cars could not cross it.
If I don't like what someone is saying I can ignore it.
I always make sure to pay attention when I am in English class.
I broke the glass by dropping it onto the ground.
When my car broke down I took it to the shop to have it repaired.
When I drive on the highway I speed up to get home faster.
When you drive in the snow, you should slow down.
I buy milk at the local shop.
The supermarket sells a broad range of products
I love pussycats because they are small and cute and a little bit furry.
I hate it when people push in front of me to get service.
Some countries import goods because they are cheaper to buy overseas.
Chile is a country which exports copper to many parts of the world.
My boss gives me too much work and it stresses me.
If you look at the screen too long, you will need to relax your eyes.
The adventures wanted to find the treasure.
I lost my keys. Do you know where they are?
When we plant a tree we know it will be many years before it bears fruit.
We harvest the crops from the fields.
When I was bankrupt, the bank would not lend me any more money.
I decided to borrow some money from my parents.
They increased their prices and earned a lot more money.
To save money you should reduce your spending.
It is not important to understand every single idea.
Foreign people often misunderstand local customs.
Young people grow very fast.
Clothes washed in hot water might shrink.
When you really need it, help will appear.
The police looked for the killers, but they disappeared.
I gave my puppy a bone.
I like to receive e-mails from my friends.
I like to eat chocolate ice-cream.
He dislikes traveling on uncomfortable buses.
When you leave your house, you should lock the door.
You need a key to unlock the door.
Please do not enter through the back door.
We exit the plane near the cockpit.
Find out when the plane arrives so you can meet your friends at the airport.
You should leave the country before your visa runs out.
The lightning ignited a huge fire in the forest.
The firefighters used water to extinguish the flames.
We are wondering who will win the world cup this year.
My favourite team lost their game.
I have decided to spend my money on some new shoes.
I save money by walking to work instead of paying for the bus.
You should pick up money if you see it on the ground.
I usually put down my pen when I have finished writing.
You should have a plan so your business can succeed.
I would be upset if I failed my exam.
We need to inhale to fill our lungs with oxygen.
Humans exhale carbon dioxide.
 Parts of the Body

The Face
 eye, nose, mouth, ear, cheek, chin, nostril, eyebrow, eyelid, eyelash, lips.

Mouth - you use your mouth to talk, to eat and to breathe.

Nose - You can smell things with your nose. You can also breathe through your nose.
Nostrils - these are the two holes in your nose

The Arm and Hand

 finger, palm, wrist, forearm, elbow, upper arm, shoulder, thumb

The Hand and Fingers

See the photo of the parts of the hand below

1. hand
2. thumb
3. index finger
4. middle finger
5. ring finger
6. little finger (informal: pinky finger)
7. nail
8. knuckle
The Leg and Foot
 knee, leg, shin, calf (muscle), ankle, heel, foot, toe

ankle - the joint between your leg and your foot.

Internal Parts of the Body

heart - your heart pumps your blood around your body.
lungs - when you breathe, the air goes into your lungs.
veins - these transport blood through your body. They are like little tubes.
brain - this is your 'thinking machine' inside your head.
throat - food goes down this to get to your stomach.
liver - the organ that cleans your blood.
stomach - your food goes here when you swallow it.
kidneys - the organs that process all your body waste.
skeleton - all of the bones in your body.
ribs - these are the bones that protect the organs in your chest.
bones - your skeleton consists of many bones. There are about 206 in your body.
skin - it covers almost the entire body and helps keep all the organs and muscles in place.

Other Parts of the Body

Here is a list of some other parts of the body that have not been included above. We will take some more
photos of these when we find some more volunteers.

 head - face - hair - tongue - tooth - back - waist - chest - hip - thigh - muscles

neck - this connects your head with your shoulders and the rest of your body.
tongue - the muscle at the bottom of your mouth that tastes things and helps you pronounce words
wrinkles - the lines in your skin caused by age. Old people have a lot of wrinkles.
 Personal Information
Personal information questions are the basis for any conversation in English and so are important for when you
meet somebody for the first time. They are the building blocks from which the rest of the conversation can
develop.
Some common questions and a correct form for the answer are as follows:
Notice that we are giving our answers in complete sentences to practice using them though normally we only
give short answers.

Names
What is your name?
My name is _______.
What is your surname / last name?
My surname / last name is _______.
Do you have a nickname?
Yes, my nickname is _______ or No, I don't.

Work & Occupation

What do you do?
I am a _______.
Where do you work?
I work at _______.
Do you like your job?
Yes, I do. or No, I don't.
Why do you like your job?
I like my job because _______.

Marital Status
Are you married / single?
Yes, I am. or No I'm not.
Do you have a boyfriend / girlfriend?
Yes, I do. or No, I don't.
What is your partner's name?
My partner's name is _______.

Family
Do you have any children?
Yes, I have _______ children. or No, I don't
What are their names?
Their names are _______.
How many brothers and sister do you have?
I have _______ brothers and _______ sisters.
Age
How old are you?
I am _______ years old.
When is your birthday?
My birthday is on the _______ of _______.
Where were you born?
I was born in _______.

Contact Information
Where are you from?
I am from _______.
What is your address?
My address is _______.
What is your phone number?
My phone number is _______.
What is your cell phone number?
My cell phone number is _______.
Do you live with your parents?
Yes, I do. or No, I don't.
Do you live alone?
Yes, I do. or No, I don't.
Who do you live with?
I live with my _______.
Do you live in a house or an apartment?
I live in a/an _______.
What is your e-mail address?
My e-mail address is _______.

Free time activities

What do you do in your free time?
In my free time I _______.
What are your hobbies?
My hobbies are _______.
What type of music do you like?
I like _______ music.
Do you have a favourite singer or group?
My favourite singer / group is _______.
What types of movies do you like?
I like _______ movies.
Do you like to read?
Yes, I do. or No, I don't.
What do you like to read?
I like to read _______.

Habits
Do you have any bad habits?
Yes, one of my bad habits is _______.
Do you snore?
Yes, I do. or No, I don't.
Do you smoke?
Yes, I do. or No, I don't.
How many cigarettes do you smoke a day?
I smoke _______ cigarettes a day.

Other Personal Information

What is your favourite food?
My favourite food is _______.
Is there any food that you do not like?
Yes, I don't like _______. or I like all food.
What is your favourite colour?
My favourite colour is _______.
Why do you want to learn English?
I want to learn English because _______.
What languages do you speak?
I speak _______.
Do you have any pets?
Yes, I do. or No, I don't.
What pets do you have?
I have _______.
What are their names?
Their names are _______.
Which sports do you like?
The sport I like is _______.
Do you have a favourite team?
My favourite team is _______.
What is something you do well?
I am good at _______.
What is something you do not do well?
I am bad at _______.
Are you romantic?
_______ romantic.
Do you have any tattoos?
Yes, I do. or No, I don't.
Describe yourself using only two words.
I am _______ and _______.
What makes you happy?
I am happy when _______.
Are you a good cook/singer/driver?
Yes, I do. or No, I don't.
 Physical Descriptions
The language for physical descriptions in English is quite specific depending on the physical characteristic you
are describing.
When giving physical descriptions, the two most common verbs to use are BE and HAVE, however, they are
quite specific.
We use BE for: height, weight, skin colour.
We use HAVE for: hair (length), hair (style), hair (colour) and facial features.
Height
Short - Medium height - Tall
Weight
Skinny - Thin - Slim - Medium weight - chubby - fat - overweight - obese
Skin Colour
Fair-skinned - Tanned - Dark-skinned
Hair (Length)
Short - Medium length - Long
Hair (Style)
Straight - Wavy - Curly
Facial Features
Beard - Black Eye - Moustache - Pimples
Other Features
Mole - Scar - Wart - Wrinkles
Examples:

 Chris is medium height.

 Tanya has blonde hair.
 Albert is overweight.
 Donna has curly hair and is tanned.
 Patrick has a long beard and he also has a black eye right now.
 Tony is tall and has medium length hair.

If you want to combine hair characteristics together in the same sentence, then the structure is:
Length + Style + Colour + Hair

 Michael has short curly black hair.

 Mary has long wavy brown hair.
 Places in a City
airport - the place you go when you want to travel by plane to another city.
bakery - you can buy fresh bread and cakes here.
bank - you deposit or withdraw/take out your money here. You can cash a cheque.
bookstore - a place where you can buy books and magazines.
bus station - the place you go when you want to travel by bus to another city.
butcher's - they sell fresh meat.
café - you can buy a cup of coffee and cakes or sandwiches.
church - a religious place of worship
court - the place where they have trials and law cases. A judge works here
craft market - a place that sells typical products (normally hand-made) of a region/country.
department store - a large store that sells clothes, household appliances etc. in sections.
cinema/movies - you can see the latest movies here. Many people eat popcorn while they're here.
fire station - the building where firemen keep their equipment including the fire-engine
gas / petrol station - the place you go to put petrol (gas) in your car.
gym - you can do exercises, weight training and keep fit here.
hairdresser's - you go here when you want to cut your hair.
hospital - you go here when you need an operation or someone is going to have a baby.
hotel - where you sleep when you visit another city.
gallery - you can see paintings and other works of art.
jail / prison - criminals are sent here by a judge for a number of days or years.
laundromat / launderette - a place where you can wash your clothes in coin-operated machines.
library - a place where you can read and borrow books.
museum - you can see many old objects (and sometimes paintings)
pharmacy/drugstore - you can buy medicine and (legal) drugs.
police station - you are taken here when you break the law and are arrested
pub - a place where you can buy a beer or other types alcoholic drinks
park - An area of public land in a city that contains an area of grass where you can rest, play or walk your dog.
Sometimes children can play on swings, a slide or a climbing frame here.
restaurant - you go here when you don't want to cook at home. They prepare meals for you.
school - a place where children learn. You normally start school at the age of 5.
square - an open area within a city in the shape of a square. It is usually the heart of the city.
supermarket - a large store that sells food, drinks and household items
video store - you rent a movie or a DVD for a couple of days from this place.
zoo - a place where you can see many types of animals in cages.
 Professions & Occupations
Below we have a list of different Professions and an explanation of what each person does in that profession.
Accountant - a person that works with the money and accounts of a company.
Actor /Actress - a person that acts in a play or a movie
Architect - a person that designs building and houses.
Astronomer - a person who studies the stars and the universe
Author - They write books or novels.
Baker - They make bread and cakes and normally work in a bakery.
Bricklayer - a person that helps to build houses using bricks.
Bus driver - a person that drives buses.
Butcher - a person that works with meat. They cut the meat and sell it in their shop.
Carpenter - a person that makes things from wood including houses and furniture.
Chef/Cook - a person that prepared food for others, often in a restaurant or café.
Cleaner - a person that cleans/tidies an area or place (such as in an office)
Dentist - a person that can fix problems you have with your teeth.
Designer - a person who has the job of designing things.
Doctor - a person you go to see when you are ill or have some type of health problem.
Dustman/Refuse collector - a person that collects trash/rubbish from bins in the street.
Electrician - a person that works with electric circuits.
Engineer - a person who develops solutions to technical problems. They sometimes design, build, or maintain
engines, machines, structures or public works.
Factory worker - a person that works in a factory.
Farmer - a person that works on a farm, usually with animals.
Fireman/Fire fighter - a person that puts out fires.
Fisherman - a person that catches fish
Florist - a person that works with flowers.
Gardener - a person that keeps gardens clean and tidy. They take care of the plants in the garden.
Hairdresser - they cut your hair or give it a new style.
Journalist - a person that makes new reports in writing or through television.
Judge - a qualified person that decides cases in a law court.
Lawyer - a person that defends people in court and gives legal advice.
Lecturer - a person that gives lectures, usually in a university.
Librarian - a person that works in a library.
Lifeguard - a person that saves lives where people swim (at a beach or swimming pool).
Mechanic - a person that repairs machines, especially car motors.
Model - a (usually attractive) person that works in fashion, modeling clothes and accessories.
Newsreader - a person that reads the news, normally on television.
Nurse - a person trained to help a doctor look after the sick or injured.
Optician - a person that checks your eyes and try and correct any problems with your sight.
Painter - a person that paints pictures or the interior and exterior of buildings.
Pharmacist - a qualified person that works with and dispenses medicine.
Photographer - a person that takes photos.
Pilot - a person who flies a plane.
Plumber - a person that repairs your water systems or pipes.
Politician - a person who works in politics.
Policeman/Policewoman - a member of the police force. They (try and) prevent crime.
Postman - a person that delivers mail to your house.
Real estate agent - a person that makes money from selling land for development.
Receptionist - a person that is at the reception (entrance) of a company.
Scientist - a person that works in the science industry. They do many experiments.
Secretary - a person employed in an office who types letters, keeps records etc.
Shop assistant - a person that works in a shop or store selling products.
Soldier - a person who works for the army.
Tailor - a person that makes clothes for others, many times producing exclusive items of clothing.
Taxi driver - a person who drives a taxi.
Teacher - a person that passes knowledge to students, usually at school.
Translator - a person that translates from one language to another.
Traffic warden - a person that patrols areas to check that people do not park in the wrong place.
Travel agent - a person that organises and sells holidays and flights for others.
Veterinary doctor (Vet) - a qualified person that looks after sick animals.
Waiter/Waitress - a person that works in a food outlet, looking after customers and serving food.
Window cleaner - a person that cleans windows, normally the windows of big buildings.
 See Look Watch Hear Listen
The use of the verbs See, Look, Watch, Hear and Listen is very specific in most cases and are not normally
interchangeable as is the case in other languages. It is therefore important to understand the basis of the use
of each of these verbs.

See vs. Look vs. Watch

See is a verb of perception, it is a sense. It is automatic and doesn't require a decision to use this sense. It is
associated with things that we can't avoid.
Look and Watch are action verbs that require a decision for you to use them. They never happen
automatically.
Look is used to suggest a direction for your eyes. Usually we use this verb when the things we look at doesn't
move.
Look - camera, prices, mirror, sky.

 Look at this picture.

 I like to look at the stars at night.

Watch is when we talk about concentrating on something, like a movie or sports. Using watch suggests there
is a movement involved, so you can use that for TV or movies.
Watch - a movie, a TV program, a football match.

 I like to sit on the verandah and watch people walk by.

 I watch Friends everyday on TV.

Hear vs. Listen

Hear is another of our senses and so accordingly it is automatic. It does not require a conscious decision.
Hear - a noise, a voice, an explosion.

 You could hear the explosion from the next suburb.

 Do you hear voices in the night?

Listen is an action verb and you need to make a decision to do it. You can choose if you listen to something or
not. For example you can hear somebody talking but you need to listen to them to understand what they are
saying.
Listen - music, a speech.

 I can't listen to anything else you want to say. I'm so tired.

 I didn't want to listen to the President's speech but I didn't have a choice.
Examples of each verb
 I can see the mountains in the distance.
 Can you see the whiteboard from your seat?
 Look at the map to find where we are.
 Don't look at him for the answer - I asked you!
 I love to watch Game of Thrones on Sunday night.
 My husband watches the replays of the football on the weekend.
 I can't hear you. Could you speak louder please?
 Did you hear the thunder last night?
 You should always listen to your mother's advice.
 Can we listen to some different music? I'm sick of Luis Miguel!

It is also important to remember that the verb LISTEN is always followed by TO. Review the examples above
and you will see this principle.
 Telephone Numbers
We normally give telephones by saying each individual number in it:
Our phone number is two six three, three eight four seven. (263-3847)
When there is a zero (0) in our telephone number, we often say O like the name of the letter O.
e.g. 505-1023 = five-O-five, one-O-two-three.
If a phone number contains two of the same numbers together, we usually say double (number).
If a phone number contains three of the same numbers together, we usually say triple (number)
e.g. (212-8555) two one two, eight triple five.
The above rules for telephone numbers also apply to fax numbers.
To ask for someone's telephone number we say:
What's your phone number? It's 555-2565.
What is Woodward's phone number? It's 2789-0135.
We don't normally say: What's your telephone number? (Though it IS grammatically correct)
When you reply, you can give just your telephone number OR say: It's + (your phone number).
 Telling the Time

There are two common ways of telling the time.

1) Say the hour first and then the minutes. (Hour + Minutes)

 6:25 - It's six twenty-five

 8:05 - It's eight O-five (the O is said like the letter O)
 9:11 - It's nine eleven
 2:34 - It's two thirty-four

2) Say the minutes first and then the hour. (Minutes + PAST / TO + Hour)
For minutes 1-30 we use PAST after the minutes.
For minutes 31-59 we use TO after the minutes.

 2:35 - It's twenty-five to three

 11:20 - It's twenty past eleven
 4:18 - It's eighteen past four
 8:51 - It's nine to nine
 2:59 - It's one to three

When it is 15 minutes past the hour we normally say: (a) quarter past

 7:15 - It's (a) quarter past seven

When it is 15 minutes before the hour we normally say: a quarter to

 12:45 - It's (a) quarter to one

When it is 30 minutes past the hour we normally say: half past

 3:30 - It's half past three (but we can also say three-thirty)
O'clock
We use o'clock when there are NO minutes.

