936 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS VOL. PAS-86, NO.

8 AUGUST 1967

2) In cases of the positive polarity, as gap spacing becomes REFERENCES

larger, the 50-percent flashover voltage inclines more from a linear
line and the wave front time of the switching surge with the mini-
mum 50-percent flashover voltage takes a larger value.
3) Standard deviations of flashovers did not take a constant
value, thus it is difficult to choose the correct one among them.
4) Flashovers were caused at the wave front by switching
surges with the minimum 50-percent flashover voltage. This in-
dicates that flashovers may be caused at the value lower than the
lowest crest voltage causing flashover. In the design of insulation
coordination, the difference of time to flashovers of insulators
must be considered.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author is grateful to Dr. T. Udo for his suggestions on the
tests and to T. Sugimoto and K. Miyake for their assistance in
carrying out the investigations. He is also indebted to Y. Wada
for his help in writing the paper.
[1] A. W. Atwood, A. R. Hileman, and J. B. Skooglund, "Switching
surge tests on simulated and full-scale EHV tower-insulator sys-
tems," IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-84,
pp. 293-303, April 1965.
[2] T. Udo, "Switching surge and impulse sparkover characteristics
of large gap spacings and long insulator strings," IEEE Trans.
Power Apparatus and Systenms, vol. PAS-84, pp. 304-309, April
1965.
[3] 0. S. Johansen and J. A. Bakken, "Switching surge strength of
long air gaps and insulators," CIGRE Study Committee 15, Prague,
Czechoslovakia, May 1965.
[4] J. W. Kalb, "How the switching-surge family affects line
insulation," IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. 82, pp.
1024-1032, December 1963.
[6] E. W. Boehne and G. Carrara, "Switching surge insulation
strength of EHV line and station insulation structures," CIGRE,
Paris, France, paper no. 415, 1964.
[6] I. S. Stekolnikov and A. V. Shkilev, "Development of long
positive spark on oblique wave voltage," Dokl. Akad. Nauk. (USSR),
vol. 151, no. 4, p. 837, 1963.

Influence of Air Gap Characteristics on

Line-to- Ground Switching Surge Strength
LUIGI PARIS, MEMBER, IEEE

Abstract-A series of tests, carried out by applying impulse waves surge strength of insulating air gaps in order to establish general
simulating switching surges to air gaps with electrodes of different rules which will allow the designer to estimate approximately the
shapes, is described. From the test results, it has been possible to behavior of the air gap to be designed. In fact several parameters,
draw some important conclusions about the influence of the electrode besides insulation, are involved in the determination of the
shape and also to single out simple rules for the predetermination optimum design of electrical lines and substations. As a conse-
of the behavior of air insulation; these rules can be particularly use-
quence, many different solutions must be considered to arrive at
ful for designing purposes.
an optimum design. Thus it would be impractical to determine the
insulation characteristics of each solution by means of experi-
INTRODUCTION mental verifications. General rules, relatively simple and easily
applied, are therefore needed so that experimental verifications are
THE DATA available so far for switching surge dimensioning limited to the final stage only.
of airgaps, either with or without insulator strings or stacks The results of this work also enable proper interpretation of the
through them, are not adequate to allow the designer to work differences often found among the test results obtained by differ-
out reliable solutions. In fact the switching surge strength of air ent experimenters on gaps with apparently the same configura-
gaps for a given sparkover distance depends strongly on the tions. This can be ascribed simply to poor definition of the geo-
geometrical characteristics of the gap electrodes. It is im- metrical characteristics of the examined configurations. A case
possible, therefore, for the designer to apply the results of tests in point is that of air gaps with insulating elements through them
carried out on certain gaps to proportion others of even slightly where attempts are often made to compare, for instance, the be-
differenit characteristics, unless a general knowledge of the influ- havior of insulator strings when the electrode shape is defined
ence of the geometrical characteristics is available. in broad lines only, or is not defined at all.
The purpose of this work is to investigate systematically the
ffects of the gap characteristics on the line-to-ground switching DESCRIPTION OF TESTS PERFORMED
Since the main purpose of this research was the investigation of
Paper 31 TP 66-421, recommended and approved by the Trans- the dependence of air gap switching surge performance upon gap
mission and Distribution Committee of the IEEE Power Group for geometry, most of the tests were made with only one shape
presentation at the IEEE Summer Power Meeting, New Orleans, of voltage wave, the 120/4000-/us impulse wave (see Appendix I),
La., July 10-15, 1966. Manuscript submitted April 14, 1966; made as the lowest positive polarity withstand voltages for rod-rod and
available for printing February 3, 1967.
The author is with the Centro di Ricerche Elettriche, Ente rod-plane configurations are associated with this wave shape.
Nazionale per l'Energia Elettrica, Milan, Italy. Other tests were performed with different impulse waves to
PARIS: AIR GAP INFLUENCE ON SWITCHING SURGE STRENGTH 937

