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QUICK REFRESHER GUIDE
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By
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Quick Refresher Guide Contents Quick Refresher Guide Contents
CONTENTS 4.5 Psychrometrics 123 – 134

4.6 Power Engineering 135 – 144
4.7 Refrigeration 145 – 149
Part Page No. 4.8 I.C. Engines 150 - 159
#1. Mathemathics 1 – 45
1.1 Linear Algebra 1–8
#5. Theory of Machiness 160
0 – 184
1.2 Probability & distribution 9 – 14
5.1 Mechanisms 160 – 169
1.3. Numerical Method 15 – 19
5.2 Gear Trains 170 – 175
1.4. Calculus 20 – 30
5.3 Flywheel 176 - 179
1.5. Differential Equations 31 – 37
5.4 Vibrations 180 – 184
1.6. Complex Variables 38 – 42
1.7 Laplace Transform 43 – 45
#6. Machine Design 185
5 – 219
6.1 Theory of Failures 185 – 189
#2. Engineering Mechanics 46 – 61
1
6.2 Fatigue 190 - 198
2.1 Statics 46 – 54
6.3 Design of Machine Elements 199 – 219
2.2 Dynamics 55 – 61
#7. Fluid Mechanics 220

0 – 273
#3. Strength of Materialss 62
2 – 98
7.1 Fluid Properties 220 – 224
3.1 Simple Stress And Strain 62 – 67
7.2 Fluid Statics 225 – 231
3.2 Shear Force And Bending Moment 68 – 70
7.3 Fluid Kinematics 232 – 236
3.3 Stresses In Beams 71 - 74
7.4 Fluid Dynamics 237 – 242
3.4 Deflection Of Beams 75 – 83
7.5 Boundary Layer 243 – 249
3.5 Torsion 84 – 88
7.6 Flow through pipes 250 – 256
3.6 Mohr’s Circle 89 – 91
7.7 Hydraulic Machines 257 – 273
3.7 Strain Energy Methods 92 - 93
3.8 Columns & Struts 94 – 98
#8. Heat Transfer 274
4 – 298
8.1 Conduction 274 – 286
#4. Thermodynamics 99
9 – 159
9
8.2 Convection 287 – 289
4.1 Basic Thermodynamics 99 – 110
8.3 Radiation 290 – 294
4.2 Properties of pure substances 111 – 113
8.4 Heat Exchanger 295 – 298
4.3 Irreversibility & Availability 114 - 117
4.4 Work, Heat & Entropy 118 – 122
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Quick Refresher Guide Contents Quick Refresher Guide Mathematics
#9. Manufacturing Engineering 29

99 - 38
81
Part - 1: Mathematics
9.1 Engineering Materials 299 – 304
9.2 Casting 305 – 321 1.1 Linear Algebra
9.3 Forming Process 322 – 338 1.1.1 Matrix
9.4 Joining Process 339 – 344
Definition: A system of “m n” numbers arranged along m rows and n columns.
9.5 Theory of Metal Cutting 345 – 361
Conventionally, single capital letter is used to denote a matrix.
9.6 Metrology and Inspection 362 – 379 Thus,
9.7 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) 380 – 381
a a − − a − − a
a a − − a − − a
A= − − − − a − − a
#10. Industrial Engineering 38
82 - 403 a a − − − − − a
10.1 Production, Planning and Control 382 – 387
a → ith row, jth column
10.2 Inventory Control 388 – 392
10.3 Operations Research 393 – 403
1.1.1.1 Types of Matrices
1.1.1.2 Row and Column Matrices

# Reference Books 404 – 405 x Row Matrix → [ 2, 7, 8, 9] → single row ( or row vector)
5
x Column Matrix → 10 → single column (or column vector)
13
1
1.1.1.3 Square Matrix
x Same number of rows and columns.

x Order of Square matrix → no. of rows or columns
x Principle Diagonal (or Main diagonal or Leading diagonal): The diagonal of a square
matrix (from the top left to the bottom right) is called as principal diagonal.
x Trace of the Matrix: The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix.
- tr (λ A) = λ tr(A) [ λ is scalar]
- tr ( A+B) = tr (A) + tr (B)
- tr (AB) = tr (BA)
1.1.1.4 Rectangular Matrix
Number of rows ≠ Number of columns
1.1.1.5 Diagonal Matrix