 10:00 - It's ten o'clock

 5:00 - It's five o'clock
 1:00 - It's one o'clock

Sometimes it is written as 9 o'clock (the number + o'clock)

12:00
For 12:00 there are four expressions in English.

 twelve o'clock
 midday = noon
 midnight

Asking for the Time

The common question forms we use to ask for the time right now are:

 What time is it?

 What is the time?
A more polite way to ask for the time, especially from a stranger is:

 Could you tell me the time please?

The common question forms we use to ask at what time a specific event will happen are:
What time...?
When...?

 What time does the flight to New York leave?

 When does the bus arrive from London?
 When does the concert begin?

Giving the Time

We use It is or It's to respond to the questions that ask for the time right now.

 It is half past five (5:30).

 It's ten to twelve (11:50)

We use the structure AT + time when giving the time of a specific event.

 The bus arrives at midday (12:00).

 The flight leaves at a quarter to two (1:45).
 The concert begins at ten o'clock. (10:00)

We can also use subject pronouns in these responses.

 It arrives at midday (12:00).

 It leaves at a quarter to two (1:45).
 It begins at ten o'clock. (10:00)
AM vs. PM
We don't normally use the 24-hour clock in English.
We use a.m. (am) for the morning and p.m. (pm) for the afternoon and night.
3am = Three o'clock in the morning.
3pm = Three o'clock in the afternoon.
 The Temperature
The Temperature in English
The temperature is how hot or cold something is.
We use a thermometer to measure the temperature of something.
Temperature is usually measured in degrees.
The ° symbol after a number means degrees.
30° = thirty degrees
There are two main systems used for measuring temperature:
°F = degrees Fahrenheit (used in United States)
°C = degrees Celsius (used in the rest of the world)
When talking about the temperature we normally use:
It + is/was/will be + adjective

 It is chilly today.
 It was warm yesterday.
 It will be cold tomorrow.

Here is a chart showing temperature vocabulary:

The temperatures given are only an approximation to give you an idea of when to use them.
28°C (or more) - Hot
15 to 28°C - Warm
10 to 15°C - Cool
5 to 10°C - Chilly
0 to 5°C - Cold
0°C (or less) - Freezing
Remember, what is hot in one country may only be considered warm in another.
What may be chilly in one country may be freezing in another.
The following words refer to being MORE than hot and are used for temperatures over 30°C.
Boiling: very hot, often used in negative contexts
Humid: hot and damp. It makes you sweat a lot
Muggy: warm and damp in an unpleasant way
Scorching: very hot, often used in positive contexts
Stifling: hot and you can hardly breath
Sweltering: hot and uncomfortable
So what makes a day hot or cold? It depends on the weather…
 Vegetables
A vegetable is the edible part of a plant that is used in cooking or can be eaten raw. They are different from
fruit in that vegetables don't have seeds. Vegetables are often consumed as salads or cooked as part of a side
dish or main meal.
A person who does not eat meat is considered a Vegetarian because they often only eat vegetables (and fruit).
The informal word for vegetables is veggies.

List of Vegetables in English

[C] = Countable Noun - [U] = Uncountable Noun

 artichoke [C]
 asparagus [U]
 aubergine [C] and [U] - (called eggplant in United States)
 beet [C] - (called beetroot in British English)
 beetroot [C] and [U] - (called beet in United States)
 bell pepper * [C] - (Just called pepper in British English or with its color beforehand just as red
pepper or green pepper. In Australia and New Zealand it is known as capsicum)
 broccoli [U] - (broccoli is an uncountable noun so there is no plural of broccoli)
 Brussels sprout [C]
 cabbage [C] and [U]
 carrot [C]
 cauliflower [C] and [U]
 celery [U]
 corn ** [U]
 courgette * [C] - (called zucchini in United States)
 cucumber * [C] and [U]
 eggplant * [C] and [U] - (called aubergine in British English)
 green bean * [C] - (sometimes called French bean in the UK)
 green onion [C] - (called spring onion in the British English)
  leek [C]
 lettuce [C] and [U]
 mushroom *** [C]
 onion [C] and [U]
 pea [C]
 pepper [C] - (called bell pepper in British English. In Australia and New Zealand it is known
as capsicum)
 potato [C] and [U] - (the plural of potato is potatoes - potato is sometimes uncountable as in mashed
potato)
 pumpkin * [C] and [U]
 radish [C] - (the plural of radish is radishes)
 spring onion [C] - (called green onion or scallion in United States)
 squash * [C] and [U]
 sweet potato [C] - (kumara in New Zealand)
 tomato * [C] - (the plural of tomato is tomatoes)
 zucchini * [C] - (called courgette in British English)

Are they Fruit or Vegetables?

* The following are Fruits in a botanical sense, though are commonly thought of as vegetables due to their
culinary uses:

 avocado, cucumber, eggplant, green beans, peppers, pumpkin, squash, tomato, zucchini

** corn is a cereal grain and is also a type of fruit.

*** mushrooms – biologically a mushroom is not a plant so technically it isn't a vegetable. However most
English speakers would consider the mushroom as a vegetable because of its use in cooking.
 Wake Up vs. Get Up
Wake up and Get up have different meanings so they cannot be exchanged without a difference in meaning.

Wake up
Wake up = to stop sleeping and open your eyes.
When your alarm clock goes off in the morning you wake up because you are no longer sleeping.
You can wake up naturally (you body doesn't need to sleep any more) or something or someone
can wake you upsuch as an alarm clock or a friend (or dog) jumping on your bed.
Wake up is a phrasal verb so only the first part, the verb, changes according to the tense.
Example sentences of Wake up:

 Why am I still tired when I wake up?

 My alarm clock rang and I woke up immediately.
 When she woke up, she no longer had a headache.
 Let's have the surprise ready before he wakes up.
 I hope she wakes up soon, we have to go.

To Wake (someone) up = To cause someone to stop sleeping.

The person that is being woken up (the object) is placed between the words Wake and Up. Often an object
pronoun is used instead of the noun (or name).
Example sentences of Wake (someone) up:

 The sound of the baby crying woke me up.

 A loud noise outside her bedroom window woke her up.
 John woke his friend up by throwing a bucket of water on him.
 A strong earthquake woke us up.

Get up
Get up = to get out of bed (usually to start your day).
Get up can also mean: To go from a lying position onto your feet.
Example sentences of Get up:

 I first thing I do when I get up is go to the toilet.

 This morning I got up earlier than normal.
 I got up in the middle of the night to find myself another blanket because I was cold.
 I wake up around 7 o'clock but I don't get up until around 8. I like to lie in bed reading before I start my
day.
 EXPRESIONES EN INGLÉS
En inglés como en muchos otros idiomas hay muchas expresiones hechas con significados
propios. Abajo hay una lista de varias expresiones comunes y sus significados en español
con ejemplos en inglés.

In some way or other – de una manera u otra

Ejemplo: In some way or other we must find a way to fix the computer by tomorrow.

To this day – hasta ahora

Ejemplo: To this day I still don’t know the full truth.

To go hand in hand with – algo que va junto con algo

Ejemplo: A job with a lot of responsibility usually goes hand in hand with a decent salary.

In due course – en su tiempo

Ejemplo: The project came to fruition in due course.

At random – al azar
Ejemplo: He chose the lottery numbers at random.

Under no circumstances – bajo ningún circunstancia

Ejemplo: Under no circumstances must people move beyond this point.

To come up against a brick wall – encontrar obstaculos de un tipo u otro

Ejemplo: Every time he attempted to find a solution to the situation he came up against a brick
wall.

The naked truth – la pura verdad

Ejemplo: The naked truth is that the government has mislead the media over this issue.

To wash your hands of something – desasociarte de algo

Ejemplo: The prime minister washed his hands of the whole situation and denied everything.

To bang your head against a brick wall – no poder hacer nada

Ejemplo: It was impossible to convince them that I was right. It was like banging my head
against a brick wall.
 Fixed expressions: make and do
Los verbos make y do son muy fáciles de confundir ya que ambos significan "hacer", aunque tienen diferentes
matices de significado. Por ejemplo, "make" significa "hacer" en el sentido de "fabricar, crear, elaborar",
mientras que "do" significa "hacer" en un sentido más general, "llevar a cabo". A continuación os dejamos
una lista con las expresiones más comunes que se usan con make y doy un ejercicio para que las practiquéis
:)
 EXPRESIONES CON MAKE Y DO

TO DO
El verbo "to do" que significa "hacer, llevar a cabo" suele ir acompañado de actividades, acciones y
trabajos.
To do
... business - hacer negocios
... an exam / a test - hacer un examen
... an experiment - hacer un experimento
... a course - hacer un curso
... a favour - hacer un favor
... the cooking - cocinar
... the housework - hacer las tareas domésticas
... the homework - hacer los deberes
... the ironing - planchar
... the shopping -hacer la compra
... the washing up / the dishes - fregar los platos
... the washing / the laundry - poner una lavadora / hacer la colada
... good -hacer bien, sentar bien
... evil - hacer el mal
... exercise - hacer ejercicio
... one's duty -cumplir con el deber de alguien
... one's hair - arreglarse el pelo
... one's face - maquillarse
... one's nails - arreglarse las uñas
... one's best - hacerlo lo mejor posible
... research - investigar
... well / badly - hacer algo bien / mal

TO MAKE
El verbo "to make" que significa "hacer" en el sentido de "realizar, ejecutar, fabricar, elaborar".
... an appointment- pedir cita
... the bed - hacer la cama
... the best of - aprovechar al máximo algo
... a bid - hacer una oferta, pujar
... a choice - hacer una elección
... a complaint - presentar una queja
... a decision - tomar una decisión
... an effort -hacer un esfuerzo
... an exception - hacer una excepción
... an excuse - poner una excusa
... a fortune -ganar una fortuna / forrarse
... a joke- gastar una broma
... a list -hacer una lista
... a mistake - cometer un error
.... a noise - hacer ruido
... an offer - hacer una oferta
... a phone call- hacer una llamada de teléfono
... a proposal - hacer una propuesta
... a request - hacer una petición
... a suggestion - hacer una sugerencia
... a trip / journey -hacer un viaje (breve), una excursión / hacer un viaje (largo)
... a wish -pedir un deseo

.. breakfast / lunch / dinner -hacer el desayuno / la comida / la cena

... (a cup of) coffee / tea -hacer (una taza de) café / té
... faces - hacer muecas
.... friends -hacer amigos
... fun of somebody - reirse de alguien
... love -hacer el amor
... money -hacer dinero
... one's way to- ir a un sitio, dirigirse a...
... plans - hacer planes
... progress - progresar
... sense - tener sentido
... make someone's day - alegrar el día a alguien
... sure that - asegurarse de que...
... use of - usar, hacer uso de...
 False Friends
Si alguno de vosotros ha viajado a un país anglosajón probablemente haya visto alguna vez
este cartel y le haya resultado curioso. ¿Acaba la diversión? Este es un claro ejemplo de lo
que llamamos False Friends (falsos amigos), también conocidos como Cognates (Cognados).
Los False Friends son palabras que por tener una forma parecida en inglés y en español,
creemos erróneamente que significan lo mismo, cuando en realidad tienen significados
totalmente distintos. En el caso de la foto, "diversion" no significa "diversión" sino "desvío".

Hay que llevar especial cuidado con estas palabras si queremos que nos entiendan. A
continuación muestro una tabla con algunos False Friends. La tabla tiene cuatro columnas, la
primera contiene el False Friend, la segunda el significado correcto, la tercera el falso
significado y la cuarta la traducción al inglés de ese falso significado.

FALSE FRIENDS

FALSE FALSO
TRADUCCIÓN CORRECTA TRADUCCIÓN CORRECTA
FRIEND SIGNIFICADO

Actually En realidad, en efecto Actualmente Nowadays, at present

Advise Aconsejar Avisar Notify, warn, inform

Agenda Orden del día Agenda Diary

Amenities Servicios; instalaciones Amenidad Entertainment

Anxious Inquieto, nervioso Ansioso Eager; greedy

Argument Discusión; debate Argumento Plot (de una novela)

Assit Ayudar, auxiliar Asistir Attend

Pay attention; take care of; look

Attend Asistir, ir a Atender
after

Avocado Aguacate Abogado Lawyer, solicitor, attorney

Billion Mil millones Billón Thousand billion

Blank En blanco, vacío Blanco White

Camp Campamento Campo Field, countryside; pitch (pista)

Carpet Alfombra; moqueta Carpeta Folder; file

Casual Informal Casual Accidental

Cobrador de autobús; director de

Conductor Conductor Driver
orquesta

Conservatory Invernadero; terraza interior Conservatorio Music academy

Constipated Estriñido (estar) constipado (have) a cold

Costume Traje Costumbre Habit, custom

Discussion Discusión (intercambio de ideas) Discusión (pelea) Argument

Disgust Repugnancia, asco Disgusto Annoyance, sorrow

Embarrassed Avergonzado Embarazada Pregnant

Eventually Finalmente; en definitiva Eventualmente Temporarily; by chance

Excited Emocionado Excitado (sexual) Aroused

Exit Salida Éxito Success

Idiom Expresión idiomática; modismo Idioma Language

Inhabited Habitado Inhabitado Uninhabited

Intoxicated Ebrio, borracho; drogado Intoxicado Poisoned

Large Grande Largo Long

Lecture Discurso, conferencia, sermón Lectura Reading/td>

Library Biblioteca Librería Bookshop

Mascara Rímel Máscara Mask

Misery Pena, tristeza Miseria Poverty

Notice Aviso, notificación; notar Noticia News

Parent Padre, madre Pariente Relative

Phrase Expresión, locución Frase Sentence

Preservative Conservante Preservativo Condom

Presume Suponer Presumir Be conceited; show off

Pretend Fingir Pretender Try, seek

Professor Catedrático; profesor de universidad Profesor Teacher

Quiet Callado Quieto Still

Realize Darse cuenta Realizar Make, produce

Recipient Destinatario Recipiente Container, pan

Relevant Pertinente Relevante Important

Remove Quitar Remover Stir

Resume Continuar, seguir, reanudar Resumir Summarize

Sane Cuerdo Sano Healthy

Scenery Paisaje Escenario Stage, scene

Sensible Sensato Sensible Sensitive

Signature Firma Asignatura Subject

Spectacles Anteojos Espectáculos Shows

Suburb Barrio residencial Suburbio Slum

Success Éxito Suceso Event, happening

Support Apoyar, ayudar; sostener; mantener Soportar Bear, stand

Sympathy Compasión Simpatía Friendliness, kindness

Topic Tema Tópico Commonplace, cliché

Vicious Malvado, malintencionado, mezquino Vicioso Addict; depraved

Palabras Similares 1:

All together vs altogether, specially vs especially, lose vs loose

¿Te haces un lío con palabras como specially y especially o lose y loose? Estas palabras
suelen causar bastante confusión ya que se deletrean de forma muy similar pero no significan
lo mismo. Aquí os dejamos una lista cortita de algunas de ellas con sus significados, frases
de ejemplo y un ejercicio para practicarlas :)

1. All together vs Altogether

All together – "todos juntos". Se usa para hacer referencia a grupo de cosas o personas
cuando hacen algo a la vez.
After dinner, we sang a Christmas carol all together (después de cenar, cantamos un
villancico todos juntos)
Put the papers all together on the table (pon los papeles todos juntos en la mesa)
Altogether – "en total", "completamente", "totalmente".
That's 20$ altogether (son 20 dólares en total)
2. Effect vs Affect
Effect – "efecto" (sustantivo) y "efectuar o llevar a cabo" (verbo).
The film had amazing special effects (la película tenía unos efectos especiales increíbles)
The government effected change in Education policy (el gobierno efectuó cambios en la
política educativa)
Affect – "afectar", "conmover" (verbo).
Unemployment in Spain affects many people (el desempleo en España afecta a mucha gente)

3. Lose vs Loose
Lose - "perder" (verbo)
I always lose at chess (siempre pierdo al ajedrez)
Loose – "flojo", "suelto" (adjetivo)
I like to wear my hair loose (me gusta llevar el pelo suelto)

4. Specially vs Especially
Specially – "particularmente", "especialmente", "expresamente" (para un propósito especial).
This dress was specially made for her (este vestido se hizo expresamente para ella)
Especially – "sobre todo".
I like vegetables, especially aubergines and carrots (me gustan las verduras, sobre todo las
berenjenas y las zanahorias)

5. Stationary vs Stationery
Stationary – "inmóvil", "parado" (adjetivo). Implica "sin movimiento".
I bought a stationary bicycle for just 50€ (me he comprado una bicicleta estática por sólo 50
euros)
Stationery – "papelería", "material para oficina" (sustantivo)
Students usually buy stationery like pencils, colours, books and so on at the beginning of the
school year (los alumnos suele comprar material escolar como lápices, pinturas, libros, etc
cuando comienza el curso)

6. Principle vs Principal
Principle - "principio" (regla fundamental). On principle → "por principios"
Our main principle is to meet the students' needs (nuestro principio fundamental es responder
a las necesidades de los estudiantes)
Principal – "principal", "esencial", "fundamental" (adjetivo) o "director" -de un colegio-
(sustantivo)
The principal idea is to improve Education (la idea principal es mejorar la educación)
The school principal expelled the student from school for his bad behaviour (el director del
colegio expulsó al estudiante por su mal comportamiento)
Palabras similares 2:
Camping vs Campsite, History vs Story, Politics vs Policy
En nuestro post Palabras similares 1 vimos una serie de palabras que suelen causar bastante
confusión porque se deletrean de manera muy similar pero tienen significados distintos, por
ejemplo: all together y altogether o specially y especially. Hoy os dejamos otra lista con sus
significados y un ejercicio para practicarlas :)

Politics - política
Policy - póliza

Camping (verbo) - hacer camping

Campsite (sustantivo) - camping (lugar)

MP (Member of Parliament) - miembro del parlamento, diputado

PM (Prime Minister) – primer ministro

A diary – una agenda

A newspaper - un periódico

A blizzard – una tormenta de nieve

A storm - una tormenta

History – historia (pasado), historia (ciencia o asignatura que estudia el pasado)

a story – una cuento, una historia
 Verbos fáciles de confundirse entre ellos 1
En inglés existen muchos verbos que son muy fáciles de confundir. En este post os dejamos
algunos de los más frecuentes, con sus respectivos significados y ejemplos de uso y un
ejercicio para que los practiquéis :)
1. MEET / KNOW
Meet:
 conocer a alguien la primera vez
 quedar para ver a alguien

I met her when I was a student

I’m meeting my friends at 9pm

Know:
 conocer a alguien durante un tiempo
 saber hacer algo
 tener conocimientos sobre algo

I have known Alison for 7 years

I know a lot about geography
I know how to play the piano
2. SAY / TELL
Say: decir algo

I told you I was going to arrive 10 minutes late

Tell: decir algo a alguien (contar)

I said that I was going to arrive 10 minutes late

3. MAKE / DO
Make: hacer algo (crear)

I made a cake this morning

Do: hacer una actividad

I did a lot of work this morning

4. WIN / EARN
Win:
 ganar una competición
 ganar dinero en una competición

I won 100 pounds in the poetry competition

Earn: ganar dinero trabajando

I earned 1000 euros last month

5. LEND / BORROW
Lend: prestar, dejar prestado

Can you lend me five rounds please?