determine whether it was possible to extend the conclusions

obtained from the tests with the 120/4000-,s wave.
The 50-percent discharge voltage was assumed to be the char-
acteristic element for defining gap behavior (see Appendix I);
reference to withstand voltages would have required much more
complex tests, thus curtailing investigations because of the added
costs. Dry and wet tests were conducted,' with both positive and
negative polarity, generally indoors but sometimes outdoors.
Rain characteristics were chosen according to IEC specifications,
European practice. ll
The air gap characteristics tested were as follows:
Gap spacing d: Spacings of 2 to 6 meters were examined.
Shape of earth electrode: The shapes considered were:
Plane: Metal plate on floor in indoor tests and metal wire net
on ground in outdoor tests.
Rod: Vertically-arranged square rod with 1 cm' section project-
ing from the plane, as defined above. Height of rod above the
plane defined as h.
Structure: Face of a lattice tower 2 meters in width (see Figs. 22
and 23). Construction details are not given, having no appre-
ciable influence on the gap behavior (Appendix II). Structure
could be arranged in the following positions:
horizontally over impulsed electrode
vertically
horizontally under impulsed electrode, 6 meters above
ground level.
Window: A 4-face window (see Fig. 11), each face being a struc-
ture as described above.
Rope: Metal cable placed either horizontally under impulsed
electrode 6 meters above ground level or vertically.
Shape of impulsed electrode: The shapes considered were as
follows:
Rod: Square metal rod, 1 cm' in section and of considerable
length, suspended vertically from the laboratory ceiling.
Conductor: Four-bundle conductor, each subconductor 32-mm
in diameter. Distance between the subconductors was 400 mm.
Conductors were always arranged horizontally, the curvature
being generally negligible. Conductor geometry, however, was
found to have only a slight influence on the behavior of the air
gap, as shown in Appendix II.
Characteristics of the insulator strings through air gaps: The insula-
tor strings which were put through the air gaps in some of the tests,
either in vertical or V configurations, were made of cap and pin
insulators, whose characteristics are illustrated in Fig. 1. The
string is defined by the number n of insulators and by its length 4,
145
0255
(10")
Fig. 1. Characteristics of cap and pin insulators considered in
tests. Total leakage distance, 295 mm; protected leakage dis-
tance, 186 mm; electromechanical strength, 12 000 kg; weight, 4.5
kg; material, toughened glass.
the latter being defined as n times the insulator spacing. In the
series of tests performed, length 4 was always made equal to d.
For some of the gaps examined, the tests were performed for
different values of d; the 50-percent discharge voltage found in
these tests is shown, as a function of d, in Figs. 2 to 10 and 16 to 18.
For other gaps, only one value of d was considered; the results for
such cases are given in Tables II to IV and in Fig. 19.
Table I indicates the type of air gaps studied in this investiga-
tion and the type of tests performed; more precisely, it gives the
number of the figures or tables where the results of the different
tests are reported in detail (Arabic numbers refer to figures, Ro-
man numbers to tables).
DISCUSSION ON TEST RESULTS WITH 120/4000-,US WAVE
Positive Polarity
The behavior of all the tested air gaps at positive polarity,
either with or without insulator strings through them, is charac-
terized both in dry and wet conditions by a similar law for
variation of the 50-percent discharge voltage as a function of gap
spacing; in other words, the ratio between the 50-percent dis-
charge voltages of different gaps does not change as gap spacing
varies (see Figs. 2 through 10). The positive polarity discharge
voltage of any gap can thus be defined by associating the variation
law with the spacing of the 50-percent discharge voltage of one
gap only, which is assumed as the reference gap with a multiplying
factor representing the constant ratio between the 50-percent
discharge voltage of the gap considered and that of the reference
gap. This multiplying factor will be called gap factor K.

ILE I
DESCRIPTION OF TESTS PERFORMED

Without With
Gap Insulator String Insulator String
Positive Negative Positive Negative
Impulsed Ground Polarity Polarity Polarity Polarity
Electrode Electrode dry wet dry wet dry wet dry wet
Rod plane 2 5 2 5 9 9 9 9
Rod rod (h = 6 m,under) 2 5 2 5 10 10 10 10
Rod rod (h = 3 m,under) 3 3
Conductor plane 6 6
Conductor rod (h = 6 m, under) 6 6
Conductor rod (h = 3 m, under) 6 6
Conductor structure (under) 8-II
Conductor structure (over and laterally) 11-III III III III III III III III
Conductor window II-III III III
Rod structure (under) IX
Conductor rope IV
Conductor rod (over) IV IV IV IV IV IV
Conductor crossarm end IV IV

At the CESI EHV Laboratory, Milan.

938 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS AUGUST 1967

2400 2401
V5o.,
2400W -negativeI
VSoi 1 petarity /-'
IliVI 1kV) rod~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-plane
Ih=0i lI! 60.
1kV) /7
rod-rod1h46m) ~rdlvm
1601 -{m 1S 3
1200
1 ,/SS
/ ' ~
rod-planelh-O L
22
/10 )
* - -I- -* 120
positive polarity
000t I2]a
000so/ negative polarity
postive polarity - -

400 - 400A 41

I6
00
0 2 4 6 dim) 0 0 2 4 6 dim) 8 0 2 4 dI(m)
Fig. 2. Results of tests performed under dry conditions on Fig. 3. Results of test performed under dry conditions on
rod-rod (h = 6 meters) and rod-plane gaps, 120/4000-,s rod-rod (h = 3 meters) gaps, 120/4000-,us impulse wave.
impulse wave.
24010 24100 ti400 - 2400J
V5o/ - Vso,._ Vso %--
VsoI.
kV) 1k) 1 rod-plane Ih=0)
\-positive potarity rod-rod Jh-6m) rod ,h6 ,m
/
1602~~~~ dIlo lSOO~~~~ F\7 '~--negatoiv polarity 1600 -0
1ZOO
boy

1202 - d2s 1200 I. _

-oi_-L_
I

8000 goo 0
s 5d'=6m

000
soo~~~od_aehO 120]
800-1--negative polarity
--
positive polarity
400- 400 wet
400 / :-w
Positive polarity
-negative polarity
d=2mn -00.drywet X
j_d LOO
-dr
OI

0 2 4 6 him) 0 0i 2 4 6 himi 0 0 2 4 6 dim) 0 0 2 4 6 dim) 9

Fig. 4. Influence of height h of grounded rod on behavior of Fig. 5. Results of tests performed under wet conditions on
rod-rod gaps, 120/4000-gAs impulse wave, dry. rod-rod (h = 6 meters) and rod-plane gaps, 120/4000-,us im-
pulse wave. Comparison between wet and dry tests is also
shown.