A Square matrix in which all the elements except those in leading diagonal are zero..
−4 0 0
e.g. 0 6 0
0 0 8
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Quick Refresher Guide Mathematics Quick Refresher Guide Mathematics
1.1.1.6 Unit Matrix (or Identity Matrix) 1.1.1.13 Hermitian Matrix: It is a square matrix with complex entries which is equal to its own
conjugate transpose.
A Diagonal matrix in which all the leading diagonal elements are ‘1’.
1 0 0 A = A or a = a
e.g. I = 0 1 0
0 0 1 1.1.1.14 Note: In Hermitian matrix, diagonal elements → always real
1.1.1.7 Null Matrix (or Zero Matrix)
1.1.1.15 Skew Hermitian matrix:
It is a square matrix with complex entries which is equal to the negative of conjugate
A matrix is said to be Null Matrix if all the elements are zero. transpose.
0 0 0
e.g.
0 0 0
A = −A or a = − a
1.1.1.8 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices: Note: In Skew-Hermitian matrix , diagonal elements → either zero or Pure Imaginary
Symmetric, when a = +a for all i and j. In other words =A
1.1.1.16 Idempotent Matrix
Skew symmetric, when a = - a In other words = -A
Note: All the diagonal elements of skew symmetric matrix must be zero.
If A = A, then the matrix A is called idempotent matrix.
Symmetric Skew symmetric
a h g 0 −h g
1.1.1.17 Multiplication of Matrix by a Scalar:
h b f h 0 −f
g f c −g f 0 Every element of the matrix gets multiplied by that scalar.
Symmetric Matrix ‫ = ܂ۯ‬A Skew Symmetric Matrix ‫ = ܂ۯ‬- A
Multiplication of Matrices:
1.1.1.9 Triangular Matrix Two matrices can be multiplied only when number of columns of the first matrix is equal to the
x A matrix is said to be “upper triangular” if all the elements below its principal diagonal number of rows of the second matrix. Multiplication of (m × n)
are zeros. and (n × p) matrices results in matrix of (m × p)dimension [ ] × × [ ] × = [ ] × .
x A matrix is said to be “lower triangular” if all the elements above its principal diagonal
are zeros. 1.1.1.18 Determinant:
a h g a 0 0
0 b f g b 0 An n order determinant is an expression associated with n × n square matrix.
0 0 c f h c
Upper Triangular Matrix Lower Triangular Matrix If A = [a ] , Element a with ith row, jth column.
a a
1.1.1.10 Orthogonal Matrix: If A. A = I, then matrix A is said to be Orthogonal matrix.. For n = 2 , D = det A = a a =a a -a a
1.1.1.11 Singular Matrix: If |A| = 0, then A is called a singular matrix.. Determinant of “order n”
a a a − − a
1.1.1.12 Unitary Matrix: If we define, A = (A) = transpose of a conjugate of matrix A a − − − − a
Then the matrix is unitary if A . A = I D = |A| = det A = − − − − − −
− − − − − −
a a − − − a
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1.1.1.19 Minors & Co-Factors: 9. AC = AD , doesn’t imply C = D [even when A ≠ 0].