Borrow: coger prestado

Can I borrow five pounds please?

 Verbos fáciles de confundirse entre ellos 2
En nuestro post anterior, ya vimos algunos de los verbos que más confusión causan en
inglés. En este post incluimos 5 más: lose/miss, wear/carry, remember/remind, rob/steal,
discuss/agree. Además de sus traducciones y respectivos ejemplos, podéis realizar un
ejercicio para practicarlos :)

1. LOSE / MISS
Lose: perder algo
I have lost my keys. I don’t know where they are
Miss: perder el autobús, tren etc./ echar alguien o algo de menos
I missed the 9 am train to work this morning
2. WEAR / CARRY

Wear: llevar, llevar puesto (ropa)

Today I am wearing jeans and a t-shirt
Carry: llevar algo en la mano
I don’t like carrying heavy bags
3. REMEMBER / REMIND

Remember: Recordar algo

I remembered to post the letter this morning
Remind: Recordar alguien de algo
I reminded her to post the letter
4. ROB / STEAL

Rob: atracar (un lugar, una persona)

They robbed the bank at midnight
Steal: robar algo
They stole thousands of pounds
5. DISCUSS / ARGUE

Discuss: Hablar de algo

They discussed the different options for the business
Argue: Discutir
They argued about what the best thing to do was
 "Dejar" en inglés
En inglés se utilizan diferentes verbos para hacer referencia al verbo español "dejar":

1. LET / ALLOW* (permitir)

Ej: Let me speak (déjame hablar)
He doesn't let me speak (no me deja hablar)
Will your parents allow you to go out tomorrow night?
(¿Te dejarán tus padres salir mañana por la noche?)

*Allow va seguido de "to". Ej: Their parents allow her to watch TV one hour a day.
(sus padres le dejan ver la televisión una hora al día)

2. LEND (prestar)
Ej: She lent me a book (me dejó un libro)

3. GIVE UP / STOP / QUIT

give up / stop / quit + nombre (dejar algo)
Ej: I gave up coke (dejé la coca-cola)
You should stop your bad habits (deberías dejar tus malos hábitos)
He quit his job (él dejó el trabajo)

give up / stop / quit + verbo acabado en -ing (dejar de hacer algo)

Ej: My sister gave up / stopped / quit smoking (mi hermana dejó de fumar)
It stopped raining (dejó de llover)

4. LEAVE
Leave (abandonar)

Ej: She left him two weeks ago (ella le dejó hace dos semanas)
We left Spain when we were young (nosotros dejamos España cuando éramos jóvenes)
He left his brother at home and went out with his friends
(él dejó a su hermano en casa y salió con sus amigos)

Leave (olvidarse)
Ej: I have no money because I left my purse at home.
(no tengo dinero porque me he dejado la cartera en casa)
 ¿Cómo se dice "Tener que" en inglés?
La perífrasis verbal "tener que" causa mucha confusión cuando queremos decir en inglés. En
este post, explicaremos de forma muy breve las formas que existen para decir en inglés
"tener que + infinitivo" o "no tener que + infinitivo" y las diferencias que existen entre ellas.
¿Cómo se dice en inglés "tener que"?
La expresión verbal "tener que" en inglés generalmente se usa con el verbo modal "must" y el
semimodal "have to".
"Tener que"
= have to (obligación externa, dada por una tercera persona o por normas)
You have to fasten your seat belt when driving (tienes que abrocharte el cinturón cuando
conduzcas)

= must (obligación impuesta por la persona que habla o escribe)

I must phone Sarah. I told her I would phone her last week (tengo que llamar a Sarah. Le dije
que la llamaría la semana pasada)

= have to (para expresar necesidad. Se usa tanto en presente, como en pasado y futuro)
I have to do the shopping (tengo que hacer la compra)
We had to leave early (tuvimos que marcharnos pronto)
She doesn't feel well so she will have to go to the doctor's (no se encuentra bien, así que
tendrá que ir al médico)

= must (para expresar una necesidad mucho más urgente. Sólo se usa en presente)
I must do the shopping. (Tengo que hacer la compra -quizás no haya nada en el frigorífico)

= must (para deducir. Sólo en afirmativas)

It's 7p.m. He must be home (son las siete. Tiene que estar en casa)
He must have read the message. He is online. (tiene que haber leído el mensaje. Está
conectado)
"No tener que"

= don't / doesn't have to (indica ausencia de necesidad)

You don't have to buy any milk. I have just bought some. (no tienes que comprar leche. Acabo
de comprar)

= don't / doesn't have to (indica ausencia de obligación)

She doesn't have to get up early. It's Saturday. (no tiene que madrugar. Es sábado)

= mustn't o must not (expresa prohibición)

You must not copy in exams (no tienes que copiar en los exámenes -está prohibido-)

= cannot (para deducir de forma negativa)

He drives a Ferrari so he cannot be poor (lleva un Ferrari, así que no tiene que / puede ser
pobre)
Empieza por "A": 16 palabras que causan confusión en inglés
16 palabras en inglés que empiezan por "A" y que conviene repasar porque causan bastante
confusión. Si se te ocurre alguna más, déjanos un comentario :)

1. A little / a few
Ambos significan "un poco", sin embargo utilizamos a little con sustantivos incontables y a few con
sustantivos contables.

2. Have into account ≠ Tener en cuenta

Cuidado, si queremos decir "tener (algo) en cuenta" nunca debemos traducirlo como have into
account, sino como Take (something)into account o bear (something) in mind

3. Actually ≠ actualmente
Actually significa "de hecho", "en realidad". Para decir "actualmente" diremos nowadays.

4. Addict ≠ adicto (adjetivo)

Para decir que "alguien es adicto a algo", en inglés diremos:
He is addicted to something -él es adicto a algo (adjetivo)
He is an addict- él es un adicto (sustantivo)

5. Advise (verbo)
Significa aconsejar. Si escribimos advice estaremos haciendo referencia al sustantivo.
Advice (sustantivo) =consejo
Advise (verbo) = aconsejar

La terminación -ise suele aparecer en verbos mientras que -ice es característica de los sustantivos.

6. After ≠ afterwards

After actúa de nexo subordinante entre dos oraciones y significa "después de" / "después de que" y
suele ir seguido de:

1) un sintagma nominal
I'll call you after work (te llamaré después del trabajo [cuando salga del trabajo])

2) un sintagma verbal
She called me after I had lunch (me llamó después de comer [cuando terminé de comer])

3) una coma. Cuidado, nunca podemos poner "after," solo. Siempre debe ir una palabra
acompañando a after.
An hour after, we had lunch (una hora después, comimos)
→ En este caso se recomiendan también otras opciones como "an hour later" o "after an hour" (al
cabo de una hora).

Afterwards funciona de adverbio y significa simplemente "después".

She denied it. Afterwards, she told me. (Primero lo negó. Después me lo contó)

7. All that

"Todo lo que" en inglés se dice "all that" o "everything that". Después de "all" y "everything" siempre
va "that", nunca "what".
All that you need is love = all you need is love (todo lo que necesitas es amor)
All what you need is love

8. Almost never, almost no-one

Cuidado con estas expresiones porque son incorrectas.

Casi nunca sería "hardly every" y no Almost never

Casi nadie sería "hardly anyone" y no almost no one

9. Always that
Si queremos decir "siempre que" en inglés diremos "whenever" o "every time"
She blushed whenever / every time he kissed her (ella se sonrojaba siempre que él la besaba)
She blushed always that he kissed her

10. Announcement vs advertisement

Ambas significan en español "anuncio", la diferencia es que advertisement hace referencia a anuncio
publicitario y announcement a un anuncio como un aviso o declaración pública.

11. Appointment vs date

Ambas significan "cita" pero appointment se utiliza en contextos formales (cita con el director de un
banco, con el médico...) y date en contextos informales (cita con un chico, con tu novia...)

12. Appropriate
Apropiado en inglés se escribe "appropRiate" y no "appropiate". ¡Mucho cuidado!

13. Apart from

A parte de en inglés se dice "apart from" y no "apart of".

14. Arrive
En inglés el verbo "arrive" nunca, nunca lleva detrás "to" sino "in" o "at".
Arrive IN: países, ciudades. I arrived in Madrid (llegué a Madrid)
Arrive AT: otros lugares. I arrived at Barajas Airport (llegué al aeropuerto de Barajas)

15. Assist vs Attend

Asistir = ayudar, socorrer → assist
Asistir = ir a algún lugar → attend Attend school (asistir a clase)

16. At home
At home significa "en casa". Con los verbos en movimiento no se utiliza "at".
I am at home (estoy en casa)
I go home (voy a casa)
Empieza por "B": 15 palabras que causan confusión en inglés
Tras nuestro post 16 palabras en inglés que empiezan por "A", hoy traemos 15 que empiezan
por "B". Otra pequeña dosis de palabras que conviene repasar porque causan bastante
confusión. Si se te ocurre alguna más, déjanos un comentario :)
1. be ≠ stay
Be significa "ser" o "estar" y stay "quedarse" o "pasar". Cuando queremos decir, por ejemplo,
"estuvimos en un hotel" se debe usar el verbo stay: We stayed at a hotel y no We were at a
hotel.
2. Be marry with someone
Cuidado, este es un error muy común. "Estar casado con alguien" en inglés es to be married
TO someone y "casarse con alguien", to get married to someone o to marry someone.
3. Beautifull
Cuidado con el sufijo -ful ya que sólo tiene una "l". La palabra correcta sería beautiful.
4. Because
Detrás de because siempre debe ir un sujeto seguido de un predicado.
The baby cried because was hungry
The baby cried because he was hungry

5. Before
Detrás de before irá un sustantivo, pronombre o verbo acabado en -ing.
"Antes de comer" sería before eating y no before to eat.
6. Below ≠ under
Cuidado con confundirlos. Ambos significan "debajo de" pero under suele utilizarse cuando
algo está justo debajo de otra cosa, por ejemplo: debajo de la mesa > under the
table. También se usa cuando algo está debajo de otra cosa y hay contacto físico.

Cuando queremos indicar que algo está debajo de otra cosa y no hay contacto físico ni está
justo debajo (en línea vertical) utilizaremos below. El valle de la muerte está a 86 metros por
debajo del nivel del mar > Death Valley is 86 meters below sea level
7. Besides ≠ beside
Beside = al lado de
Besides = además. Sinónimo de also.
8. Better ≠ best
Better than = mejor que
The best = el mejor (de todos)
9. Boring ≠ bored
Ambos significan "aburrido" con la diferencia de que boring hace referencia a una cualidad y,
por tanto, irá acompañado del verbo "ser" (the film is boring = la película ES aburrida),
mientras que bored hace referencia a un estado y, por tanto, irá con el verbo "estar" (I am
bored = yo estoy aburrida). Para más información ver el post: Adjetivos acabados en -ed y -
ing
10. Borrow ≠ lend
Borrow = pedir prestado o tomar prestado
Lend = prestar

Fijaos en que, a la hora de preguntar, se cambia el sujeto en función de si se presta o se toma

prestado.

¿Me prestas tu libro? Se podría decir así:

Can you lend me your book? (prestar)
Can I borrow your book? (pedir prestado)

He lent me the book = él me prestó el libro (el libro era suyo)

He borrowed the book = él tomó prestado el libro (el libro no era suyo)
11. Brothers
Cuando queremos decir "hermanos" para referirnos a hermano y hermana diremos brother
and sister o siblings, no brothers
Tengo dos hermanos, Jacob and Sally
I have a brother and a sister, Jacob and Sally
I have two siblings, Jacob and Sally
I have two brothers, Jacob and Sally
12. Buy something to someone

El verbo to buy es un verbo ditransitivo regido por la preposición "for". Por tanto, lo correcto
sería decir I bought something for you (te compré algo).
13. Bycicle
Cuidado con la ortografía, bicicleta en inglés se escribe bIcYcle.
14. Boy
Si queremos decir que estamos saliendo con un chico, no podremos decir "I'm dating a
boy" ya que boy hace referencia a un niño menor de 12 o 13 años. Deberemos
usar guy o fellow. No obstante, para indicar que se sale con una chica sí podemos decir girl.
15. Become
Become significa "convertirse en". No se utiliza cuando queremos "convertir (algo) en (algo).
We must recycle to make the world a greener place
 Sufijos para formar adjetivos
La sufijación es una técnica de formación de palabras mediante la cual añadimos sufijos o partículas
al final de una palabra para formar otra nueva. Por su parte, la prefijación consiste en añadir
partículas o prefijos al comienzo de éstas. Ambas técnicas son muy útiles tanto para memorizar el
vocabulario como para ampliarlo. Por ejemplo, partiendo del verbo "educate":

+ -tion = education (sustantivo)

+ -ed = educated (adjetivo)
+ -ing =educating (adjetivo)
+ ive= educative (adjetivo)
+ -or= educator (sustantivo)

del sustantivo "education":

+ al= educational (adjetivo)

del adjetivo "educational":

+ ly= educationally (adverbio)
+ ist= educationalist (sustantivo)

Resultado: múltiples palabras de diferentes categorías gramaticales, todas ellas relacionadas con la
palabra educación. Como véis, la prefijación y la sufijación son técnicas muy útiles para aprender
vocabulario de forma rápida y organizada.

La SUFIJACIÓN se usa para formar sustantivos, adjetivos, verbos y adverbios. En este post, nos
centraremos en la sufijación para formar adjetivos.

Podemos formar adjetivos añadiendo los siguientes sufijos a nombres y verbos:

-FUL
help (n) (v) > helpful (adj)
success (n) > successful (adj)
--> variante -iful
beauty (n) > beautiful (adj)

-LESS
price (n) > priceless (adj)
use (v) > useless (adj)
--> variante -iless
mercy (n) > merciless (adj)

-ABLE
comfort (n) > comfortable (adj)
count (v) > countable (adj)
accept (v) > acceptable (adj)

-OUS
danger (n) > dangerous (adj)
fame (n) > famous (adj)
nerve (n) > nervous (adj)
--> variante -ious
luxury (n) > luxurious (adj)

-AL
education (n) > educational (adj)
magic (n) > magical (adj)
profession (n) > professional (adj)

-IVE
impress (v) > impressive (adj)
create (v) > creative (adj)
excess (n) > excessive (adj)

-ARY
caution (n) > cautionary (adj)
complement (n) (v) > complementary (adj)
scare (v) > scary (adj)

-Y
health (n) > healthy (adj)
cloud (n) > cloudy (adj)
smell (v) > smelly (adj)

-ENT
differ (v) > different (adjt)
independence (n) > independent (adj)
intelligence (n) > intelligent (adj)

-ORY
obligation (n) > obligatory (adj)
migrate (v) > migratory (adj)

-ISH (indica semenjanza)

fool (n) > foolish (adj) (tonto, como un tonto)
child (n) > childish (adj) (infantil, como un niño)
blue (n) (adj) > bluish (azulado)

-ED / - ING
interest (n) > interested / interesting
confuse (v) > confused / confusing
frighten (v) > frightened / frightening
shock (n) (v) > shocked / shocking
 ¿Cómo hacer una redacción en inglés? 10 consejos
¿Cómo escribir una redacción en inglés? ¿Cuáles son los trucos para redactar en
inglés? La expresión escrita o writing suele ser algo bastante difícil para todo
estudiante de inglés. Por eso, en este post os damos 10 consejos para hacer
redacciones en inglés.