W//
IJ
negative
V50% Vs%n polarity I A kV50)1
kV) 1kV) Il/i, IA kV )
16
H->' I.
//
I-

polarity low
.1 L
ive ____ - positive potartty
I i
(El -I positiv ,DM 1200
I :~~~~-polarity II
1#1
I-I
-

81 800K 800
00
d
41
400L-I'I'-I4

. .- 40
F

0O 2 4 6 dIm) 8 2 4 6 dIm) B 0 2 6 dIm) I

Fig. 6. Results of tests performed under dry conditions on conductor-plane and conductor-rod gaps, 120/4000-,us impulse wave.

.
.-r

V50%h_ -
- [kV)
.Mm
160011 -

1600
1200 1/---i_ .d2m
12001- -- --
0011 ~ ~ --
positive poLarity

_, --_ |>dlm
400
-positive polarity 400
n--- egative
polarity -
I I
0 2 4 6 him) 8 0 2 4 6 himl 8 dim) 8 2 4 6
0
Fig. 7. Influence of height h of grounded rod on behavior Fig. 8. Results of tests performed under dry conditions
of conductor-rod gaps, 120/4000-,us impulse wave, dry. on conductor-structure gaps, 120/4000-,us impulse wave.
PARIS: AIR GAP INFLUENCE ON SWITCHING SURGE STRENGTH 939

24002 _

24I- - - -
Aull et

VYSO
IkVI
mod-ptane with
Insulator string
dry
wet
Vooy
(kV!
drv // vet
V5a,1kV) - potive 1po-arityl- _ (kV)
-rod plane without unsstnr 1,/
1600

120 -
IB
dry ard wet)
I-
1200 120 -rod-rod wAth tm. strng
1200
pcW ntyyI
11/ negative
_

positive polarity
80080r //|-nod-ptane with strig
-rod-ptane withnttnst~srug
Om
-rod-rod wtthoutns stritg 800
11/-nod
F _ VwithIns. string
- rod-rod witt Ins string

400 40 ngative poarty t040- *wet i.dry

- -
.
2 4 6 diml 0- 2 .4 0 dIml a 8 2 4 dm18 6 8 2 4 odim) 9
Fig. 9. Results of tests performed under dry and wet con- Fig. 10. Results of tests performed under dry and wet con-
ditions on rod-plane gaps with insulator strings, 120/4000-as ditions on rod-rod (h = 6 meters) gaps with insulator
impulse wave. strings, 120/4000-jis impulse wave.

Fig. 11. Sparkover on conductor window gap (d = 4 meters), Fig. 12. Flashover on rod-rod gap (d = 3.5 meters) with
120/4000-ps, positive polarity, dry, outdoor. insulator string, 120/4000-,us, positive polarity, dry, indoor.

Fig. 13. Flashover on rod-plane gap (d = 2.35 meters) with insulator string,
120/4000-As, positive polarity, wet, indoor.
940 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS AUGUST 1967

TABLE II
RESULTS OF TESTS PERFORMED ON CONDUCTOR-STRUCTURE GAPS WITH DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF STRUCTURE
AND ON CONDUCTOR-WINDOW GAPS
(120/4000-,us wave, positive polarity, dry)

Gap Gap
Spac-
ing V50%,
V50%/d Gap
Spacing V5o%,
Vw%o/d Gap
Spacing V50%,
V5o%/d Spac- Vwo%/d
Test ing V5%,
Arrangement d, m kV kV/m % d, m kV kV/m % d, m kV kV/m % d, m kV kV/m %

T
d 4.0 1540 385 100 3.95 1510 382 100 4.0 1590 398 100 100

d 3.95 1600 405 106 3.56 1520 427 107 4.05 1630 403 106

3.95 1590 403 105

d -

* d- 4.0 1390 348 90 3.95 1420 360 94 4.05 1410 348 92

Test date, May 1965, outdoor Atugust 1965, indoor February 1966, indoor April 1966, indoor
indoor or
outdoor

TABLE III
COMPARISON BETWEEN RESULTS OF TESTS PERFORMED ON CONDUCTOR-STRUCTURE AND CONDUCTOR-WINDOW GAPS WITH
INSULATOR STRING AND CORRESPONDING RESULTS OF TESTS PERFORMED ON SAME GAPS WITHOUT STRINGS
(120/4000-ps wave)

Gap
spacing
d,m 0 0 0
Number With With Without
of I-String, V-String, String,
Test Type of Insulators, Vso%, Vso%, 50%, 0/0 0/0
Arrangement Test n kV kV kV p.u. p.u.

positive d = 3.50 1460 1520 0.96

polarity, n= 24
dry d = 4.05 1570 1525 1630 0.96 0.94
Conductor- n= 27
structure positive d= 3.50 1530 1590 0.96
polarity, n= 24
wet
negative d = 2.95 1820 1820 1.00
polarity, n= 20
dry
negative d = 2.95 1490 1850 0.81
polarity, n= 20
wet d = 4.05 1780 1970 0.81
n= 27
Conductor- positive d = 4.05 1400 1390 1410 0.99 0.98
window polarity, n= 27
dry
negative d= 4.05 1770 1990
polarity, n= 27
wet

Note: All tests performed indoors, April 1966.