10. If A, C, D be × matrix, and if rank (A)= n & AC=AD, then C=D.
x The minor of an element in a determinant is the determinant obtained by deleting the 11. (A+B)T = A + B
row and the column which intersect that element. 12. (AB)T = B . A
x Cofactor is the minor with “proper sign”. The sign is given by (-1) (where the element 13. (AB)-1 = B . A
belongs to ith row, jth column). 14. AA =A A=I
15. (kA)T = k.A (k is scalar, A is vector)
1.1.1.20 Properties of Determinants: 16. (kA)-1 = k . A (k is scalar , A is vector)
1. A determinant remains unaltered by changing its rows into columns and columns into 17. (A ) = (A )
rows. 18. ( A ) = (A) (Conjugate of a transpose of matrix= Transpose of conjugate of matrix)
2. If two parallel lines of a determinant are inter-changed, the determinant retains its 19. If a non-singular matrix A is symmetric, then A is also symmetric.
numerical values but changes its sign. (In a general manner, a row or a column is 20. If A is a orthogonal matrix , then A and A are also orthogonal.
referred as line).
3. Determinant vanishes if two parallel lines are identical. 21. If A is a square matrix of order n then (i) |adj A|=|A|
4. If each element of a line be multiplied by the same factor, the whole determinant is
(ii) |adj (adj A)|=|A|( )
multiplied by that factor. [Note the difference with matrix].
(iii) adj (adj A) =|A| A
5. If each element of a line consists of the m terms, then determinant can be expressed as
sum of the m determinants.
1.1.1.22 Elementary Transformation of a Matrix:
6. If each element of a line be added equi-multiple of the corresponding elements of one or
1. Interchange of any 2 lines
more parallel lines, determinant is unaffected.
2. Multiplication of a line by a constant (e.g. k R )
e.g. by the operation, R → R + pR +qR , determinant is unaffected.
3. Addition of constant multiplication of any line to the another line (e. g. R + p R )
7. Determinant of an upper triangular/ lower triangular/diagonal/scalar matrix is equal to
the product of the leading diagonal elements of the matrix.
Note:
8. If A & B are square matrix of the same order, then |AB|=|BA|=|A||B|.
9 Elementary transformations don’t change the rank of the matrix.
9. If A is non singular matrix, then |A |=| | (as a result of previous). 9 However it changes the Eigen value of the matrix.
10. Determinant of a skew symmetric matrix (i.e. A =-A) of odd order is zero.
11. If A is a unitary matrix or orthogonal matrix (i.e. A = A ) then |A|= ±1. 1.1.1.23 Rank of Matrix
12. If A is a square matrix of order n, then |k A| = k |A|.
13. |I | = 1 ( I is the identity matrix of order n). If we select any r rows and r columns from any matrix A,deleting all other rows and columns,
then the determinant formed by these r×r elements is called minor of A of order r.
1.1.1.21 Inverse of a Matrix
Definition: A matrix is said to be of rank r when,
i) It has at least one non-zero minor of order r.
ii) Every minor of order higher than r vanishes.
x A =
| |
x |A| must be non-zero (i.e. A must be non-singular). Other definition: The rank is also defined as maximum number of linearly independent row
x Inverse of a matrix, if exists, is always unique. vectors.
a b d −b
x If it is a 2x2 matrix , its inverse will be
c d −c a Special case: Rank of Square matrix
Important Points: Rank = Number of non-zero row in upper triangular matrix using elementary transformation.
1. IA = AI = A, (Here A is square matrix of the same order as that of I )
2. 0 A = A 0 = 0, (Here 0 is null matrix) Note:
3. If AB = 0, then it is not necessarily that A or B is null matrix. Also it doesn’t mean BA = 0. 1. r(A.B) ≤ min { r(A), r (B)}
4. If the product of two non-zero square matrices A & B is a zero matrix, then A & B are 2. r(A+B) ≤ r(A) + r (B)
singular matrices. 3. r(A-B) ≥ r(A) - r (B)
5. If A is non-singular matrix and A.B=0, then B is null matrix. 4. The rank of a diagonal matrix is simply the number of non-zero elements in principal
6. AB ≠ BA (in general) → Commutative property does not hold diagonal.
7. A(BC) = (AB)C → Associative property holds 5. A system of homogeneous equations such that the number of unknown variable exceeds
8. A(B+C) = AB + AC → Distributive property holds the number of equations, necessarily has non-zero solutions.
6. If A is a non-singular matrix, then all the row/column vectors are independent. b a