1. Fíjate bien en el enunciado

A veces pensamos que es mejor escribir cualquier cosa, aunque no esté relacionada
con el tema del que nos toca hablar, a no escribir nada. Llevad cuidado con esto pues
es una de las cosas que se tienen en cuenta a la hora de evaluar una redacción.
Asegúrate de entender el tema e intenta ajustarte a él lo máximo posible.

2. Lluvia de ideas (brainstorming)

Piensa en el tema sobre el que te ha tocado escribir y haz una lluvia de ideas. Anota
rápidamente todas las ideas que te vengan a la mente.
 No te preocupes de si las ideas son más o menos importantes.
 No te preocupes por los errores. Es solo un esquema de ideas. Puedes hacerlo
en español si lo prefieres.
Lo importante, de momento, es que escribas tus ideas antes de que se te olviden.

3. Organiza tus ideas

Una vez has anotado todas tu ideas, organízalas.
 Agrupa las ideas que sean similares.
 Descarta las que sean irrelevantes.
 Da un nombre a cada uno de los grupos que hayas creado.
 Ordena los grupos de ideas siguiendo un orden lógico.
4. Organiza tu texto
Recuerda que toda redacción ha de seguir el siguiente esquema:
1. Introducción
2. Desarrollo
3. Conclusión
¡Muy importante! La redacción ha de tener mínimo 3 párrafos, uno para cada parte. En
el desarrollo, que es donde incluimos todas nuestras ideas lo más normal es que
utilicemos un párrafo para cada una de ellas.

Podemos hacer una especie de introducción y conclusión comodín que ocupe unas
dos líneas que podamos adaptar a cualquier redacción. Una buena introducción y
conclusión nunca fallan. Esto es súper útil.
5. Utiliza frases sencillas
Un error muy común y que más problemas trae es traducir del español al inglés. Esto
no solo hará que te surjan mil dudas porque habrá muchas cosas que no sabrás decir
en inglés, sino que también hará que tengas muchos errores gramaticales, como por
ejemplo, omitir el sujeto en muchas frases.
Intenta hacer frases sencillas que sepas decir en inglés pero ¡nunca traduzcas del
español al inglés!

Lo importante es la calidad, así que intenta no cometer errores gramaticales por

traducir del español al inglés.

6. Utiliza conectores
Los conectores son muy importantes en las redacciones ya que sirven para conectar
ideas. No te olvides de ellos y sal del "and" y "but" y utiliza otros como "moreover", "in
addition", "however", "in spite of that"... Eso dará mucha riqueza al texto y se tendrá en
cuenta a la hora de evaluarlo. No te pierdas estos enlaces:

Conectores de contraste 1
Conectores de contraste 2
Conectores de finalidad
Because, but, so

7. Utiliza expresiones útiles

Hay ciertas expresiones que sirven para introducir ideas y que actúan de comodín en
toda redacción, por ejemplo:

- Para introducir el tema:

The topic we are dealing with is controversial question... (el tema que estamos
tratando es un tema controvertido)
We have to consider two aspects (tenemos que tener en cuenta dos aspectos)
As I have already said (como ya he dicho)
Generally speaking (generalmente hablando)
It is obvious that... (es obvio que...)

- Para expresar nuestra opinión:

Personally I think that (personalmente pienso que...)
In my opinion (en mi opinión)
The truth is that (la verdad es que)
Although many people think that... (aunque mucha gente piense que...)
From my point of view (desde mi punto de vista)
8. Cuida tu caligrafía
Intenta hacer antes un borrador y luego pasarlo a limpio. Si no te da tiempo hacer
esto, al menos cuida tu caligrafía. Una redacción sin tachones, limpia y con buena
letra será otro factor decisivo para una evaluación positiva.

9. Revisa el texto
Lee el texto una o dos veces para identificar posibles errores del tipo:
 Algún sujeto que se haya omitido
 La -s de la tercera persona
 El adjetivo detrás del sustantivo
 Concordar mal el sujeto con el verbo
 Uso incorrecto de mayúsculas
 Los falsos amigos o false friends
10. Lee las correcciones
Cuando te entreguen la redacción corregida, por favor, toma nota de los
errores. Esto es importantísimo para asimilarlos y que no los vuelvas a repetir.
Atendiendo a las correciones de las redacciones aprenderás mucho más de lo que
crees.
 El plural en inglés
Fijaos en los siguientes ejemplos:
(Singular = uno) La casa azul → The blue house
(Plural = más de uno) Las casas azules → The blue houses

El plural en inglés se usa en sustantivos. A diferencia del español, en inglés los adjetivos no tienen
plural. Como véis en el ejemplo, el artículo definido the tampoco tiene plural.

Veamos ahora cómo formamos el plural de los sustantivos en inglés.

REGLAS
1. La regla general es añadir una -s al sustantivo.
a house (una casa) → two houses (dos casas)
a dog (un perro) → those dogs (aquellos perros)
one student (un estudiante) → a few students (unos pocos estudiantes)
a pen (un bolígrafo) → some pens (algunos bolígrafos)

2. Los sustantivos que acaban en -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -o forman el plural añadiendo -es.
bus → buses
class → classes
dish → dishes
church → churches
box → boxes
tomato → tomatoes
3. Los sustantivos que acaban en consonante + -y, forman el plural cambiando la -y por -i y
añadiendo -es (-ies)

baby → babies
lady → ladies
theory → theories
library → libraries

4. Los sustantivos que acaban en vocal + -y, forman el plural añadiendo -s. (-ys)
boy → boys toy → toys
day→ days
valley → valleys monkey → monkeys

5. Los sustantivos que acaban en -e, forman el plural añadiendo -s.

name → names
bridge → bridges
tree → trees

6. Los sustantivos que acaban en -f o -fe, forman el plural cambiando la -f por una -v y añadiendo
-es (-ves)
wolf → wolves
shelf → shelves
knife → knives
wife → wives
PLURALES IRREGULARES
Hay ciertos sustantivos que tienen un plural irregular.

woman (mujer) → women (mujeres)

man (hombre) → men (hombres)
child (niño, hijo) → children (niños, hijos)
mouse (ratón) → mice (ratones)
foot (pie) → feet (pies)
tooth (diente) → teeth (dientes)
person (persona) → people (personas, gente)

Compara:
Él es una buena persona → He is a good person
Ellos son buenas personas → They are nice people OK They are nice persons X

Junto con children, people es uno de los plurales que más confusiones causa. Llevad cuidado si lo
traducís por gente, porque en español gente va con verbo en singular (la gente es) sin embargo en
inglés va con verbo en plural (the people are = las personas son, la gente es).

Hay otros sustantivos que no cambian en plural.

sheep (oveja) → sheep (ovejas)
fish (pez) → fish (peces)

SUSTANTIVOS EN PLURAL
En inglés hay ciertos objetos o prendas de ropa que es escriben siempre en plural.

trousers (pantalones)
jeans (vaqueros)
glasses (gafas)
shorts (pantalones cortos)
pyjamas (pijama)
scissors (tijeras)
tights (medias)

Where are the trousers? (¿dónde están los pantalones?)

I can't find them (no los encuentro)

Si queremos decir unos pantalones (refiriéndonos a un par) debemos usar partitivos como a pair
of (un par de) o el cuantificador some.

Necesito comprar unos vaqueros

→ I need to buy a pair of jeans OK I need to buy a jeans X
→ I need to buy some jeans OK
Pasado simple: Reglas para añadir -ed a los verbos regulares en inglés
Para formar en el pasado simple de los verbos regulares en inglés, tenemos que añadir -ed al
infinitivo sin to. Para ello tendremos en cuenta las siguientes reglas:

1. En general añadimos -ed a todos los verbos regulares.

wash → washed finish → finished talk → talked

2. A los verbos que acaban en -e, sólo añadimos una -d.

like → liked live → lived

3. A los verbos que acaban en consonante + -y, cambian la "y" por "i" y añaden -ed (=-ied)
study → studied carry → carried try → tried

4. Los verbos que acaban en vocal + -y, añaden -ed.

play → played

Casos especiales

Los verbos que acaban en vocal + consonante (stop, ban, occur, open, offer...)

a) si el acento recae sobre la vocal de la última sílaba, ésta se dobla

stop → stopped plan → planned ban → banned occur → occurred

Excepto en los verbos que acaban en "y" y "w"

play → played show → showed

b) Si el acento NO recae sobre la vocal de la última sílaba, ésta no se dobla.

offer → offered open → opened

Excepto los verbos que acaban en "l" que doblan la "l" aunque el acento no recaiga sobra la última
sílaba.
travel → travelled cancel → cancelled

¡Cuidado!
Los verbos de una sílaba con dos vocales no doblan la consonante.
cook → cooked
 Reglas para añadir -ing
Para añadir -ing al verbo, lo que se conoce por muchos como participio presente (present
participle), hemos de tener en cuenta las siguiente reglas de ortografía (spelling rules):

1. En la mayoría de verbos basta con añadir -ing.

eat → eating ask → asking go → going

2. Si el verbo acaba en -e , hay que quitar la e antes de añadir -ing.

Take→ taking Wake→ waking write→ writing come→ coming dance→ dancing

3. Si el verbo acaba en -ie, hay que eliminar la ie y añadir -ying

die→ dying tie→ tying lie → lying

4. Si el verbo acaba en vocal + consonante, hay que doblar la consonante antes de añadir -ing.
Stop→ stopping swim → swimming run→ running begin→ beginning

En UK los verbos acabados en l doblan la l.

travel→ travelling cancel → cancelling

¡Pero cuidado!
4.1. Si acaba en -y o -w no doblamos. Esto se debe a que en fonética inglesa la y y la w se
consideran semivocales.
Play → playing buy → buying draw → drawing borrow → borrowing

4.2. Si el acento no recae sobre la última sílaba*, no doblamos.

listen→ listening remember → remembering

*NOTA:
1 sílaba = eat → eat
2 sílabas = forget → for-get
3 sílabas = remember → re- mem- ber
 Verbos Modales en inglés
Los verbos modales son verbos auxiliares, es decir, verbos que "ayudan" a otros verbos. Los verbos
modales acompañan a otros verbos para expresar diferentes funciones como: obligación, habilidad,
permiso, posibilidad, consejo, prohibición, entre otros.

Los verbos auxiliares modales en inglés son:

WILL, CAN, COULD, SHOULD, MAY, MIGHT, MUST, SHALL, WOULD, OUGHT TO

Existen otros verbos que actúan como semi-modales y, por tanto, no siguen las reglas que
explicamos más abajo. Estos verbos son:
need, have to , be able to, be allowed to

Tienen en común las siguientes características:

1. Su forma no cambia. No lleva -s en la tercera persona del singular, ni -ed en el pasado ni -ing en
el gerundio.
Ej: He can swim. He cans swim He canned swim

2. Siempre van seguidos de infinitivo sin 'to'.

Ej: I can dance (not He can to dance), You should stay, He must study

3. Hacen la negación usando not o n't. No utilizan don't, doesn't o didn't.

Ej: You shouldn't talk / you should not talk (not You don't should talk)
He cannot drive / he can't drive
They couldn't come / they could not come

Las formas negativas serían:

will = will not / won't
can = cannot / can't
could = could not / couldn't
should = should not / shouldn't
may = may not
might = might not
must = must not / mustn't
shall = shall not / shan't
would = would not / wouldn't
ought to = ought not to / oughtn't to

4. En preguntas, siempre van delante del sujeto. No utilizan do, does ni did.
Ej: Can you dance? (not Do you can dance ), Can he dance?, Could you wake me up?

5. Nunca pueden aparecer dos modales juntos.

Ej: He will can

Recuerda
Se usan las formas no contraídas en un registro formal y las formas contraídas en un registro más
informal.
 Comparative adjectives

Para comparar DOS cosas, animales o personas utilizamos los adjetivos en grado comparativo, el
cual se divide en: comparativo de superioridad, comparativo de igualdad y comparativo de
inferioridad.

SUPERIORIDAD (más… que)

El comparativo de superioridad se usa para comparar dos personas, animales o cosas cuando una
supera a la otra en algún aspecto. Para formarlo deberemos fijarnos en la longitud del adjetivo:

1. Adjetivos cortos
Se consideran adjetivos cortos aquellos que tienen una sílaba . El comparativo se forma de la
siguiente manera:
añadiendo -er al adjetivo + than

cheap (barato) → cheaper than (más barato que)

The white shirt is cheaper than the blue one (la camisa blanca es más barata que la azul)

Casos especiales:
 Los adjetivos cortos que acaben en vocal + consonante (-b, -d, -g, -n, -p, -t) duplican la
consonante antes de añadir -er. Hot → hotter big → bigger thin → thinner
 A los adjetivos de dos sílabas que acaben en consonante* + -y cambian la y por
una i, añadiendo por tanto -ier (hungry, empty, friendly, tidy, busy, dirty, funny, hungry, crazy, early,
lucky...) crazy → crazier happy → happier lucky→ luckier
 Los adjetivos cortos que acaban en -e muda (no se pronuncia) sólo tendremos que añadir -
r. Nice → nicer large → larger
 Los adjetivos cortos que acaben en -l, duplican la l antes de añadir -er. cruel → crueller . Si
acaban en doble l, sólo añadiremos -er. Tall → taller
* Aunque acaben en dos sílabas se consideran cortos a efectos de formación del grado comparativo.
Ejemplos:
She is taller than her sister. (Ella es más alta que su hermana)
John is thinner than Mike (John es más delgado que Mike)
My office is larger than hers (Mi oficina es más grande que la suya)
Her hair is curlier than mine (su pelo es más rizado que el mío)
Today is hotter than yesterday (Hoy hace más calor que ayer)

Adverbios
El grado comparativo en adverbios por lo general se forma como explicamos a continuación. No
obstante, algunos adverbios "cortos" como early (temprano), late (tarde) o near (cerca) añaden -er.
early → earlier late → later near → nearer

2. Adjetivos largos
Se consideran adjetivos largos aquellos que tienen dos sílabas o más. El comparativo de
superioridad se forma de la siguiente manera:
more + adjetivo / adverbio + than

Famous (famoso) → more famous than (más famoso que)

Expensive (caro) → more expensive than (más caro que)
Difficult (difícil) → more difficult than (más difícil que)
Easily (fácilmente) → more easily than (más fácilmente que, con más facilidad que)

Ejemplos:
His trainers are more comfortable than hers (sus zapatillas son más cómodas que las suyas)
A blouse is more elegant than a t-shirt (una camisa es más elegante que una camiseta)
Mercedes is more expensive than Hyundai (Mercedes es más caro que Hyundai)
She learns more easily than her sister (ella aprende con más facilidad que su hermana)

Excepciones
Quiet → quieter than

Los adjetivos de dos sílabas que acaben en -ow, -le y -er permiten ambas formas, si bien es más
común añadir -er.
Clever → cleverer than / more clever than
Narrow → narrower than / more narrow than
Simple → simpler than / more simple than

Irregulares
Algunos adjetivos adoptan una forma irregular para formar su grado comparativo.

Good (bueno) → better than (mejor que)

Bad (malo) → worse than (peor que)
Far (lejos) → farther than / further than (más lejos que)

Otras expresiones:
Con los comparativos no podemos usar "very" (muy). Sin embargo, sí podemos usar:
much / far (mucho más)*
Chinese is much / far more difficult than Spanish (el chino es mucho más difícil que el español)
a lot / lots (mucho más) (informal)
Chinese is a lot more difficult than Spanish
a little (un poco)
The blue dress is a little cheaper than the white one (el vestido azul es un poco más barato que el
blanco)
a bit (un poco) (informal)
The blue dress is a bit cheaper than the white one
any (algo) (enfático)
Do you feel any better? (¿te sientes algo mejor?)
even (incluso)
You cook even better than a chef (cocinas incluso mejor que un chef)

Verbos y sustantivos
Además de adjetivos y adverbios, también podemos usar la comparación de superioridad con verbos
y sustantivos.
She works more than he does (ella trabaja más que él)
They want more money (ellos quieren más dinero)

→ *Cuando el comparativo se usa con sustantivos, podemos modificarlo con much (para
incontables) y many (para contables).
Ellos tienen mucho más dinero que tú → They've got much more money than you do
Hay muchos más libros en esta estantería → There are many more books in this shelf

IMPORTANTE
→ Sólo podremos "than" cuando mencionemos las dos cosas que se están comparando.
The orange t-shirt is 15€. The blue t-shirt is 20€
The blue t-shirt is more expensive than the orange t-shirt (nombramos las dos)
The blue t-shirt is more expensive (sólo nombramos una)

→ Mucho cuidado con escribir that en lugar de than.