PARIS: AIR GAP INFLUENCE ON SWITCHING SURGE STRENGTH 941

TABLE 1V TABLE VI
OTIIER RESULTS OF TESTS PERFORMED ON FIFTY-PERCENT SPARKOVER VOLTAGES, FOR POSITIVE
DIFFERENT TYPE AIR GAPS POLARITY 120/4000-ps WAVE, OF ROD-PLANE GAPS AS
(1204/OO0-Ms wave) FUNCTION OF SPACING d

Gap Spacing V50%, kV 2 < d < 7m

d, m Positive Positive Negative Negative VIo% (d) 500 d0.6 V50%, kV; d, m
Test Insulator Polarity, Polarity, Polarity, Polarity,
Arrangements Number, n dry wet dry wet d V50% d vm%
conductor- 4.5 1240
rope 2 759 5 1320
2.5 867 5.5 1390
3 969 6 1470
vd- d = 3.3 1435 3.5 1062 6.5 1,540
4 1150 7 1610
coniductor-
rod

Jl d = 3.15 >1750 1590 Table V shows this gap factor K for the tested air gaps, as-
d dd=2.5 1650 suming the rod-plane gap characterized by the lowest values of
the discharge voltage as the primary reference. Table VI shows
conductor- values of the 50-percent discharge voltages for the rod-plane
rod with gap, as well as an easily memorized formula for determining
string these values.
It should be emphasized that the variation range of factor K,
rT d = 3.15 1690 1660 1500 1400
with changes in the gap geometry, is rather wide (from 1 to 1.9).
d n = 21 It is understandable, therefore, that considerable errors can be
made when dimensioning air insulation if gap geometry is not
taken into due consideration.
conductor- The fact that the insulator string, by reducing the discharge
crossarm voltages, affects only slightly the behavior of the airgaps should be
end with
string noted. The highest reduction can be observed for the gaps charac-
terized by the highest discharge voltages (Figs. 9 and 10 and
Tables III to V); even in this case, the reduction is never higher
d d = 3.15 1510 1540 than 10 percent, a value obtained for conductor-rod gaps. It is
n
n = 21
therefore clear that the effect of electrode geometry on the dis-
charge voltages of an insulator string is very great and determin-
ing. This is the reason for speaking of behavior of an air gap with an
insulator string through it instead of behau-ior of an insulator string.
The latter would entail serious mistakes.
Under wet conditions the behavior of air gaps, with and without
TABLE V insulator strings, with positive polarity waves is practically the
GAP FACTOR K FOR EVALUATION OF 50-PERCENT same as under dry conditions.
DISCHARGE VOLTAGES FOR POSITIVE POLARITY
120/4000-,As IMPULSE WAVE Negative Polarity
(Reference gap: rod-plane) The negative polarity discharge voltages of different air gaps
do not show the same behavior as a function of distance d. In
Factor K some cases, e.g., conductor-rod, discharge voltages change
With linearly with d, in others, rod-plane, e.g., a behavior similar
Electrodes Without I- and to the one characterizing positive polarity is manifested.
Impulsed Grounded String V-string Air gaps without any insulator strings through them generally
Rod plane 1.00 1.00 show much higher discharge voltages with negative than with
Rod structure 1.05 positive polarity. It is interesting to note, however, that the
(under) highest discharge voltages with negative polarity are character-
Conductor plane 1.15
Conductor window 1.20 1.15 istic of those gaps having the lowest discharge voltages for
Conductor structure 1.30 positive polarity, and vice-versa. Therefore, for the conductor-
(under) rod configuration for which the 50-percent positive polarity dis-
Rod rod (h = 3 m, 1.30
under) charge voltage is very high, the negative polarity wave may be
Conductor structure (over 1.35 1.30 the most severe one. With particular reference to this configura-
and laterally) tion, it may be noted, Fig. 6, that the negative polarity discharge
Rod rod (h= 6 m, 1.40 1.30 voltages are lower than the positive ones for lower values of the
under) distance d, while they become higher for higher values of that
Conductor rope 1.40
Conductor rod (h = 3 m, 1.65 distance. It is important to remark, Fig. 7, that with an increase
under) in rod projection h, the 50-percent negative polarity discharge
Conductor crossarm end 1.50 voltage increases, while the positive polarity voltage decreases.
Conductor rod (h = 6 m, 1.90
Thus the distance d at which both polarities show equal values of
under)
Conductor rod (over) 1.90 1.75 the discharge voltage will also increase with h. It may be interest-
ing to note that when the condition of equal positive and negative
942 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS AUGUST 1967

polarity discharge voltages is obtained the value of the distance

d is equal to the one of h.
The introduction of insulator string through air gaps in V500/4I+dry) JL
.
<