D =
7. If A is a singular matrix, then vectors of A are linearly dependent. b a
8. r(A)=0 iff (if and only if) A is a null matrix.
9. If two matrices A and B have the same size and the same rank then A, B are equivalent a b
D =
matrices. a b
10. Every non-singular matrix is row matrix and it is equivalent to identity matrix.
Solution using Cramer’s rule:
1.1.1.24 Solution of linear System of Equations: x = and x =
For the following system of equations A X = B In the above method, it is assumed that
1. No of equations = No of unknowns
a a − − − a x k
⎡ a ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ 2. D≠ 0
− − − − a ⎡x ⎤ k
⎢ − − − − − − ⎥ ⎢−⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎥, − ⎥ In general, for Non-Homogenous Equations
Where, A = ⎢ − − − − − − X= ⎢−⎥ , B = ⎢
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢− ⎥ D≠ 0 → single solution (non trivial)
⎢ − − − − − ⎥ ⎢−⎥ ⎢− ⎥ D = 0 → infinite solution
⎣a a − − − a ⎦ ⎣x ⎦ ⎣k ⎦
For Homogenous Equations
A= Coefficient Matrix, C = (A, B) = Augmented Matrix D≠ 0 → trivial solutions ( x = x =………………………x = 0)
D = 0 → non- trivial solution (or infinite solution)
r = rank (A), r = rank (C), n = Number of unknown variables (x , x , - - - x )
Eigen Values & Eigen Vectors
Consistency of a System of Equations:
1.1.1.25 Characteristic Equation and Eigen Values:
For Non-Homogenous Equations (A X = B)
i) If r ≠ r , the equations are inconsistent i.e. there is no solution. Characteristic equation: | A − λ I |= 0, The roots of this equation are called the characteristic
ii) If r = r = n, the equations are consistent and there is a unique solution. roots /latent roots / Eigen values of the matrix A.
iii) If r = r < n, the equations are consistent and there are infinite number of solutions.
Eigen vectors: [ − ]X=0
For Homogenous Equations (A X = 0)
i) If r = n, the equations have only a trivial zero solution ( i.e. x = x = - - - x = 0). For each Eigen value λ, solving for X gives the corresponding Eigen vector.
ii) If r < n, then (n-r) linearly independent solution (i.e. infinite non-trivial solutions).
Note: For a given Eigen value, there can be different Eigen vectors, but for same Eigen vector,
Note: there can’t be different Eigen values.
Consistent means:: → one or more solution (i.e. unique or infinite solution) Properties of Eigen values
1. The sum of the Eigen values of a matrix is equal to the sum of its principal diagonal.
Inconsistent means:: → No solution 2. The product of the Eigen values of a matrix is equal to its determinant.
3. The largest Eigen values of a matrix is always greater than or equal to any of the
Cramer’s Rule diagonal elements of the matrix.
4. If λ is an Eigen value of orthogonal matrix, then 1/ λ is also its Eigen value.
Let the following two equations be there
5. If A is real, then its Eigen value is real or complex conjugate pair.
a x +a x = b ---------------------------------------(i) 6. Matrix A and its transpose A has same characteristic root (Eigen values).
7. The Eigen values of triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements of the matrix.
a x +a x = b ---------------------------------------(ii) 8. Zero is the Eigen value of the matrix if and only if the matrix is singular.
9. Eigen values of a unitary matrix or orthogonal matrix has absolute value ‘1’.
a a 10. Eigen values of Hermitian or symmetric matrix are purely real.
D= b b 11. Eigen values of skew Hermitian or skew symmetric matrix is zero or pure imaginary.
| |
12. is an Eigen value of adj A (because adj A = |A|. A ).
13. If λ is an Eigen value of the matrix then , 1.2 Probability and Distribution
i) Eigen value of A is 1/λ
ii) Eigen value of A is λ 1.2.1 Probability
iii) Eigen value of kA are kλ (k is scalar)
iv) Eigen value of A + k I are λ + k Event: Outcome of an experiment is called event.
v) Eigen value of (A − k I)2 are (O−k)
Mutually Exclusive Events (Disjoint Events): Two events are called mutually exclusive, if the
Properties of Eigen Vectors occurrence of one excludes the occurrence of others i.e. both can’t occur simultaneously.
1) Eigen vector X of matrix A is not unique.
Let X is Eigen vector, then CX is also Eigen vector (C = scalar constant). A ∩ B =φ, P(A ∩ B) =0
2) If λ , λ , λ . . . . . λ are distinct, then X , X . . . . . X are linearly independent .
3) If two or more Eigen values are equal, it may or may not be possible to get linearly Equally Likely Events: If one of the events cannot happen in preference to other, then such events
independent Eigen vectors corresponding to equal roots. are said to be equally likely.
4) Two Eigen vectors are called orthogonal vectors if X T∙ X = 0.
(X , X are column vector) Odds in Favour of an Event =
(Note: For a single vector to be orthogonal , A = A or, A. A = A. A = , )
5) Eigen vectors of a symmetric matrix corresponding to different Eigen values are Where m→ no. of ways favourable to A
orthogonal.
n→ no. of ways not favourable to A
Cayley Hamilton Theorem: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
Odds Against the Event =
1.1.1.26 Vector:
.
Probability: P(A)= = .
Any quantity having n components is called a vector of order n.
Linear Dependence of Vectors P(A)+ P(A’)=1

x If one vector can be written as linear combination of others, the vector is linearly
dependent. Important points:
x P(A∪B)→ Probability of happening of “at least one” event of A & B
Linearly Independent Vectors x P(A∩B) )→ Probability of happening of “both” events of A & B
x If no vectors can be written as a linear combination of others, then they are linearly x If the events are certain to happen, then the probability is unity.
independent. x If the events are impossible to happen, then the probability is zero.
Suppose the vectors are x x x x Addition Law of Probability:

a. For every events A, B and C not mutually exclusive
Its linear combination is λ x + λ x + λ x + λ x = 0 P(A∪B∪C)= P(A)+ P(B)+ P(C)- P(A∩B)- P(B∩C)- P(C∩A)+ P(A∩B∩C)
x If λ , λ , λ , λ are not “all zero” → they are linearly dependent. b. For the event A, B and C which are mutually exclusive
x If all "λ" are zero → they are linearly independent. P(A∪B∪C)= P(A)+ P(B)+ P(C)
Independent Events: Two events are said to be independent, if the occurrence of one does not
affect the occurrence of the other.
If P(A∩B)= P(A) P(B) ↔ Independent events A & B
Conditional Probability: If A and B are dependent events, then P denotes the probability of
occurrence of B when A has already occurred. This is known as conditional probability.
( ∩ )
P(B/A)=
( )
For independent events A & B → P(B/A) = P(B) Discrete Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) or Distribution Function
Theorem of Combined Probability: If the probability of an event A happening as a result of trial is The Cumulative Distribution Function F(x) of the discrete variable x is defined by,
P(A). Probability of an event B happening as a result of trial after A has happened is P(B/A) then
the probability of both the events A and B happening is F (x) = F(x) = P(X≤x) = ∑ P(x ) = ∑ f(x )
P(A∩B)= P(A). P(B/A), [ P(A)≠0]

Continuous Cumulative Distribution function (CDF) or Distribution Function:
= P(B). P(A/B), [ P(B)≠0]
If F (x) = P(X≤x) =∫ f(x)dx, then F(x) is defined as the cumulative distribution function or
This is also known as Multiplication Theorem. simply the distribution function of the continuous variable.
For independent events A&B → P(B/A) = P(B), P(A/B )= P(A)
Hence P(A∩B) = P(A) P(B) CDF has the following properties:

( )
Important Points: i) = F ′(x) =f(x)≥0
ii) 1≥ F (x) ≥0
If P & P are probabilities of two independent events then iii) If x > x then F (x ) > F (x ) , i.e. CDF is monotone (non-decreasing function)
1. P (1-P ) → probability of first event happens and second fails (i.e only first happens) iv) F (−∞) = 0
2. (1-P )(1-P ) → probability of both event fails v) F (∞) = 1
3. 1-(1-P )(1-P ) → probability of at least one event occur vi) P(a≤ x ≤b) =∫ f(x)dx = ∫ f(x)dx - ∫ f(x)dx = F (b) − F (a)
4. PP → probability of both event occurs
Expectation [E(x)]:
Baye’s theorem:
1. E(X) = ∑ x f(x ) (Discrete case)
An event A corresponds to a number of exhaustive events B , B ,.., B . 2. E(X) = ∫ x f(x )dx (Continuous case)
If P(B ) and P(A/B ) are given then, Properties of Expectation

1. E(constant) = constant
( ). ( ) 2. E(CX) = C . E(X) [C is constant]
P = 3. E(AX+BY) = A E(X)+B E(Y) [A& B are constants]
∑ ( ). ( )
4. E(XY)= E(X) E(Y/X)= E(Y) E(X/Y)
This is also known as theorem of Inverse Probability. E(XY)≠ E(X) E(Y) in general
Random variable: Real variable associated with the outcome of a random experiment is called a But E(XY) = E(X) E(Y) , if X & Y are independent
random variable.
Variance (Var(X))
1.2.2 Distribution
Var (X) =E[(x − μμ ) ]
Probability Density Function (PDF) or Probability Mass Function:
Var (X)=∑(x x − μμ) f(xx ) (Discrete case)
The set of values Xi with their probabilities P constitute a probability distribution or probability
density function of the variable X. If f(x) is the PDF, then f(x ) = P(X = x ) ,
Var (X)=∫ (xx − μμ) f(x)dx (Continuous case)
PDF has the following properties:
x Probability density function is always positive i.e. f(x) ≥ 0 Var (X) =E(XX )-[E(x)]
x ∫ f(x)dx = 1 (Continuous) Properties of Variance
x ∑ f(x ) = 1 (Discrete) 1. Var(constant) = 0
2. Var(Cx) = C Var(x) -Variance is non-linear [here C is constant]
3. Var(Cx±D) = C Var(x) -Variance is translational invariant [C & D are constants] ∑