Ellos son más altos.
They are more talls X → They are taller OK

→ Detrás de than podemos usar:

Pronombres objeto → You are taller than me (tú eres más alto que yo)
Pronombres posesivos → His car is better than mine (su coche es mejor que el mío)
One /ones (para sustituir a un sustantivo precedente) → The blue t-shirt is more expensive than the
orange one (la camiseta azul es más cara que la naranja)

IGUALDAD (tan…. como)

Lo usamos para indicar que dos cosas, animales o personas son iguales. El grado de igualdad se
formará de la siguiente manera:

As + adjetivo / adverbio + as

Blue is as nice as green (el azul es tan bonito como el verde)

Nike is as expensive as Adidas (Nike es tan caro como Adidas)
My car runs as smoothly as yours (mi coche va igual de suave que el tuyo)

Negativas
Bastará con poner el verbo en forma negativa. En las negativas también podemos usar so... as.
My office isn't as large as hers (mi oficina no es tan grande como la suya)
Peter is not so successful as his father ( Peter no tiene tanto éxito como su padre)

Otras expresiones:
as much... as → se utiliza con sustantivos incontables (tanto + sustantivo + como)
She earns as much money as him (ella gana tanto dinero como él)

as many... as → se utiliza con sustantivos contables (tanto + sustantivo + como)

I've watched as many films as you (he visto tantas películas como tú)

half as... as, twice as... as, three times as... as (la mitad de... que, el doble de... que, el trible de...
que)
My room is twice as big as yours (mi habitación es el doble de grande que la tuya)

as + adjetivo + a + sustantivo + as
También podemos poner un sustantivo singular entre el adjetivo y el segundo as.
We want a flight as cheap as possible = We want as cheap a flight as possible (queremos un vuelo
lo más barato posible)

→ En negativas es más común usar la estructura con such.

I thought she was a clever girl →She is not as clever a girl as I thought
→She is not such a clever girl.
INFERIORIDAD (menos…. que)
El grado de inferioridad se formará de la siguiente manera:
Less + adjetivo / adverbio + than

Water is less expensive than coke (el agua es menos cara que la coca-cola)
The book is less popular than the film (el libro es menos conocido que la película)
He drives less carefully than his wife (él conduce con menos cuidado que su mujer)
I go to the cinema less often than you (voy al cine con menos frecuencia que tú)

Además de adjetivos y adverbios, también podemos usar este grado comparativo con sustantivos:
less + sustantivo incontable + than
He has less money than you (él tiene menos dinero que tú)

fewer + sustantivo contable + than

He has fewer books than she has (él tiene menos libros que ella)
He has less books than she has
 Superlative adjectives
Como formar adjetivos superlativos en inglés:

1. Para adjetivos con dos consonantes añade est

Tall - the tallest

2. Para adjetivos que acaban con la letra e añade st

Large - the largest

3. Para adjetivos que acaban con una vocal + un consonante añade consonante +est

Big - the biggest

4. Para adjetivos que acaban con y añade iest
Tidy - the tidiest

5. Para adjetivos con dos sílabas ó mas usa most + adjectivo

Important -the most important

Modern -the most modern
Common - the most common

6. Con algunos adjetivos con dos sílabas se puede añadir est ó most

Clever - the cleverest ó the most clever

Pleasant - the pleasantest ó the most pleasant

7. Adjetivos irregulares

Good - the best

Bad - the worst
Old - the oldest
Far - the farthest ó the furthest

4. Para adjetivos que acaban con y añade iest (tidy, empty, dry, busy, dirty, funny, early)

Happy the happiest

5. Si el ajetivo tiene dos sílabas ó mas usa the most + el adjetivo (excepciones son los adjetivos
que acaban en y)

Modern the most modern

6. Hay algunos adjetivos que se puede añadir est ó the most

Clever the cleverest ó the most clever

Narrow the narrowest ó the most narrow
Simple the Simplest ó the most simple

7. Algunos adjetivos son irregulares

Good the best
Bad the worst
Far the Farthest/Furthest
 Expresión - the...the + adjetivo comparativo
Se usa este tipo de expresión cuando hay una relación entre dos cosas y éstas varían al mismo
tiempo. Se traduce por "cuanto más... más....", "cuánto más.... menos", "cuanto menos.... más...." o
"cuanto menos... menos". Esta expresión se usará en oraciones con dos proposiciones y la
estructura para ambas será:

(1) the + expresión comparativa + sujeto + verbo, (2) the + expresión comparativa + sujeto +
verbo

The older I get, the happier I am

(cuánto más mayor me hago, más feliz soy)

Nota
Si el verbo de la segunda proposición va en futuro, la frase se convierte en condicional de tipo 1.

The less you eat, the thinner you will get (cuanto menos comas, más delgado estarás)
= If you eat less, you will get thinner (si comes menos, estarás más delgado)

La expresión comparativa puede estar formada por:

→ Adjetivo comparativo
The more dangerous it is, the more she likes it (cuanto más peligroso sea, más le gusta)
The older he gets, the wiser he is (cuánto más mayor se hace, más sabio es)
The faster you drive, the sooner you will arrive (cuanto más rápido conduzcas, antes llegarás)

→ sólo "more" o "less"

The more I study, the more I learn (cuanto más estudio, más aprendo)
The less you eat, the thinner you will get (cuanto menos comas, más delgado estarás)
The more I know you, the less I like you (cuanto más te conozco, menos me gustas)
The less you spend, the more you save (cuanto menos gastas, más ahorras)

→ more / less + sustantivo

The more money she gets, the more useless things she buys (cuánto más dinero gana, más cosas
inútiles compra)

Cuidado:
The less water you drink, the worse you feel (cuanto menos agua bebes, peor te sientes)
The fewer problems I have, the happier I am (cuantos menos problemas tengo, más feliz soy)

Less → con sustantivos incontables

Fewer →con sustantivos contables

A veces podemos usar una forma abreviada de la estructura the... the... cuando la frase acaba
en "the better" (mejor)

How do you like your coffee? The stronger, the better

(¿Cómo te gusta el café? Cuanto más fuerte, mejor)

When should I start? The sooner the better

(¿Cuándo debo empezar? Cuanto antes mejor)

Otras veces no hace falta incluir el verbo, normalmente con el verbo to be.

The more expensive the restaurant is, the better the service is
= The more expensive the restaurant, the better the service
(cuanto más caro es el restaurante, mejor es el servicio)
 Comparativos repetidos -Repeated comparatives
En inglés existen los llamados repeated comparatives o comparativos repetidos. Se trata de una
estructura que usamos para indicar que algo está cambiando (aumentando o disminuyendo).
Veamos cómo se forman.

AUMENTO
Se usan dos estructuras para indicar que algo aumenta: .... er and ..... er y more and more ..... que
suelen aparecer con los verbos get y become.

1) ... er and ....er (cada vez más / más y más)

Se utiliza con los adjetivos / adverbios cortos que ya explicamos en el post adjetivos comparativos.
Añadimos -er al adjetivo para formar el adjetivo comparativo, a continuación la conjunción and y
después, repetimos de nuevo el adjetivo comparativo → bigger and bigger, fatter and fatter, faster
and faster

I'm getting older and older (cada vez me hago más mayor, me hago más y más mayor)
Laptops are becoming cheaper and cheaper (los portátiles son cada vez más baratos, los portátiles
se están volviendo más y más baratos)
We are getting closer and closer (cada vez estamos más cerca)

2) more and more .... (cada vez más / más y más)

Esta estructura se utiliza con:

Adjetivos largos o con adverbios. Basta con escribir more and more y añadir a continuación el
adjetivo o el adverbio → more and more beautiful, more and more exciting

The situation is becoming more and more difficult (la situación cada vez se hace más difícil)
Smartphones are getting more and more expensive (los teléfonos inteligentes son cada vez más
caros)
We are going more and more slowly (cada vez vamos más lentos).

Sustantivos (tanto contables como incontables). Basta con escribir more and more y añadir a
continuación el sustantivo → more and more books, more and more children

(contable) More and more children use tablets in schools (cada vez son más los niños que usan
tablets en el colegio)
(incontable) We waste more and more money on things we don't need (cada día gastamos más
dinero en cosas que no necesitamos)

DESCENSO
Para indicar que algo disminuye podemos usar las estructuras: less and less.... y fewer and fewer...

1) less and less... (cada vez menos, menos y menos)

Se utiliza con adjetivos y sustantivos incontables. Basta con añadir el adjetivo o sustantivo
incontable tras la expresión less and less.

As you get older, you become less and less flexible (a medida que te haces mayor, te vuelves
menos y menos flexible / a medida que te haces mayor, pierdes flexibilidad)

She needs less and less money everyday (ella cada día necesita menos dinero)
I have less and less time to cook (cada vez tengo menos tiempo para cocinar)

También podemos usarlo con verbos como dice la canción de Kaiser Chiefs: Everyday I love you
less and less (cada día te quiero menos)

2) fewer and fewer... (cada vez menos, menos y menos)

Se utiliza con sustantivos contables.

Fewer and fewer people get married now (cada vez se casa menos gente en la actualidad)
There are fewer and fewer fish in the sea (cada vez hay menos peces en el mar)
 Like y As
As y like son dos palabras que se confunden con mucha facilidad ya que ambas significan "como"
en español. De forma resumida diremos que:

Like se usa con sintagma nominal o pronombre.

She sings like her mother (canta como su madre)
She dresses like me (viste como yo)
He speaks English like a native (habla inglés como un nativo)

As va seguido de sujeto + verbo

He speaks English as a native does (él habla inglés como un nativo)
As you know this city is very polluted (como sabes esta ciudad tiene mucha contaminación)
As I said, this subject is very difficult (como he dicho este tema es muy difícil)

¿CUÁNDO USAR AS?

1. Como conjunción para unir dos oraciones utilizaremos AS, con tres significados diferentes:

a) como = (in) the way that (de la forma (en) que)

I did it as you wanted me to (lo hice como tú querías)

b) como = because (porque, debido a)

As I was not at the party, I can't tell you what happened (como no estuve en la fiesta, no te puedo
contar lo que sucedió)

c) como = while (mientras)

As I was waiting for the train, I phoned my sister (mientras esperaba el tren, llamé a mi hermana)

2. Para hacer referencia a la función (papel / profesión) que algo o alguien realiza.
She works as a secretary / as an architect (trabaja como secretaria / como arquitecto)
He used a knife as a screwdriver (utilizó un cuchillo como destornillador)

Como veis en este caso la estructura sería as + a / an + nombre.

3. Para hacer comparaciones de igualdad.

You are as tall as me. (eres tan alto como yo)
She run as fast as me (corre tan rápido como yo)
I don't have as much money as I used to have (no tengo tanto dinero como tenía antes)

4. Para presentar ejemplos: such as

I like vegetables such as carrots and broccoli (me gustan las verduras como las zanahorias y el
brócoli)
¿CUÁNDO USAR LIKE?

1. Con el verbo "look" (parecer, parecerse)

I look like my father (me parezco a mi padre)
She looks like a girl with that dress (parece una niña con ese vestido)

2. Para indicar similitud.

She talks like me (habla como yo)
Your phone is like my father's (tu teléfono es como el de mi padre)

3. Para indicar ejemplos.

I like vegetables like carrots and broccoli (me gustan las verduras como las zanahorias y el brócoli)

CÓMO (con tilde)

Cómo" (con tilde) equivale a HOW.
How are you? (¿Cómo estás?)
How is he? (¿Cómo está?) (hablando de salud)
I don't know how to do it (no sé cómo hacerlo)
She told me how she did it (me dijo cómo lo hizo)

Excepción. La pregunta ¿Cómo es? para referirnos a cómo es alguien en cuanto a personalidad o
físico se dice así: What is he like? (personalidad) / What does he look like? (apariencia)
 Too y Enough
Too significa demasiado. Se usa en los siguientes casos:

- Too + adjetivo → The coffee is too hot (el café está demasiado caliente)
- Too much + sustantivo incontable → I have too much work (tengo demasiado trabajo)
- Too many + sustantivo contable en plural → There are too many people (hay demasiada gente)

Enough significa bastante, suficiente, suficientemente. Se usa en los siguientes casos:

- Adjetivo + enough → Is the water warm enough? (¿Está el agua suficientemente tibia?)
- Enough + sustantivo incontable / contable
→ We haven't got enough money (no tenemos bastante dinero)
→I have got enough reasons (tengo suficientes motivos)

Las estructuras con too + adjetivo y adjetivo + enough pueden ir seguidas de un infinitivo con to.
The coffee is too hot to drink (el café está demasiado caliente para beberlo)
You are not old enough to go into this pub (no eres lo bastante mayor para entrar en este pub)

Como vemos, es muy importante no confundir el orden. Recordad:

-Con adjetivos: too delante del adjetivo, enough detrás del adjetivo.
-Con sustantivos: tanto too como enough se colocan delante del sustantivo.
 Diferencias entre Too y Very
¿No sabes cuándo usar "too" y "very"? En este breve post os explicamos los adverbios de cantidad
en inglés "too" y "very" para que aprendáis a diferenciarlos. También podéis hacer un ejercicio para
practicar.

TOO
Indica exceso de cantidad y significa "demasiado" (más de lo necesario). Sólo se puede utilizar en
frases afirmativas.

I feel sick; I have eaten too much. (tengo náuseas. He comido demasiado)
I feel sick but I haven't eaten too much (tengo náuseas pero no he comido demasiado)*
Would you turn the music down? It is too loud (¿puedes bajar el volumen de la música. Está muy
alto)

*Nota: en español la expresión "no demasiado" se convierte en "not very".

VERY
Indica gran cantidad aunque no tiene porqué implicar exceso. Significa "muy" y puede usarse en
frases afirmativas y negativas.

I went to bed late last night. I am very tired (anoche me acosté tarde. Estoy muy cansada)
I feel sick but I haven't eaten very much (tengo náuseas pero no he comido demasiado)
Would you turn the music up? It is not very loud (¿puedes subir el volumen de la música. No está
muy alto)
 Preposiciones de lugar en inglés - in /at / on

Las preposiciones son uno de los aspectos gramaticales más complicados del inglés. Aunque
existen reglas que definen su uso, hay muchas excepciones que dificultan su uso.

Las preposiciones de lugar in, on, at (en) son las más comunes para indicar lugar, situación, es
decir, dónde está alguien o algo. También pueden expresar tiempo (ver post preposiciones de
tiempo), sin embargo, en este post nos centraremos en ellas como preposiciones de lugar.

IN
 Se utiliza para indicar que algo o alguien está "dentro de" algún área delimitada(ciudades,
pueblos, países, jardines...) o de algún edificio, habitación o cualquier otro tipo de espacio
cerrado (building, room, box...). Se puede traducir por "en".
I live in Madrid, in Spain (vivo en Madrid, en España)
The pictures are in the box (las fotos están en la caja)

 Utilizamos in con los puntos cardinales: in the North (en el norte) , in the South (en el sur), in
the East (en el este), in the West (en el oeste)

EXPRESIONES
in bed (en cama) in hospital (en el hospital)
in a car (en un coche) in a taxi (en un taxi)
in a shop (en una tienda) in a city (en una gran ciudad)
in a town (en una ciudad) in a village (en un pueblo)
in a country (en un país) in a park (en un parque)
in the water (en el agua) in the sea (en el mar)
in a river (en un río) in the sky (en el cielo)
in the newspaper (en el periódico) in a row (en una fila)
in a queue (en una cola) in the street (en la calle)
in a photograph (en una foto) in a picture (en un cuadro, foto)
in an armchair (en un sillón) in the middle of (en medio de)

AT
 Cuando hablamos de ciertos edificios en términos de la función que realizan o como
un punto de encuentro. Se suele traducir por "en".
I was at hospital for a week (estuve en el hospital una semana) = función (como paciente)
I'll see you at the theatre (nos vemos en el teatro) = punto de encuentro
I keep my tennis racket at the tennis club (me dejo la raqueta en el club de tenis) =función
 Acontecimientos o eventos. Se suele traducir por "en".
We enjoyed a lot at the concert (lo pasamos muy bien en el concierto)
There were lots of people at the party (había mucha gente en la fiesta)
I saw you at the show! (¡te ví en el espectáculo!)
 Lugares y posiciones en un punto en concreto; en la casa de alguien.
Turn left at the traffic lights (gire a al izquierda en los semáfaros)
There is someone at the door (hay alguien en la puerta)
I'm working at my desk (estoy trabajando en mi escritorio)
A: Where were you Yesterday? (¿Dónde estabas ayer?
B: I was at Kevin's (estaba en casa de Kevin)
 También puede significar "cerca de", "junto a".
She was sitting at the window (estaba sentada junto a la ventana)

 También se puede utilizar at para hablar de lugares más grandes.