general considerably reduces the strength of the gaps; the reduc-
tion is greater for the gaps characterized by higher discharge volt-
ages.
The negative polarity wet discharge voltages of air gaps are
slightly lower than the dry ones. The reduction is found to be
about the same with or without interposed strings.
Design Criteria as Obtained from the Tests Described
Analysis of the test results shows that it is extremely im-
portant for the designer to pay close attention to the shape of the
electrodes delimiting the air gaps. The results of the tests per-
formed on the conductor-rod gaps, with quite different behavior
from that of conventional gaps (rod-rod and rod-plane gaps), Fig.
indicate that this importance is much greater than had been
believed. The importance of the electrode shape should also
not be minimized for gaps having insulator strings or stacks
through them. This is evidenced by Fig. 14, which shows that the
ratios between the 50-percent dry positive and wet negative
flashover voltages of a given insulator string are very different
for different electrode configurations.
Concerning positive polarity impulses, which, in most cases,
are the most severe, it is rather simple for the designer to make a
satisfactory estimate of the behavior of the insulation for the fol-
lowing reasons
fifty-percent discharge voltages can be expressed as a function of
insulating distance d by the same law, independently of type of
air insulation
influence of rain is practically negligible
introduction of insulator string through electrodes slightly mod-
ifies behavior of air gap.
In order to size the distances for a certain type of insulation,
the designer can make use of the data in Table V once he has
chosen the configuration that best approximates the geometry
of the insulation being designed. Examples of how the configura-
tions illustrated in Table V can be chosen for approximating real
insulations are given in Fig. 15.
It is obvious that at the beginning the designer may regard
Table V simply as a guide when dealing with configurations which
are not exactly the same as those reported, and he may consider it
necessary to obtain experimental confirmation2 of the estimates
made from the data of the table itself. Later, as he acquires
broader experience of the problem through tests performed, he
will be in a position to make better use of the data given in the
table without further tests, except in a few particular cases.
The tests that made the arrangement of Table V feasible do
not represent every experimental investigation possible. The
importance of the table lies in the method it inidicates, which
completely satisfies the designer's requirements as shown in the
introduction, rather than on the values reported, which might be
modified by more complete experimental investigations.
It must be observed that the conditions governing the behavior
of positive polarity, which make estimation simple, are not yet
satisfied with negative polarity. Estimation of the insulation be-
havior with this polarity is therefore more complex. Fortunately,
as has already been noted, negative polarity impulses are more
severe, for particular gap configurations only, such as conductor-
rod. They may be more severe for similar but more common
2 The
experimental confirmation should have the same degree of
reliability as the data given in the table; for this reason, it is suggested
that comparative tests be made between one of the configurations
noted in the table and the insulation being examined by the de-
signer.
1.6
1.4- d a
d=4m d-3m
1.2-
1.0
0.e -
0.6
0.4
0.2
An
14. Ratios V50%(-wet)/V5o%(+dry) for different arrange-
ments of insulator strings, 120/4000-,us impulse wave.
(a) (b) (c)
d
d
d
(d) (e)
Fig. 15. Examples of actual gaps in electrical systems and gap factor
selection. (a) Rod-structure with insulator string, K = 1.05. (b)
Conductor-window with V insulator string, K = 1.15. (c) Conduc-
tor-structure with stack, K = 1.30. (d) Conductor-rod, K = 1.90.
(e) Conductor-conductor, K = 1.40.
configurations also (see Table IV), but only in wet conditions and
with interposed strings. For these configurations it is not
possible to predetermine rules that can be considered reliable
enough simply from the tests performed; more experimental
work is needed in this field. In these cases, however, the discharge
voltages at negative polarity are generally only slightly below the
discharge voltages at positive polarity, especially for the largest
gap spacings.
Some particular considerations must be made concerning con-
ductor-structure insulations with insulator strings. In fact, in the
tests performed the string length was kept equal to the distance
between conductor and structure. In actual conditions, the string
length is less than that distance because of the fittings connecting
the insulators to the structure on one side and to the conductor
on the other. By recalling that relatively small projections from
the plane do not practically reduce the conductor plane strength,
Fig. 7, it can be concluded that the reduction of the string length
as a consequence of the upper fittings is negligible. In regard to
the lower fittings the problem would require further investiga-
PARIS: AIR GAP INFLUENCE ON SWITCHING SURGE STRENGTH 943

tion. In any case, it can be observed that for large or very large 2400
air gaps the importance of this problem is greatly reduced, if one v 0.. r od-rod 1h=6ml
considers that the reduction of the string length due to these
fittings is always a very small percentage of the total length of the
gap. Similar considerations could be made for horns and guard
rings by keeping in mind that in modern EHV lines their charac-
r X,/'74x_/
1600
120- l

teristics are generally such as to keep the total length of the gap /1f/r/XX rod- )anelh=0)
practically unchanged. 420/4000us
8001 120/400us

COMPLEMENTARY TESTS 4001

A few series of tests carried out with the 120/4000-ps wave were
repeated with a 420/4000-,ps wave, all other test conditions re- Of 2 4 6 dlm)
maining the same. The results obtained are given in Figs. 16 to 18. Fig. 16. Results of tests performed under dry conditions on rod-
It appears that the same conclusions can be drawn from these plane and rod-rod gaps (h = 6 meters), 420/4000-ps impulse wave,
tests as from those with the 120/4000-ps wave; also the rules for positive polarity. A comparison between 420/4000 and 120/4000-zs
predetermining insulation behavfor seem still valid, even if the impulse waves is also shown.
numerical values of the coefficients involved are different. In par-
ticular, the law for the positive polarity discharge voltages as a
function of d is equal for the two waves; it appears that the 50- iveaIA
posaity
percent discharge voltages for the 420/4000-us wave can be ob- vgraoi-I
tained, for a given air gap, by multiplying the 120/4000-ps wave
discharge voltage by a constant factor K*. Table VII gives these
K* factors for some of the principal types of electrodes.
A series of tests was finally performed on rod-plane and rod- 1200 42100I
rod gaps, with and without insulator strings through the gap, and
for one single value of the distance d, by varying the values of the 800 /~1__ =l'20/40MJps
wave front (Fig. 19). These tests should be considered only as a
first step towards a more detailed analysis of the influence of the 40-
wave shape on the behavior of air gaps. For all the wave shapes
considered, the conclusions already drawn for the 120/4000-ps 2 4 6 d Im) 8
T0 2 4 6 dim) 8
wave can be restated, namely, positive polarity discharge voltages Fig. 17. Results of tests performed under dry conditions on con-
are not affected by wet conditions; slight reductions in strength ductor-plane and conductor-rod (h 6 meters) gaps, 420/4000-As =

occur at this polarity for the rod-rod gap only if an insula- impulse wave. A comparison between 420/4000 and 120/4000-ps
tor string is introduced into the air spacing. For air gaps without impulse waves is also shown.
insulator strings, the values of discharge voltages are much higher
at negative than at positive polarity. At negative polarity the 50
percent discharge voltages are strongly reduced by introducing Veeo%
insulator string into the air spacing, and at this polarity discharge 1kV) 420/4000us/1u
voltages are slightly affected by wet conditions. 16m0 A i 4
/
It should be noted that, whereas discharge voltages at positive 12/4000 uis
polarity show a minimum for front durations of about 120 1200 ------ -W
ps, the minimum discharge voltages at negative polarity occur
for fronts of about 10 pis. Therefore, while for 120/4000-us waves 801- I
negative polarity was more severe for conductor-rod con-
figurations only, for very short front durations of about 10 As, 400
this polarity becomes the determinant factor in insulation design.
The same applies to other types of gap configurations, such as I.
rod-rod or rod-plane gaps with insulator strings through them. ° 2 4 6 dim) 8

Fig. 18. Results of tests performed under dry conditions on con-

CONCLUSIONS ductor-structure gaps, 420/4000-,us impulse wave, positive polar-
ity. A comparison between 420/4000 and 120/4000-ps impulse
1) The behavior of large air gaps, with and without insulator waves is also shown.
strings through them, under switching impulses is strongly
affected by the shape of the electrodes. For a proper design of TABLE VII
electric insulation, rational rules are therefore required for FACTOR K* REFERRED TO 120/4000-,s WAVE, FOR
predetermining the insulation behavior as a function of the gap DETERMINATION OF 50-PERCENT DISCHARGE VOLTAGES
characteristics. AT POSITIVE POLARITY 420/4000-/s WAVE
2) The ratios between the 50-percent discharge voltages of
different types of gaps with or without insulator strings, at posi- Electrodes
tive polarity, with 120/4000-,s wave, both in dry and wet Impulsed Grounded Factor K* Factor KK*
conditions, remain constant as the gap spacing is varied. There- rod plane 1.18 1.18
fore, the 50-percent discharge voltages of the gaps can be defined conductor plane 1. 14 1.31
by the 50-percent discharge voltage of any of them and by a gap conductor structure 1 12
. 1.45
(under)
factor, depending upon the geometric characteristics of the gaps. rod rod 1.16 1.63
By assuming the rod-plane gap as the primary reference, the (h = 6m)
above factors assume, for the different gaps considered in this conductor rod 1.10 2.10
investigation, the values given in Table V. (h = 6m)
944 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS AUGUST 1967

II HIil Illill
1k/n
d POSITIVE POLARITY E POL
NEATV I Y dn2,35m
(kV/m
600
I,Z IILI... ] I[I] [ Z IL (n-241-
= d c 3.5&m 11111
LTM III

wIth insulator I d-3,54m

, + #th and wiithout trinsulat o _
00
+_ string -drysr aru e n 24)_

100 5 19 __ n 41

- - positive polarit
stringL-drtriwet
200=____ l ii lllll 21
_ _ _ _ , * *~without lnstAator string -dy | T y LT *without insulator string- dry
string-dry
_ _ __ _¢+ twith insulator string - dry I |d id 11 *with insulator
Awith insulator string -wet
SI vwth insulator Wting -wet
o11 5
I 10
-T, I111100
50
IIIH
front time {IISs)
T
5 100 50o
s
100o IronsMtii
I
front timeOIlIPsi

MIN 1 [ll 100Ur- 11

IL I

111111U lI LLL
d-
1 1 1111111
NEGATIVE POLARITY
HI
POSlVE- POLARITY
°V/ml
Ih/rm
Bo0 dI3,54
.n-241
Ll
d
ilE1
-VA-wih-out insulator str OR
600Cwtwith insulatort 1 . dn3.54m
string-dry and wet
n.24) -

with insulator IIi / positiv poari

string-dry and wet.........1
I * without insulator string -dry without insulator strig -dry.
Ail
2l * with inulator string - dry
A with insulator strn -wet
Il If
2001 11
insulator
with insulator string-dry
IA with strin -wett

1 1 .l 11l'll 50
IH 1totiei
5 10 50 100 tront time las) 1 5 10 50 1 tOO front time leUSss)

Fig. 19. Fifty-percent discharge voltages per unit gap spacing as function of front time of impulse wave.
Rod-rod and rod-plane gaps, with and without insulator strings.

3) Fifty-percent discharge voltages at positive polarity with
120/4000-,us waves are not practically affected by wet conditions,
even when insulator strings are placed between the electrodes.
4) When insulator strings are placed between the electrodes,
the gap behavior at positive polarity with 120/4000-us wave
shows a very slight reduction in the values of 50-percent dis-
charge voltages; this reduction increases with air gap withstand.
For rod-plane gaps there is no reduction; for rod-rod gaps it is
about 5 percent; and for conductor-rod about 10 percent.
5) For negative polarity 120/4000-Mus waves, the ratios between
the 50-percent discharge voltages of different types of gaps do
not remain constant as the gap length is varied. As a rule the
discharge voltages for negative polarity remarkably exceed the
corresponding values at positive polarity. They are lower for air
gaps having higher discharge voltages at positive polarity;
thereby they can result lower than the discharge voltages at posi-
tive polarity for conductor-rod or similar air gaps. For conductor-
rod air gaps, discharge voltages at negative polarity are lower
than the values at positive polarity only when the length of the
rod from earth surface exceeds the gap spacing.
6) Fifty-percent discharge voltages at negative polarity with
120/4000-jus waves are slightly reduced by wet conditions, both
with and without insulator strings placed between the electrodes.
7) When insulator strings are placed through the air gap,
discharge voltages for negative polarity 120/4000-los wave are
significantly reduced. The reduction increases for air gaps having
higher discharge voltages.
8) The test conditions which determine insulation design for
120/4000-,gs waves are dry positive and wet negative polarity.
However, consideration of the second condition is limited to par-
ticular cases; furthermore, this condition is generally related to
50-percent discharge voltage values which are only slightly
lower than the ones corresponding to the first condition. As a
consequence, insulation design generally can be based upon posi-
tive polarity only, the knowledge of the behavior of rod-plane gap
insulations and of the gap factors given in Table V being enough
for the purpose.
9) From a more reduced series of tests carried out with 420/
4000-us waves, it would seem that conclusions 1-4 would still
be valid for the behavior of air gaps under this type of stress.
Moreover, the 50-percent discharge voltages at positive polarity
for varying distances show the same behavior as those with 120/
4000-jus waves. Multiplying factors by which it is possible to ob-
tain the 50-percent discharge voltage values for the 420/4000-us
wave can thus be defined when the corresponding values for 120/
4000-is waves are known. These factors differ for the different
types of insulation, and their values are given in Table VII.
10) A series of tests was conducted for only one value of dis-
tance on rod-rod and rod-plane gaps, with and without insulator
strings, by adopting waves of different front time. Such tests
showed that the effect of both wet conditions and insulator
strings does not depend on the front of the applied wave. The
lowest 50-percent discharge voltages at positive polarity either
with or without insulator strings are encountered for front times
ranging about 120 uAs, whereas the lowest values at negative
polarity are encountered for shorter fronts, ranging about 10lOs.
The 50-percent discharge voltages at positive polarity are lower
than at negative polarity; they become equal only in the case of
very short fronts (- 10 ,us).
PARIS: AIR GAP INFLUENCE ON SWITCHING SURGE STRENGTH9 945