They buy fruit at the supermarket (ellos comprar la fruta en el supermercado)
We spent our day at the shopping centre (pasamos el día en el centro comercial)
The train arrived at the station ( el tren llegó a la estación)
EXPRESIONES
at home (en casa) at school (en el colegio)
at work (en el trabajo) at university (en la universidad)
at college (en la universidad) at the station (en la estación)
at the airport (en el aeropuerto) at Peter's (en casa de Peter)
at the doctor's (en el médico) at the hairdresser's (en la peluquería)
at a bus stop (en la parada del autobús) at the traffic lights (en en semáforo)
at the bottom of the page (al final la
at the top (al principio de la una página)
página)
at the end of the street (al final de la at the front (delante) (de un edificio o
calle) lugar)
at the back (detrás)(de un edificio o
lugar)
ON
 Se usa on cuando algo o alguien está sobre (encima de) una superficie. Se puede traducir
por "en", "sobre" o "encima"
The book is on the table (el libro está en la mesa, el libro está encima de la mesa)
There is a mirror on the wall (hay un espejo en la pared)

 Con medios de transporte (excepto coche y taxi)

I can't read on the bus because it makes me dizzy (no puedo leer en el autobús porque me mareo)
I never sleep on planes (nunca duermo en los aviones)

 Con floor, ground (suelo, piso) y ceiling (techo)

He's got flag on the ceiling of his room (tiene una bandera en el techo de su habitación)
There is a spider on the floor (hay una araña en el suelo)

 Cuando hacemos referencia a un punto concreto en una "línea fija" (una calle, la costa...)
You should visit Galway, on the West coast of Irland (deberías visitar Galway, en la costa oeste de
Irlanda)
There is a bank on High Street (hay un banco en la calle High Street)

EXPRESIONES
on the right (a la derecha)
on the ground floor (en la planta baja)
on a chair (en una silla)
on the grass (en el césped)
on the coast (en la costa)
on a balcony (en un balcón, terraza)
on the left (a la izquierda)
on the first floor (en la 1ª planta)
on a shelf (en un estante)
on the tree (en el árbol)
on the noticeboard (en el tablón de
anuncios)
on the way to...(de camino a...)
 CUIDADO

To be AT work (estar en el trabajo)

To work IN a shop /bank / school (trabajar en una tienda, banco, colegio)

IN the corner (en la esquina) [dentro de una habitación]

AT / ON the corner (en la esquina) [en una calle]

To arrive IN (llegar a) [países, ciudades grandes]

To arrive AT (llegar a) [otros lugares: hotel, estación, aeropuerto...]
NUNCA arrive to

Con edificios podemos usar in o at

(me quedé en un bonito hotel) = I stayed at a nice hotel o I stayed in a nice hotel

To sit at a desk / table (sentarse en un escritorio, en una mesa)

To sit on a chair, bench, sofa (sentarse en una silla, banco, sofá)
To sit in an armchair (sentarse en un sillón)

IN the West (en el oeste)

ON the West coast (en la costa oeste)

ON a bus, bike, plane, train...

IN a car, taxi

IN a book, newspaper, magazine (en un libro, periódico o revista) si no te refieres a la página

ON si te refieres a algo que esta escrito en una página o una hoja de un libro, periódico o revista.
I saw an interesting article ON page 2 IN yesterday's newspaper (vi un artículo interesante en la página 2
del periódico de ayer)

Preposiciones de lugar: under, above, behind, in front of, next to,

opposite...

En el post preposiciones de lugar, explicamos las preposiciones in, at, on. En este post veremos más
preposiciones de lugar (prepositions of place), las traduciremos y pondremos algunos ejemplos. También
podréis realizar un ejercicio para practicarlas. Para saber más en nuestro CURSO DE INGLÉS GRATIS

VÍDEO: PREPOSICIONES DE LUGAR

Under → debajo de
The cat is under the table (el gato está debajo de la mesa)

Above → encima de (se diferencia de "on" en que "above" no toca la superficie sobre la que está)
There is a picture above the fireplace (hay un cuadro encima de la chimenea)

Behind → detrás de
The boy hid behind the door (el niño se escondió detrás de la puerta)

In front of → delante de (cuidado con traducirlo con enfrente de, sería incorrecto)
If you sit in front of me I can't watch the TV (si te sientas delante de mi no puedo ver la televisión)

Next to → al lado de
There is a bookshop next to the supermarket (hay una librería al lado del supermercado)

Opposite → enfrente de
The chemist's is opposite the hospital (la farmacia está enfrente del hospital)

Between → entre (entre dos cosas)

There is a bridge between the two sides of the road (hay un puente entre los dos lados del camino)

Among → entre (cuando hay más de dos cosas)

Cooperation among countries is very important (la cooperación entre países es muy importante)

Near → cerca de
There is a park near the school (hay un parque cerca del colegio)
 Preposiciones de tiempo en inglés
Es importante saber usar las preposiciones de tiempo correctamente en inglés: in/on/at . Como tantas otras cosas
en inglés, hace falta aprender cuál va con cuál. En este post os daremos una serie de reglas y trucos para que
aprendáis a usar las preposiciones de tiempo en inglés. Una vez que hayas aprendido las reglas, intenta hacer el
ejercicio al final.

1. AT

 Para la horas: at 5 o'clock = a las cinco

 Para fiestas: at Christmas = en navidades, at Easter = en semana santa
 at night = por la noche
 at the moment = en este momento
 at the same time = a la vez
 at present = actualmente
 at the weekend = los fines de semana
2. ON
 Días de la semana: on Monday = el lunes; on Mondays = los lunes
on Monday morning/afternoon/evening = el lunes por la manana/tarde/noche
 Fechas: on 5th September = el 5 de septiembre
 Días especiales: on Christmas day = el día de navidad; on my birthday = el día de mi cumpleaños
 Vacaciones: (to be) on holiday = estar de vacaciones
3. IN
 meses: in October = en octubre
 años: in 1999 = en 1999
 estaciones: in summer, in spring, in autumn, in winter = en verano, en primavera, en otoño y en invierno
 décadas: in the 1990's = en los años 90
 centuries: in the 19th century = en el siglo XIX
 mañana/tarde/tarde-noche: in the morning = por la mañaana; in the afternoon = por la tarde; in the
evening = por la noche
 períodos de tiempo: in a few minutes = dentro de unos minutos; in a week = dentro de una semana; in 2
months = dentro de 2 meses

Tips (consejos)

Se usa in con morning/afternoon y evening pero no si el día de la semana se pone delante.

on Monday morning = el lunes por la mañana
in the morning = por la mañana
at Christmas = en navidades
on Christmas day = el día de Navidad
At Easter = en Pascua
On Easter day = el día de Pascua
 Verbos en inglés seguidos de preposición

Algunos verbos en inglés van seguidos de una determinada preposición. A continuación os dejamos
una lista con algunos de los más usados.

Es muy importante recordar que en inglés, detrás de preposición, siempre va: un sustantivo, un
pronombre o un verbo seguido de -ing.

Ej: He believes in horoscopes (él cree en el horóscopo)

He believes in me (él cree en mi)
He believes in doing the right thing (él cree en hacer lo correcto)

Accuse sb of - acusar a alguien de

Sarah accused her friend of telling a lie.

Agree with sth - estar de acuerdo con algo (pensar que es moralmente aceptable)
I agree with your political views.

Agree with sb about sth - estar de acuerdo con alguien acerca de algo
I agree with you about the exam.

Apologize to sb for sth - pedir disculpas a alguien por algo

He apologized to me for waking me up.

Apply for - solicitar

My friend has applied for a scholarship.

Arrive in - llegar a (una ciudad o país)

My friend arrived in Spain yesterday.

Arrive at - llegar a (un lugar)

My friend arrived at the airport at 7:00 pm.

Believe in - creer en
Christians believe in God.

Belong to - pertenecer a, ser de alguien

That book belongs to me.

Borrow sth from sb - pedirle prestado algo a alguien

I borrow that hat from my friend.

Complain to sb about sth - quejarse a alguien de algo

The neighbours complained to the police about the noise upstairs

Concentrate on - concentrarse en
I can't concentrate on my work if you are speaking to me.

Depend on - depender de
That decision depends on you.
Divide into - dividir en
They divided the birthday cake into 10 pieces.

Dream of / about - soñar con

Last night I dreamt of/ about you.

Explain sth to sb - Explicar algo a alguien

I need you to explain the problem to me.

Insist on - insistir en
You paid last time. I insist on paying now.

Laugh at - reirse de
They laughed at me because I fell down.

Laugh with - reirse con

I love spending time with Peter. I laugh a lot with him.

Listen to -escuchar
I love listening to rock music

Look at* - mirar

I'm shy. Stop looking at me.

Participate in - participar en
My students love to participate in class discussions.

Pay for - pagar

A: I don't have any money.
B: Don't worry. I'll pay for your dinner.

Prevent sb from sth - evitar / impedir a alguien hacer algo

You can warn him, but you can't prevent him from doing stupid things.

Protect sb from sth - proteger a alguien de algo

Take a warm jacket to protect you from cold.

Provide sb with sth - proveer a alguien de algo, proporcionarle algo a alguien

A local charity provides poor people with food and housing.

Rely on - confiar en, depender de

I'll tell you a secret. Can I rely on you?

Replace sth with sth - sustituir / reemplazar algo por algo

I finally replaced my old mobile with a new iPhone5.

Smile at - sonreir a
Why are you smiling at me?

Shout at - gritar a
Don't you ever shout at me again.
Speak to - hablar con, hablar a
I don't like to speak to strangers.

Suffer from - padecer / sufrir

She suffers from depression.

Talk to - hablar con

I've got a problem. I need to talk to you.

Talk about - hablar de

In his speech, he talked about the future of education.

Care about - preocuparse por

I recycle because I care about the environment.

Think of - pensar en (recordar, opinar)

When I listened to that song, I thought of you.

Think about - pensar en (considerar, darle vueltas)

We're thinking about going to London next month.

Throw sth at sb - tirar / arrojar algo a alguien

Don't throw stones at people.

Throw sth to sb - tirar algo a alguien (en el sentido de lanzar / pasar para que lo cojan)
Thrown the ball to me!

Wait for - esperar

Please, wait for me. I won't be long.

Wish for- desear

Don't you ever wish for just one thing that you might never see? (Sarah Blasko -Don't u eva)

1) A la hora de hacer preguntas con este tipo de verbos, si usamos partículas interrogativas como
What o How, la preposición se coloca al final.

Ej: Who are you waiting for? (A quién estás esperando)

What are you listening to? (Qué estás escuchando)

2) En algunos casos el significado del verbo cambia en función de la preposición que le acompañe:
Look at - mirar a
Look at that girl. She is wearing the same t-shirt as you.

Look for - buscar

I'm looking for the keys but I can't find them.

Look after - cuidar de

She stayed at home because she had to look after the children.
En los dos últimos casos (look for y look after) ya estaríamos hablando de phrasal verbs. La
diferencia entre los verbos con preposiciones y los phrasal verbs son:

- Los verbos con preposiciones son verbos que van regidos por una determinada preposición. Esta
preposición no cambia el significado del verbo. Por ejemplo, en listen to sth /sb (escuchar algo o a
alguien), el verbo listen no cambia de significado, "escuchar". Lo mismo pasa con "look at" (mirar
algo o a alguien).

- Los phrasal verbs, sin embargo, van acompañados de una partícula adverbial o preposición que
junto con el verbo actúan como un todo, adoptando un significado que poco o nada tiene que ver con
el significado individual del verbo. Por ejemplo, "look after" adopta el significado de "cuidar de",
completamente diferente al verbo mirar > to look. Lo mismo ocurre con verbos como: ask
for(pedir), turn on (encender), take after (parecerse a), run into (tropezar con), etc.
 La pasiva en inglés -The passive-
¿Cómo formar la pasiva en inglés? ¿Cómo hacer oraciones pasivas en inglés? Estas son las
preguntas más frecuentes que se hacen los estudiantes de inglés. Aunque no lo parezca, la pasiva
en inglés no es tan difícil, aunque sí es cierto que para para poder pasar los verbos de activa a
pasiva correctamente debemos tener un gran dominio de los tiempos verbales

En este post encontraréis la explicación de la voz pasiva en inglés (the passive),

pondremos ejemplos de frases u oraciones activas y pasivas para que veáis cómo se transforma
de activa a pasiva, explicaremos los diferentes tipos de pasiva en inglés y podréis realizar ejercicios
(passive exercises) para practicar.

Voz pasiva (Passive Voice) ¿CUÁNDO SE USA?

La voz pasiva (también como conocida como "pasiva", en inglés "the passive") es más frecuente en
inglés que en castellano y se utiliza para indicar que la acción es más importante que el sujeto
que la realiza, bien porque es poco relevante, desconocido o porque no se quiere nombrar.
Pondremos un ejemplo:

Activa → Somebody added subtitles to the film (Alguien añadió subtítulos a la película)
En este ejemplo el sujeto es desconocido, por tanto sería más natural utilizar una construcción
pasiva para dar más énfasis a la acción que al sujeto.

Pasiva → Subtitles were added to the film (Traducción literal: Subtítulos fueron añadidos a la
película) (Traducción pronominal: Se añadieron subtítulos a la película)

La pasiva es propia del registro formal y es muy común ver esta construcción gramatical en
instrucciones escritas.

Estructura de la voz passiva (passive voice structure) ¿CÓMO SE FORMA?

Fijaos en el siguiente ejemplo:
Activa → My father waters the plants (yo riego las plantas)
Pasiva → The plants are watered by my father (las plantas son regadas por mi)

En las oraciones pasivas distinguimos cuatro partes:

1º Sujeto paciente
2º "to be"
3º verbo en participio
4º Complemento agente
Formar la pasiva es muy sencillo si se siguen los siguientes pasos:
1. El objeto directo de la oración activa pasa a ser sujeto paciente en la oración
pasiva: the plants
2. Nos fijamos en el tiempo verbal del verbo de la oración activa: presente simple
3. Conjugaremos el verbo "to be" en el tiempo verbal de la oración activa (concordar con
el sujeto paciente): are
4. El verbo de la oración activa se coloca en participio pasado: watered
5. Si queremos indicar quien realizó la acción, el sujeto de la oración activa pasa a ser
complemento agente, se introduce por la preposición “by” y se coloca detrás del verbo en
pasiva: by my father*

*Nota 1: El complemento agente se suele omitir cuando:

→ cuando se trata de un pronombre personal

Activa: He fixed my car
Pasiva: My car was fixed (by him)

→cuando el sujeto es people o someone.

Activa: Someone gave me a present
Pasiva: I was given a present (by somebody)

*Nota 2: En todo caso, conviene apuntar que si el sujeto es un pronombre personal (I, you, he, her,
it, we, you, they) y lo queremos indicar en la pasiva, al pasar a complemento agente el pronombre
sujeto se transforma en pronombre objeto.

Activa → He waters the plants

Pasiva → The plants are watered by him ✔ The plants are watered by he X
TIEMPOS VERBALES EN VOZ PASIVA
¿Cómo pasar los tiempos verbales de activa a pasiva? Casi todas las formas activas tienen su
equivalente pasiva. No obstante, los siguientes tiempos no tienen forma pasiva: Presente perfecto
continuo, Pasado perfecto continuo, Futuro continuo y Futuro perfecto continuo.

Todas ellas, como ya se ha dicho, se construyen poniendo el verbo “to be” en el mismo tiempo que el
verbo principal de la oración activa, seguido del verbo principal de la oración activa en participio.
Fijaos en los siguientes ejemplos y veréis claramente el cambio de verbos en pasiva.

Tiempo verbal Voz activa Voz pasiva

Presente simple catch - catches am / is / are caught
Presente continuo am / is /are catching am / is / are being caught
Pasado simple caught was / were caught
Pasado continuo was / were catching was / were being caught
Presente perfecto simple has / have caught has / have been caught
Pasado perfecto simple had caught had been caught
Futuro simple will catch will be caught
Condicional Would catch would be caught
Condicional perfecto Would have caught would have been caught
Modales may catch may be caught
Modales perfectos could have caught could have been caught
Have to has to catch has to be caught
Be going to is going to catch is going to be caught
Infinitivo to catch to be caught
Infinitivo perfecto to have caught to have been caught
Gerundio catching being caught
Gerundio perfecto having caught having been caught

Más ejemplos:
Coffee is grown in Colombia (el café es cultivado / se cultiva en Colombia)
The pyramids were discovered a long time ago (las pirámides se descubrieron hace mucho tiempo)
The project should be finished today (el proyecto se debería acabar hoy)
NIVEL AVANZADO: PASIVAS CON DOS COMPLEMENTOS (DOBLE PASIVA)
En inglés, si una oración activa tiene 2 complementos: directo e indirecto, cualquiera de los dos
puede ser sujeto paciente de la pasiva. Por tanto, ésta podrá construirse de dos formas distintas.

Activa: Someone gave me a present (Alguien me da un regalo)

me- objeto indirecto

a present- objeto directo

1º opción: Objeto directo como sujeto paciente.

Activa: Someone gave me a present
Pasiva: A present was given to me

Esta forma no suele usarse con los verbos “ask” y “tell”.

2º opción (la más frecuente): Objeto indirecto como sujeto paciente

Activa: Someone gave me a present
Pasiva: I was given a present

Cuando el complemente indirecto es un pronombre objeto (me), al hacer la pasiva se cambia a la

forma de pronombre sujeto (I).

Otro ejemplo:

Activa: The hotel manager brought us the keys

Pasiva 1: The keys were brought to us by the hotel manager
Pasiva 2: We were brought the keys (by the hotel manager) → aquí el complemento agente se
puede omitir ya que esta estructura se usa para poner énfasis en la acción y en su objeto no en
quien la realiza.

NIVEL AVANZADO: PASIVA IMPERSONAL (It is said that... He is said to...)

En inglés existen una serie de verbos como: say, believe, feel, expect, think, suppose, know,
understand, report, consider.... que tienen dos posibles construcciones pasivas cuando la oración
incluye una oración subordinada (that-clause).
1. It como sujeto de la oración pasiva
Esta estructura se forma de la siguiente manera: it + verbo introductorio (say, believe, feel...) en
pasiva + that-clause.

Activa: They say that you have many friends (ellos dicen que tienes muchos amigos)
Pasiva: It is said that you have many friends (se dice que tienes muchos amigos)

2. Sujeto de la oración subordinada (that-clause) como sujeto de la oración pasiva.

Activa: They say that you have many friends (ellos dicen que tienes muchos amigos)
Pasiva: You are said to have many friends (se dice que tienes muchos amigos)

Esta estructura se forma de la siguiente manera:

- el sujeto de la oración subordinada (that-clause) pasa a ser sujeto de la oración pasiva.
- verbo introductorio (say, believe, feel...) en pasiva
- el verbo de la oración con that se convierte en un infinitivo. Este infinitivo será:
→ Simple: si el verbo de la oración con that está en presente o futuro.
Activa: They think he studies a lot (ellos piensan que él estudia mucho)
Pasiva: He is thought to study a lot (se piensa que él estudia mucho)

→ Perfecto: si el verbo de la oración con that está en pasado.

Activa: People know that Cristobal Columbus discovered America (la gente sabe que Cristobal Colón
descubrió América)
Pasiva: Cristobal Columbus is known to have discovered America (Cristobal Colón es conocido por
haber descubierto América)
 To have something done
To have something done o to get something done es una estructura que se enmarca dentro de la
pasiva, de la que ya hablamos en nuestro post La pasiva en inglés.

To have something done se usa en inglés para indicar que alguien ha hecho algo por nosotros.
En español, por ejemplo, decimos "me he cortado el pelo". Sin embargo, según la gramática inglesa,
en realidad, no solemos cortarnos el pelo a nosotros mismos, sino que otra persona lo hace por
nosotros. Por tanto, en inglés se utiliza la estructura to have something done para indicar que la
acción la realiza otra persona por nosotros.

La estructura es la siguiente:

Sujeto + verbo to have (conjugado) + objeto + participio pasado (del verbo que expresa la acción)

Ejemplos:
Participio
Sujeto To have Objeto Traducción Equivalente en activa
Pasado
our
We had stolen Nos robaron el dinero =(somebody stole our money)
money
am going to =(The hairdresser is going to cut
I my hair cut Me voy a cortar el pelo
have my hair)
our Nos están pintando la =(The painters are painting our
We are having painted
room habitación room)
Quiero arreglar el
I want to have my car fixed =(I want the garage to fix my car)
coche
your Deberías revistarte la =(the ophthalmologist should
You should have checked
eyes vista check your eyes)
have just their Les acaban de limpiar =(Somebody has just cleaned
They cleaned
had house la casa their house)

No es necesario decir quien realiza la acción. No obstante, podría indicarse mediante la

preposición by, tal y como se hace en la pasiva.
Ej: You should have your eyes checked (by the ophthalmologist)

En el habla informal se puede sustituir "have" por "get".

Ej: I got my hair cut = I had my hair cut.
He got his car repaired = He had his car repaired
 Gramática inglesa - frases con I wish
I wish y If only son estructuras que se usan en inglés para expresar deseos. Ambas significan lo
mismo "ojalá que" si bien el uso de I wish es más común. A continuación veremos cuándo utilizar
cada una de ellas. Después podréis hacer un ejercicio para practicar.

1. I wish / if only + sujeto + WOULD + infinitivo sin to

Esta estructura se usa cuando deseamos que:

- algo ocurra o una situación cambie.

I wish the train would arrive (ojalá llegue el tren)
If only it would stop snowing (ojalá deje de nevar)

-alguien haga algo o cambie algo que nos molesta (y que esa persona no tiene intención de
cambiar)
I wish the neighbours would stop making so much noise (ojalá los vecinos dejen de hacer tanto ruido)
I wish you wouldn't leave your room so untidy (ojalá no dejes tu habitación tan desordenada)
I wish you would stop smoking (ojalá dejes de fumar)

→ El uso de esta estructura tiene un matiz de futuro.

→ La usamos para hablar de acciones son habituales.

Nota:
No es común utilizar I wish I would puesto que si algo nos molesta y depende de nosotros, podemos
cambiarlo.
I wish I would go homo now (ojalá me fuera a casa) → no tendría sentido quejarnos por esta
situación porque está en nuestra mano realizar la acción de irnos a casa.

2. I wish / if only + sujeto + verbo en PASADO SIMPLE

Usamos esta estructura para quejarnos o lamentarnos de una situación PRESENTE por no ser
ésta como nosotros queremos que sea.

If only I could swim (ojalá supiera nadar)

(but I can't swim) (pero no puedo nadar)

I wish I knew the answer (ojalá supiera la respuesta)

(but I don't know the answer) (pero no sé la respuesta)

I wish we had lots of money (ojalá tuvieramos mucho dinero)

(but we haven't got lots of money) (pero no tenemos mucho dinero)

→ Como veis escribimos pasado simple pero se traduce como un subjuntivo y hace referencia al
presente.
→ Podemos user were en lugar de was con I, he, she, it

I wish I were famous = I wish I was famous (ojalá fuera famoso)

= (but I am not famous) (pero no soy famoso)
I wish the weather weren't rainy = I wish the weather wasn't rainy (ojalá no lloviera)
= (but it is rainy) (pero llueve)
3. I wish / if only + sujeto + verbo en PASADO PERFECTO

Usamos esta estructura cuando queremos lamentarnos o expresar un deseo sobre una situación
o acción del pasado. Es como el condicional de tercer tipo, nos lamentamos de situaciones
respecto a las cuales no podemos hacer nada.

I wish I had passed all my exams (ojalá hubiera aprobado todos mis exámenes)
(but I didn't pass) (pero no los aprobé)

I wish I had been able to buy tickets for that concert (ojalá hubiera podido comprar entradas para ese
concierto)
(but I couldn't) (pero no pude)

If only he had told me the truth (ojalá me hubiera dicho la verdad)

(but he didn't tell me the truth ) (pero no me dijo la verdad)

I wish I hadn't met him (ojalá no lo hubiera conocido)

(but I met him) (pero lo conocí)

Importante
I wish puede sustituirse con otros sujetos. En estos casos podemos optar por traducciones
como "lamentar" o "desear".
He wishes he were famous (él lamenta no ser famoso) (él desería ser famoso)
She wishes she had haver met him (ella lamenta haberlo conocido) (ella desearía no haberle
conocido)

They wish you would stop smoking (ellos desean que dejes de fumar)
 Verbos irregulares en inglés
En este post veremos los verbos irregulares. Os daremos una lista de de verbos irregulares que se
compone de tres columnas:
1ª → infinitivo sin to (ej: eat-comer)
2ª → pasado simple (ej: ate-comí, comiste, comió...)
3ª → participio pasado (ej: eaten-comido, been-sido/estado, flown-volado)
4ª → traducción al español

Por tratarse de una lista bastante larga la hemos divido en dos: 1) verbos irregulares de la A a la L y
2) verbos irregulares de la M a la Z. En este post veremos el primer grupo. Si queréis saber cómo se
pronuncian, visitad la entrada Pronunciación de los verbos irregulares en inglés.

Infinitivo (sin to) Pasado simple Participio Pasado Traducción

Arise Arose Arisen Surgir
Be Was / were Been Ser o estar
Beat Beat Beaten Golpear
Become Became Become Llegar a ser, convertirse
Begin Began Begun Empezar
Bend Bend Bend Doblar
Bite Bite Biten Morder
Bleed Bled Bled Sangrar
Blow Blew Blown Soplar
Break Broke Broken Romper
Bring Brought Brought Traer
Build Built Built Construir
Burn Burnt Burnt Quemar
Buy Bought Bought Comprar
Catch Caught Caught Coger
Choose Chose Chose Elegir
Come Came Come Venir
Cost Cost Cost Costar
Cut Cut Cut Cortar
Do Did Done Hacer
Draw Drew Drawn Dibujar
Dream Dreamed / Dreamt Dreamed / Dreamt Soñar
Drink Drank Drunk Beber
Drive Drove Driven Conducir
Eat Ate Eaten Comer
Fall Fell Fallen Caer
Feed Fed Fed Alimentar
Feel Felt Felt Sentir
Fight Fought Fought Pelear
Find Found Found Encontrar
Fly Flew Flown Volar
Forbid Forbade Forbidden Prohibir
Forget Forgot Forgotten Olvidar
Forgive Forgave Forgiven Perdonar
Get Got Got Conseguir, Coger
Give Gave Given Dar
Go Went Gone Ir
Grow Grew Grown Crecer
Have Had Had Tener
Hear Heard Heard Oir
Hide Hid Hidden Esconder
Hit Hit Hit Pegar, golpear
Hold Held Held Agarrar, sostener
Hurt Hurt Hurt Herir, dañar
Keep Kept Kept Guardar
Kneel Knelt Knelt Arrodillarse
Know Knew Known Saber, conocer
Lay Laid Laid Extender, poner
Lead Led Led Dirigir
Lean Leaned / Leant Leaned / Leant Inclinarse
Learn Learned / Learnt Learned / Learnt Aprender
Leave Left Left Salir, marcharse, dejar
Lend Lent Lent Prestar
Let Let Let Dejar, permitir
Lie* Lay Lain Tumbarse, echarse
Light Lit Lit Prender, encender
Infinitivo (sin to) Pasado simple Participio Pasado Traducción
Make Made Made Hacer
Mean Meant Meant Significar
Meet Met Met Conocer
Pay Paid Paid Pagar
Put Put Put Poner
Read Read Read Leer
Ride Rode Riden Montar
Ring Rang Rung Llamar
Rise Rose Risen Subir, crecer
Run Ran Run Correr
Say Said Said Decir
See Saw Seen Ver
Sell Sold Sold Vender
Send Sent Sent Enviar
Set Set Set Poner, colocar
Sew Sewed Swen Coser
Shake Shook Shaken Agitar
Shine Shone Shone Brillar
Shoot Shot Shot Disparar
Show Showed Shown Mostrar, enseñar
Shrink Shrank Shrunk Encoger
Shut Shut Shut Cerrar
Sing Sang Sung Cantar
Sink Sank Sunk Hundir
Sit Sat Sat Sentarse
Sleep Slept Slept Dormir
Slide Slid Slide Deslizar, deslizarse
Smell Smelt Smelt Oler
Sow Sowed Sown Sembrar
Speak Spoke Spoken Hablar
Spell Spelt/spelled Spelt/spelled Deletrear
Spend Spent Spent Gastar
Spill Spilt Spilt Derramar, verter
Spit Spat Spat Escupir
Split Split Split Quebrar, dividir
Spoil Spoilt Spoilt Echar a perder/mimar
Spread Spread Spread Extender, difundir, untar
Spring Sprang Sprung Salir, aparecer, brotar
Stand Stood Stood Estar de pie
Steal Stole Stolen Robar
Stick Stuck Stuck Clavar, pegar
Sting Stung Stung Picar, escocer
Strike Struck Struck Golpear
Swear Swore Sworn Basfemar/jurar
Sweep Swept Swept Barrer
Swell Swelled Swollen Aumentar, crecer
Swim Swam Swum Nadar
Swing Swung Swung Balancear, balancearse
Take Took Taken Coger/llevar/tomar
Teach Taught Taught Enseñar
Tear Tore Torn Rasgar/arrancar
Tell Told Told Decir/contar
Think Thought Thought Pensar
Throw Threw Thrown Tirar, arrojar
Understand Understood Understood Entender
Wake Woke Woken Despertarse
Wear Wore Worn Llevar puesto (ropa)
Weep Wept Wept Llorar
Win Won Won Ganar
Write Wrote Written Escribir
 Phrasal verbs con put
Abajo hay una lista de phrasal verbs con put con sus significados. Despues hay un ejercicio con
respuestas para practicar su uso.

Put on - poner ropa

Put away - guardar cosas
Put up with - aguantar
Put off - posponer
Put forward - adelantar
Put out - apagar un fuego
phrasal verbs con look
Abajo hay una lista de phrasal verbs con look con sus significados. Despues hay un ejercicio con
respuestas para practicar su uso.

Look after - cuidar

Look into - investigar

Look up to - admirar

Look down on - despreciar

Look forward to - tener ganas

Look up - buscar información

Look for - buscar algo ó alguien

Contrasting ideas - although, despite, but...

Se usan las palabras como although, despite y however para hablar de contrastes.

Although - aunque
Even though - aunque
But - pero
Despite - a pesar de
However - sin embargo
Nevertheless - no obstante

Ejemplo: She felt ill. She went to work. (Se sentía enferma. Fue a trabajar)

También se puede decir:

Although she felt ill she went to work. (Aunque se sentía enferma fue a trabajar)
Even though she felt ill she went to work. (Aunque se sentia enferma fue a trabajar)
She felt ill but she went to work. (Se sentía enferma pero fue a trabajar)
Despite feeling ill she went to work. (A pesar de sentirse enferma fue a trabajar)
She felt ill. However she went to work. (Se sentía enferma. Sin embargo, fue a trabajar)
She felt ill. Nevertheless she went to work. (Se sentía enferma. No obstante fue a trabajar)
Se usa:
Aunque + sujeto + verbo - although she felt ill....
Even though es como although pero tiene mas énfasis.
But se pone entre las dos frases (ver arriba). She felt ill but she went to work.
*Despite + gerundio - Despite feeling ill she went to work.
Despite the fact that + sujeto + verbo - Despite the fact that she felt ill...
Despite + adjetivo posesivo
Despite + nombre - Despite the weather they played tennis.
However se usa para empezar la segunda frase con el contraste
Nevertheless es como however pero tiene mas énfasis.

*In spite of significa lo mismo que despite (a pesar de) - se puede usar de la misma manera.

Conectores de contraste: but, although, however, in spite of, while...

Para introducir una idea de contraste utilizamos diferentes tipos de conectores.

BUT. Significa "pero".

Ej: She was ill but she went to work. (estaba enferma pero fue a trabajar)

ALTHOUGH, THOUGH y EVEN THOUGH + sujeto + verbo. Todas significan "aunque",

pero even though es más enfático. Pueden ir a principio de la oración o en medio.

1) Si va al principio, pondremos una coma* entre la oración introducida por although, though
o even though y la otra.
Ej: Although it was raining, we went for a walk (aunque llovía, fuimos a dar un paseo)
Though I'm a big fan of Oasis, I have never seen them live
(aunque soy un gran fan de Oasis, nunca los he visto en directo)
Even though it was raining, we went for a walk (aunque llovía, fuimos a dar un paseo)

2) Si va en medio de la oración no pondremos coma.

Ej: We decided to buy the car although it was very expensive
(decidimos comprar el coche, aunque era muy caro)
I like making films though I'm really an actor.
(me gusta hacer películas aunque en realidad soy actor)
You keep talking even though I've told you to be quiet
(sigues hablando, aunque te he dicho que te calles)

*¡Cuidado! Tened en cuenta que los signos de puntuación se rigen por normas distintas en
inglés y en español.

HOWEVER / NEVERTHELESS. Ambos significan "sin embargo", aunque nevertheless es más

formal. Va a principio de frase y seguido de una coma.
Ejemplos:
I've been running for an hour. However, I'm not tired
(Llevo dos horas corriendo, sin embargo, no estoy cansado)
She was really sad. Nevertheless, she held back tears.
(Estaba muy triste. Sin embargo, contuvo las lágrimas)

IN SPITE OF / DESPITE + nombre / pronombre / verbo acabado en -ing. Significan "a pesar
de".
Ejemplos:
In spite of the rain, we went for a walk (a pesar de la lluvia, fuimos a dar un paseo)
Despite the rain, we went for a walk (a pesar de la lluvia, fuimos a dar un paseo)

In spite of her good marks, she is worried about her final exam.
(a pesar de sus buenas notas, está preocupada por su examen final)
Despite her good marks, she is worried about her final exam.
(a pesar de sus buenas notas, está preocupada por su examen final)

In spite of being ill, he went to work (a pesar de estar enfermo, fue a trabajar)
Despite being ill, he went to work (a pesar de estar enfermo, fue a trabajar)

¡Cuidado!
- Recuerda que despite no lleva "of".
Despite being ill, he went to work. Correcto
Despite of being ill, he went to work. Incorrecto
- Recuerda poner una coma para separar la frase principal de la frase introducida por
"despite" o "in spite of".

IN SPITE OF THE FACT THAT / DESPITE THE FACT THAT + sujeto + verbo. Significan "a pesar
(del hecho) de que".
Ejemplos:
In spite of the fact that he arrived late, he didn't miss the train
(a pesar de que llegó tarde, él no perdió el tren)
Despite the fact that he arrived late, he didn't miss the train
(a pesar de que llegó tarde, él no perdió el tren)

ON THE ONE HAND, ... ON THE OTHER HAND, ... Significa "por una parte"... "por otra...".
Ejemplos:
On the one hand, London is a city with lots of things to do. On the other hand, it is too big.
(Por una parte, Londres es una ciudad con muchas cosas para hacer. Por otra, es demasiado
grande).