SPRAY APPARATUS
TOn OBJECT
CONDUCTOR ER

z~AmI S IMPULSE GENERATOR

TRANSFORMER
ASCASOE

Fig. 20. Test arrangements for indoor tests.

L.___ _75m,

1 CtIRANE =U

760 kV TOWER' 30m lo m

Fig. 22. Sparkover on conductor-structure gap (d = 4 meters),
OBJECT UNOERTEST 120/4000 ,us, positive polarity, dry, indoor.
N.

NYLON_WIRE
5-BUNDLE
CONDUCTOR \

VIEW A

Fig. 21. Test arrangements for outdoor tests.

APPENDIX I
The tests described were performed partly indoors and partly
outdoors.",3 Test arrangements and clearance of the gaps under
test of surrounding objects are sketched in Figs. 20 and 21. A
200-kWs, 4.8-MV, 17.3-nF impulse generator was employed. Im-
pulse waves having front times of about 7, 27, 120, 420 ss and
time to half value of 4000 As were used.4
For all the configurations, the 50-percent discharge voltages
were determined by the following method. The voltage of the
impulse generator was adjusted in steps of 2 to 3 percent of the
expected discharge voltage. Ten applications of the impulses were
made at each step, covering a range of steps where at least one
gave less than two discharges and at least one gave more than
eight discharges. The value giving 50 probability and the stan-
dard deviation was derived by linear interpolation of the test
points plotted on probability paper. The 95-percent confidence
limits of 50-percent discharge voltages were found to range from
4 1 to 4 4 percent. The standard deviation values are not
sufficiently reliable to enable one to evaluate with enough approxi-
mation the values of voltage having very reduced discharge prob-
ability (withstand voltage values). For this reason, standard
deviation values have not been reported in the paper. It may be
noted that the order of magnitude of such standard deviations
I No appreciable differences were noted between indoor and out-
door test results.
4 The front time was taken, according to IEC recommendations,
equal to 1.67 times the time interval between the instants when the
impulse was 30 and 90 percent of the peak value.
Fig. 23. Sparkover on conductor-structure gap (d = 4 meters),
120/4000 As, positive polarity, dry, outdoor.
was randomly varying within wide ranges and was related neither
to the type of test nor to the gap characteristics.
Wet tests were performed according to IEC recommendations,
European practice. lj All the test results were not corrected to
standard atmospheric conditions because at present the correc-
tion factors for switching surge tests are too uncertain.
APPENDIX II
The conductor-electrode used in the tests described in the
paper was a 4-conductor bundle, each subconductor having
a 32-mm external diameter. This type of conductor was chosen
since it is usually employed in EHV lines, to which the
tests described in this paper are related. Some comparison tests
were carried out by employing a single conductor having the
same diameter as each subconductor of the bundle. Table VIII
shows the results of this comparison. As can be seen, the differences
between the behaviors of two conductors are slight.
Other tests were performed to determine the influence of the
constructive details of the structure; the results are shown in
Table IX. No appreciable difference was noted between the dis-
charge voltages of the configurations with lattice member struc-
tures and those obtained by placing a simnple metallic plane on the
structure. It is evident, therefore, that the influence of the con-
structive details of the structure is completely negligible.
946 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS AUGUST 1967

TABLE VIII
COMPARISON BETWEEN RESULTS OF TESTS PERFORMED ON GAPS WITH SINGLE CONDUCTOR IMPULSED ELECTRODE AND
CORRESPONDING RESULTS WITH 4-BUNDLE CONDUCTOR

Single 4-Bundle
Gap Conductor, Conductor,
Test Spacing V50%, V50%, (/(
Arrangement Type Test d, m kV kV p.u.

Conductor- 120/4000-.us
positive wave,
polarity,
2
6
840
1640
885
1770
0.95
0.93
plane dry
T 420/4000-ps wave, 2 955 965 0.99
positive polarity,
dry 5 1730 1780 0.97
Conductor- 120/4000-,us wave, 2 940 960 0.98
structure positive polarity, 5 1730 (1750)* (0.99)
dry
420/4000-,us wave, 2 1020 1020 1.00
positive polarity, 4 1750 1760 0.99
dry
120/4000-j4s wave, 2 1400 1470 0.95
positive polarity,
dry
Conductor-
rod, 120/4000-,As wave,
negative polarity,
2 1165 1035 1.13
h=6m dry
d 420/4000jus wave, 2 1460 1560 0.94
positive polarity,
dry
420/4000-iAs wave, 2 1190 1060 1.12
negative polarity,
dry
* Interpolated value.
Note: All tests performed outdoors, April 1965.