WHILE / WHEREAS + sujeto + verbo. Significan "mientras que". Se coloca en medio de la

frase y va precedido de coma.
Ejemplos:
This hotel admits pets, while this other doesn't.
(este hotel admite mascotas, mientras que este otro no)
This hotel admits pets, whereas this other doesn't.
(este hotel admite mascotas, mientras que este otro no)

IN CONTRAST TO / CONTRARY TO + nombre / pronombre / verbo acabado en -ing. Significan

"a diferencia de".
Ejemplos:
In contrast to other books, this one is very boring (a diferencia de otros libros, éste es muy
aburrido)
Contrary to what I've been told, I think this book is very good (a diferencia de lo que me han
contado, creo que este libro es muy bueno)

IN CONTRAST. Significa "por el contrario". Se coloca a principio de frase y va seguido de una

coma.
Ejemplos:
Unemployment fell in Germany last year. In contrast, it rose in Spain.
(el paro descendió en Alemania el año pasado. Por el contrario, en España aumentó)

ON THE CONTRARY. Significa "al contrario". Se coloca a principio de frase y va seguido de

una coma.
Ejemplo:
A: thought you hated rock music (pensaba que odiabas la música rock)
B: On the contrary, I love it (al contrario, me encanta)
Conectores de contraste: but, although, however, in spite of, while...
Para introducir una idea de contraste utilizamos diferentes tipos de conectores.

BUT. Significa "pero".

Ej: She was ill but she went to work. (estaba enferma pero fue a trabajar)

ALTHOUGH, THOUGH y EVEN THOUGH + sujeto + verbo. Todas significan "aunque",

pero even though es más enfático. Pueden ir a principio de la oración o en medio.

1) Si va al principio, pondremos una coma* entre la oración introducida por although, though
o even though y la otra.
Ej: Although it was raining, we went for a walk (aunque llovía, fuimos a dar un paseo)
Though I'm a big fan of Oasis, I have never seen them live
(aunque soy un gran fan de Oasis, nunca los he visto en directo)
Even though it was raining, we went for a walk (aunque llovía, fuimos a dar un paseo)

2) Si va en medio de la oración no pondremos coma.

Ej: We decided to buy the car although it was very expensive
(decidimos comprar el coche, aunque era muy caro)
I like making films though I'm really an actor.
(me gusta hacer películas aunque en realidad soy actor)
You keep talking even though I've told you to be quiet
(sigues hablando, aunque te he dicho que te calles)

*¡Cuidado! Tened en cuenta que los signos de puntuación se rigen por normas distintas en
inglés y en español.

HOWEVER / NEVERTHELESS. Ambos significan "sin embargo", aunque nevertheless es más

formal. Va a principio de frase y seguido de una coma.
Ejemplos:
I've been running for an hour. However, I'm not tired
(Llevo dos horas corriendo, sin embargo, no estoy cansado)
She was really sad. Nevertheless, she held back tears.
(Estaba muy triste. Sin embargo, contuvo las lágrimas)

IN SPITE OF / DESPITE + nombre / pronombre / verbo acabado en -ing. Significan "a pesar
de".
Ejemplos:
In spite of the rain, we went for a walk (a pesar de la lluvia, fuimos a dar un paseo)
Despite the rain, we went for a walk (a pesar de la lluvia, fuimos a dar un paseo)

In spite of her good marks, she is worried about her final exam.
(a pesar de sus buenas notas, está preocupada por su examen final)
Despite her good marks, she is worried about her final exam.
(a pesar de sus buenas notas, está preocupada por su examen final)

In spite of being ill, he went to work (a pesar de estar enfermo, fue a trabajar)
Despite being ill, he went to work (a pesar de estar enfermo, fue a trabajar)

¡Cuidado!
- Recuerda que despite no lleva "of".
Despite being ill, he went to work. Correcto
Despite of being ill, he went to work. Incorrecto
- Recuerda poner una coma para separar la frase principal de la frase introducida por
"despite" o "in spite of".

IN SPITE OF THE FACT THAT / DESPITE THE FACT THAT + sujeto + verbo. Significan "a pesar
(del hecho) de que".
Ejemplos:
In spite of the fact that he arrived late, he didn't miss the train
(a pesar de que llegó tarde, él no perdió el tren)
Despite the fact that he arrived late, he didn't miss the train
(a pesar de que llegó tarde, él no perdió el tren)

ON THE ONE HAND, ... ON THE OTHER HAND, ... Significa "por una parte"... "por otra...".
Ejemplos:
On the one hand, London is a city with lots of things to do. On the other hand, it is too big.
(Por una parte, Londres es una ciudad con muchas cosas para hacer. Por otra, es demasiado
grande).

WHILE / WHEREAS + sujeto + verbo. Significan "mientras que". Se coloca en medio de la

frase y va precedido de coma.
Ejemplos:
This hotel admits pets, while this other doesn't.
(este hotel admite mascotas, mientras que este otro no)
This hotel admits pets, whereas this other doesn't.
(este hotel admite mascotas, mientras que este otro no)

IN CONTRAST TO / CONTRARY TO + nombre / pronombre / verbo acabado en -ing. Significan

"a diferencia de".
Ejemplos:
In contrast to other books, this one is very boring (a diferencia de otros libros, éste es muy
aburrido)
Contrary to what I've been told, I think this book is very good (a diferencia de lo que me han
contado, creo que este libro es muy bueno)

IN CONTRAST. Significa "por el contrario". Se coloca a principio de frase y va seguido de una

coma.
Ejemplos:
Unemployment fell in Germany last year. In contrast, it rose in Spain.
(el paro descendió en Alemania el año pasado. Por el contrario, en España aumentó)

ON THE CONTRARY. Significa "al contrario". Se coloca a principio de frase y va seguido de

una coma.
Ejemplo:
A: thought you hated rock music (pensaba que odiabas la música rock)
B: On the contrary, I love it (al contrario, me encanta)
 Inglés básico despite/in spite of
Despite y in spite of significan ‘a pesar de’ en español. Se usan para contrastar ideas.
Despite the rain we went for a walk (a pesar de la lluvia fuimos a dar un paseo)
In spite of the rain we went for a walk (a pesar de la lluvia fuimos a dar un paseo)

Hay tres formas para usar despite o in spite of.

DESPITE
1. Despite + nombre
Ej: despite the rain… (a pesar de la lluvia…)

2. Despite + verbo acabado en -ing

Ej: Despite missing the bus we still had time to go shopping. (a pesar de perder el autobús,
todavía tuvimos tiempo para ir de compras)

3. Despite + the fact that + sujeto + verbo

Ej: Despite the fact that it was raining… ( a pesar de que estaba lloviendo…)

IN SPITE OF
1. In spite of + nombre
Ej: In spite of the rain (a pesar de la lluvia)

2. In spite of + verbo acabado en -ing

Ej: In spite of missing the bus we still had time to go shopping.
(a pesar de perder el autobús todavía tuvimos tiempo para ir de compras)

3. In spite of + the fact that + sujeto + verbo

Ej: In spite of the fact that it was raining…( a pesar de que estaba lloviendo…)
Expresión de la finalidad en inglés: to, in order to, so as to, so that, for
En inglés existen varias conjunciones para expresar finalidad, un objetivo o propósito: to, in order to,
so as to, so that y for.
I studied hard to pass my English exam (estudié mucho para aprobar mi examen de inglés)

Ahora explicaremos cómo se usa cada una de ellas.

1) In order to / so as to / to. Significan "para" y van seguidas de infinitivo sin to.

(Se mudaron de casa para estar más cerca del colegio de sus hijos)
They moved house in order to be closer to their children's school
They moved house so as to be closer to their children's school
They moved house to be closer to their children's school

En oraciones afirmativas se pueden usar indistintamente aunque in order to y so as to son más

formales. Sin embargo, en oraciones negativas sólo usaremos in order NOT to o so as NOT to.
(me levanté más temprano para no llegar tarde)
I got up earlier in order not to be late √
I got up earlier so as not to be late √
I got up earlier not to be late X

2) So that. Significa "para que" y va seguido de sujeto, el verbo modal Can o Could* y el infinitivo sin
to.

He went to England so that he could improve his English

(Se fue a Inglaterra para que él pudiera mejorar su inglés / para mejorar su inglés)

¡Importante! Esta estructura se utiliza obligatoriamente cuando en la frase hay dos sujetos.
I turned down the TV volume so that my sister could read
(Yo bajé el volumen de la televisión para que mi hermana pudiera leer)

*Normalmente se construye con verbos modales, pero también puede aparecer sin ellos.

Si queremos usarla en forma negativa, quedaría así:

I took her to the bus station so that she wouldn't miss the bus
(la llevé a la estación para que no perdiera el autobús)

I'll take a jacket so that I don't get cold. (cogeré una chaqueta para que no pase frío/ para no pasar
frío) = I'll take a jacket so as not to get cold = I'll take a jacket in order not to get cold

En inglés informal podemos eliminar "that".

I'll come early so I can help you with the dinner. (vendré temprano para poder ayudarte con la cena)
I bought my parents a camera so they could take pictures (les compré a mis padres una cámara para
que pudieran hacer fotos)

3) For. Significa "para" y va seguido de un nombre (para referirnos a una finalidad general) o de un
verbo acabado en -ing (para hablar de la utilidad de un objeto).

This film is for kids (Esta película es para niños)

Smoking is bad for your health (fumar es malo para la salud)
This knife is for cutting cheese (este cuchillo es para cortar queso)
A can opener is used for opening cans (un abrelatas sirve para abrir latas)

¡IMPORTANTE! Un error muy común es usar for y to juntos.

(Fui al centro comercial para comprar un regalo)
I went to the shopping centre for to buy a present X
I went to the shopping centre to buy a present √
 Relative clauses con where, whose, whom, when, why
En nuestros post defining relative clauses y non-defining relative clauses ya explicamos los
pronombres relativos más comunes: who, which y that. En este post nos centraremos en
explicar otros pronombres y adverbios relativos como whose, where, when, whom y why y
sus características al usarlos con las oraciones de relativo especificativas (defining) y
explicativas (non-defining).

1. DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES con: whose, where, when, why/that, whom

WHOSE (=cuyo /a, cuyos / as, de quien, de quienes, del cual, de la cual, de los cuales, de las
cuales)
Usamos este pronombre relativo para indicar posesión, en lugar de los adjetivos posesivos
(my, his, her...). Nunca se puede omitir.

Ejemplo 1
I’ve got a friend. His brother is an actor (tengo un amigo. Su hermano es actor)
I’ve got a friend whose brother is an actor (tengo un amigo cuyo hermano es actor)
I’ve got a friend brother is an actor X

Ejemplo 2
I saw the man. His dog had died (ví al hombre. Su perro había muerto)
I saw the man whose dog had died (ví al hombre cuyo perro había muerto)
I saw the man dog had died X

WHERE (=donde, en el que, en la que, en los que, en las que)

Usamos where para hacer referencia a lugares. Sólo se puede omitir si va acompañado de
preposición.

Ejemplo 1
I stayed at a hotel. It was very small (me alojé en un hotel. Era muy pequeño)
The hotel where we stayed was very small (el hotel donde me alojé era muy pequeño)
The hotel we stayed AT was very small ✔
The hotel we stayed was very small X

Ejemplo 2
The house was very big. We lived there (la casa era muy grande. Nosotros vivíamos allí)
The house where we lived was very big (la casa donde vivíamos era muy grande)
The house we lived IN was very big ✔
The house we lived was very big X

WHEN (=cuando)
Usamos when para referirnos a nociones temporales. Se puede omitir.

Ejemplo
That was just the moment when we arrived (ese fue justo el momento cuando llegamos)
That was just the moment we arrived ✔
WHY / THAT (=por la que, por la cual, por el que, por el cual)
Why y that se usan a continuación de la palabra "reason" (razón, motivo). Se pueden omitir.

Ejemplo
Is there a reason why / that you don’t want to come to the party? (hay alguna razón por la que
no quieras venir a la fiesta?)
Is there a reason you don’t want to come to the party? ✔

WHOM
Se puede usar en sustitución al relativo who SÓLO cuando éste hace función de
objeto. Whom no es muy común en el inglés hablado, se usa más en un registro formal.

Ejemplos
(la persona a la que quería ver era francesa)
The person who I wanted to see was French = The person whom I wanted to see was French

(esa es la mujer con la que él se casó)

That is the woman who he married = that is the woman whom he married

2. NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES con: whose, where, when, whom

En las non-defining relative clauses, los relativos nunca se pueden omitir. Aquí os dejamos
algunos ejemplos:

Tine Harries, whose brother is the actor Paul Harris, is a good friend of mine
(Tine Harries, cuyo hermano es el actor Paul Harris, es un buen amigo mío)

We visited a town called Maintown, where we had lunch in an Italian restaurant

(Visitamos un pueblo llamado Christchurch, donde comimos en un restaurante italiano)

We’re going on holiday in September, when the weather isn’t so hot

(vamos a irnos de vacaciones en Septiembre, cuando no haga tanto calor)

Sarah Robbins, whom you met last week, will be at the party
(Sarah Robbins, a quien conociste la semana pasada, estará en la fiesta)

EJERCICIO
Une las siguientes frases usando los siguientes pronombres o adverbios relativos: when,
whose, where, why, whom. Fíjate en si es defining (no comas) o non-defining (comas).
 There is y There are
En este post explicaremos there is y there are para describir sitios o decir dónde están las
cosas
En inglés utilizamos there is y there are para describir sitios o decir dónde están las cosas.
Significa "hay" pero, a diferencia del español, no es invariable. Usaremos:

There is → cuando hay una única cosa

There is one pencil on the table (hay un lápiz encima de la mesa)

There are → cuando hay más de una

There are three pens on the table (hay tres bolígrafos encima de la mesa)

THERE IS
Se utiliza cuando hay una única cosa, por tanto, irá acompañado de.

1. Sustantivos contables en singular. Los sustantivos van acompañados del artículo

indefinido a / an o del numeral one. No ponemos el artículo definido the con there is.

There is a pencil on the table (hay un lápiz encima de la mesa)

There is one biscuit in the box (hay una galleta en la caja)
There is the pen on the table (hay el lápiz encima de la mesa)

2. Sustantivos incontables. Los sustantivos incontables suele ir acompañados de

cuantificadores como some, a lot of...

There is some milk in the fridge (hay algo de leche en el frigorífico)

THERE ARE
Se utiliza cuando hay más de una cosa, por tanto, lo usaremos con sustantivos contables en
plural. En este caso los sustantivos suelen ir acompañados de un cuantificador como some, a
lot of... o de un numeral.

There are three pens on the table (hay tres bolígrafos encima de la mesa)
There are four bedrooms in the house (hay cuatro habitaciones en la casa)

Cuidado
Recordad que hay plurales irregulares que aunque no lleven la -s son plural y, por tanto, se
utilizan con there are.

There are a lot of people in the street ✔ (hay mucha gente en la calle)
There is a lot of people in the street X
FORMA NEGATIVA

La forma negativa de there is y there are se formará de dos maneras:

1. añadiendo not = there is not, there are not

Contable singular → There is not a lift in the building (no hay ascensor en el edificio)
Incontable → There is not any milk on the fridge (no hay leche en el frigorífico)
Contable plural → There are not any apples on the table (no hay ninguna manzana encima de
la mesa)
Contable plural → There are not four bedrooms in the house (no hay cuatro habitaciones en la
casa)

2. utilizando la contracción isn't y aren't = there isn't, there aren't

Contable singular → There isn't a lift in the building (no hay ascensor en el edificio)
Incontable → There isn't any milk on the fridge (no hay leche en el frigorífico)
Contable plural → There aren't any apples on the table (no hay ninguna manzana encima de la
mesa)
Contable plural → There aren't four bedrooms in the house (no hay cuatro habitaciones en la
casa)

¡Mucho cuidado!
En negativas, para indicar que no hay nada de algo utilizaremos ANY con incontables y con
contables en PLURAL.

Incontable (there isn't) → There isn't any milk on the fridge ✔

Contables en plural (there aren't) → There aren't any appleS on the table ✔
There isn't any apple on the table X
FORMA INTERROGATIVA

Del mismo modo que hacíamos con el verbo to be en presente, pondremos primero el verbo
to be, es decir, is o are, y después añadiremos there → Is there...? Are there...?

Is there an apple on the table? (¿hay una manzana encima de la mesa?)

Yes, there is
No, there isn't / there is not

Is there any milk on the fridge? (¿hay leche en el frigorífico?)

Yes, there is
No, there isn't / there is not

Are there any shops in your street? (¿hay alguna tienda en tu calle?)
Yes, there are
No, there aren't / there are not
 El Present Perfect 2
Se usa el present perfect con las palabras just, already, ever, never, this is the first time...etc

1. Just

Se usa el present perfect con just para expresar acabar de en inglés.

Se pone entre el verbo have/has y el participio pasado

Ejemplo:

I have just got up. Acabo de levantarme.

2. Already
Se usa el present perfect con already para decir que ya has hecho algo.

Se pone entre el verbo have/has y el participio pasado

Ejemplo:

I have already seen her. Ya le he visto.

3. Ever
Se usa el present perfect con ever en preguntas.

El orden de las palabras:

Have/has + sujeto + ever + participio pasado

Ejemplo:
Have you ever visited Scotland? ¿Has visitado Escocia alguna vez?

4. Never
Se usa el present perfect en frases con never para contestar preguntas con ever (ver arriba).

El orden de las palabras:

Sujeto + Have/has + never + participio pasado

Ejemplo:

I have never visited Scotland.

5. This is the first time…

Se usa el present perfect con la expresión this is the first time….this is the second time…etc

Ejemplo:

This is the first time I have visited Scotland. Es la primera vez que visito Escocia.