TABLE IX REFERENCE
COMPARISON BETWEEN RESULTS OF TESTS PERFORMED 11 JEC Publ. 60-1962.
ON GAPS WITH STRUCTURE GROUNDED, ELECTRODE AND
LCORRESPONDING RESULTS PERFORMED WITH METAL
PLATE ON STRUCTURE BIBLIOGRAPHY
(120/4000-,ps wave, positive polarity, dry) [1] Aleksandrov, G. N., and V. L. Ivanov, "How the electrical
strength of large air spacing varies with the frequency of oscillatory
voltage," Electrical Technology (USSR), vol. II, pp. 297-309, June
With- 1964.
With out [21 Boehne, E. W., and G. Carrara, "Switching surges insulation
Metal Metal strength of EHV line and station insulation structures," CIGRE,
Gap Plate Plate Rept. 415, 1964.
Test Spacing Vso%, Vso%, Test [31 Fischer, A., "Funkenstrecken, Isolatoren und Ableiter bei
Arrangement d, m kV kV Date verschiedenartiger Spannungsbeanspruchung," ETZ-A, vol. 87,
no. 2, pp. 40-46, January 1966.
[41 Gutman, Yu. M., "The flashover voltages of long strings of
insulators under switching surges," Elekt. Stantsii (USSR), no.
Conductor- 10, pp. 59-64, October 1964.
structure [N1 Stekolnikov, I. S., E. N. Brago, and E. M. Baxelayn, "The
peculiarities of oblique wavefront discharges and their effect upon
*T EHV transmission line insulation," Proc. Internat'l Conf., CERL,
d
4.0 1600 1590 February 1966 Rept. 39, 1962.
[6] Udo, T., "Sparkover characteristics of large gap spaces and
long insulator strings," IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and Sys-
tems, vol. 83, pp. 471-483, May 1964.
P1 -"JSwitching surge sparkover characteristics of air gaps and
Rod- insulator strings under the practical conditions," presented at IEEE
structure Winter Power Meeting, 1966.

T 4.7 1390 1400 December 1965 Discussion

d
4.0 1230 1230 February 1966
E. W. Boehne (I.T.E. Circuit Breaker Company, Philadelphia,
Pa.): Dr. Paris is to be congratulated for his preparation and pres-
entation, in a foreign tongue, of a very fundamental paper. It will
Note: All tests performed indoors. Manuscript received August 2, 1966.
PARIS: AIR GAP INFLUENCE ON SWITCHING SURGE STRENGTHI9 947

have a significant bearing upon the establishment of the limits of

possible improvement in the dielectric strength of our porcelain
supporting structures in EHV. The information presented regarding
the ambient or threshold strength of the open gap, without the
supporting column present, constitutes a genuine contribution.
Many EHV engineers in recent years have recognized the need for
just such a study, but have never seemed to have the time or the
money to step-up and conduct such a fundamental investigation.
Dr. Paris deserves our sincere appreciation for making this study and (a)
for preparing such a well-organized paper.

J. H. Hagenguth (General Electric Company, Pittsfield, Mass.):

The data presented should be of considerable use for the proper
insulation of transmission lines for extra-high-voltage systems. Dr.
Paris has succeeded in reducing this problem to its simplest form and
is to be congratulated.
The gist of my discussion perhaps does not belong here. It concerns
the designation of the wave fronts using the same methods as those (b)
for standard impulses. The front time was taken equal to 1.67 times
the time interval when the impulse was 30 and 90 percent of the
peak value.
For switching surges this is not yet a recommendation but only a
proposal by Technical Committee 42, High-Voltage Testing Tech-
niques, of the IEC. As chairman of ASA C-68, I wish to point out
that this committee has voted to use the real zero time of switching
surges and the time crest to define the wave front. Contrary to
impulses, both zero time and crest time are easily determined for
switching-type surges and are preferable to the IEC proposal, we
believe, for coordination between different types of equipment on (c)
line construction, i.e., transformers, lightning arresters, and air gaps.
These three may have widely different (50 percent) volt-time flash-
over characteristics, such as the volt-time curves of Fig. 19, and the
IEC proposal on wave front may not be applicable.
Since switching-surge testing is rather recent, it seems important
to me that the possible effects of wave-front specifications be
clearly recognized. This can best be achieved if investigators such
as Dr. Paris would show oscillograms of the wave shapes used in the
tests, indicating the regions of flashover near the 50 percent level and (d)
withstand levels in relation to the wave shapes. Flashovers on air
gaps seem to occur mostly in a region below and up to crest, very Fig. 24. Switching surge waves (named according to IEC proposal);
rarely on the tail. Actual crest time is about two times the virtual (a) 7/4000 jAs, (b) 27/4000 us, (c) 120/4000,s, (d) 420/4000 As.
crest calculated according to the IEC proposal. This factor varies
with wave-front time and is not a constant. Much of the flashover
activity then occurs in a region between the virtual crest and actual
crest time. A better definition for wave-front shape than the IEC Committee 42 of the IEC is necessary, but I do not quite agree with
proposal may then be required. Any information which Dr. Paris the definition proposed by him. Actually the zero time of the front
can give in that direction, perhaps in his closing discussion, will be wave can generally be easily determined, but not the crest tine, as
appreciated. can be seen in Fig. 24, in which some oscillograms of the waves adopted
for the tests are reported, as requested by Mr. Hagenguth.
Manuscript received July 12, 1966. I think that a definition of the waveshape should be chosen
such as to take into account all the parameters which actually
influence the insulation characteristics of the test specimen, but
L. Paris: I wish to thank Mr. Boehne for his kind appreciation and also such as to eliminate all possible causes of error in reproducing
Mr. Hagenguth for his interesting discussion of my paper. the waves.
I agree with Mr. Hagenguth that a better definition of the I would add, however, with reference to the observations of Mr.
switching impulse wave shape than the one proposed by Technical Hagenguth to Fig. 19, that the influence of front time on switching
surge discharge voltages is very small for a front time of about
100 As (values for which the discharge voltages are minimal and
Manuscript received September 8, 1966. therefore of the greatest interest to the designer).