The arithmetic mean, X=
4. Var(x-k) = Var(x) [k is constant]
x For a grouped data if x , x , … . . , x are mid values of the class intervals having frequencies
5. Var(ax+by) = a Var(x) + b Var(y) ± 2ab cov(x,y) (if not independent) [A & B are ∑
constants] f , f ,….., f ,then, X= ∑
= a Var(x) + b Var(y) (if independent) x If X is mean for n data; X is mean for n data; then combined mean of n +n data is
X=
Covariance
x If X , σ be mean and SD of a sample size n and m , σ be those for a sample of size n then
Cov (x,y)=E(xy)-E(x) E(y) SD of combined sample of size n +n is given by,
If independent ⟹ covariance=0, E(xy) = E(x) . E(y) (n + n )σ = n σ +n σ +n D +n D
(if covariance = 0, then the events are not necessarily independent) D = m -m (m , σ = mean, SD of combined sample)
Properties of Covariance (∑n )σ =∑(n σ )+∑(n D )

1. Cov(x,y) = Cov(y,x) (i.e. symmetric)
2. Cov(x,x) = Var(x) Median: When the values in a data sample are arranged in descending order or ascending order
3. |Cov(x,y)| ≤ σ σ of magnitude the median is the middle term if the no. of sample is odd and is the mean of two
middle terms if the number is even.
Standard Distribution Function (Discrete r.v. case):
1. Binomial Distribution : P(r) = C p q Mode: It is defined as the value in the sampled data that occurs most frequently.
Mean = np, Variance = npq, S.D. = npq
Important Points:
2. Poisson Distribution: Probability of k success is P (k) = 9 Mean is best measurement ( ∵ all observations taken into consideration).
!
k→no. of success trials , n→no. of trials , P→success case probability 9 Mode is worst measurement (∵ only maximum frequency is taken).
→ mean of the distribution 9 In median, 50 % observation is taken.
For Poisson distribution: Mean = , variance = , and =np 9 Sum of the deviation about “mean” is zero.
9 Sum of the absolute deviations about “median” is minimum.
Standard Distribution Function (Continuous r.v. case): 9 Sum of the square of the deviations about “mean” is minimum.
( )
1. Normal Distribution (Gaussian Distribution): f(x) = e
√ Co-efficient of variation = × 100
Where μ and σ are the mean and standard deviation respectively
x P(μ − σ < x < μ + σ) = 68% ( , )
x P(μ − 2σ < x < μ + 2σ) = 95.5% Correlation coefficient = U(x,y) =
x P(μ − 3σ < x < μ + 3σ) = 99.7% x -1 ≤ U(x, y) ≤1
x Total area under the curve is is unity i.e. ∫ f(x)dx = 1 x U(x,y) = U(y,x)
( ) x |U(x,y)| = 1 when P(x=0)=1; or P(x=ay)=1 [ for some a]
x P(x1 < x < x2) = ∫ e dx = Area under the curve from x1 to x2 x If the correlation coefficient is -ve, then two events are negatively correlated.
√
2. Exponential distribution : f(x) = λ e , x ≥ 0 , here λ > 0 x If the correlation coefficient is zero, then two events are uncorrelated.
= 0, x < 0 x If the correlation coefficient is +ve, then two events are positively correlated.
3. Uniform distribution: f(x)= , b ≥ f(x) ≥ a
Line of Regression:
= 0, otherwise
4. Cauchy distribution : f(x)=
.( ) The equation of the line of regression of y on x is y − y = ρ (x − x)
5. Rayleigh distribution function : f(x) = e , x≥0

The equation of the line of Regression of x on y is (x − x) = ρ (y − y)
Mean:
x For a set of n values of a variant X=( x , x , … . . , x ) ρ is called the regression coefficient of y on x and is denoted by byx.
ρ is called the regression coefficient of x on y and is denoted by bxy. 1.3 Numerical Methods
1.3.1 Solution of Algebraic and Transcendental Equation / Root Finding :

Joint Probability Distribution: If X & Y are two random variables then Joint distribution is defined
as, Fxy(x,y) = P(X ≤ x ; Y ≤ y)
Consider an equation f(x) = 0
Properties of Joint Distribution Function/ Cumulative Distribution Function:
1. F (−∞, −∞) = 0
1. Bisection method
2. F (∞, ∞) = 1
3. F (−∞, ∞) = 0 { F (−∞, ∞) = P(X ≤ −∞ ; Y ≤ y) = 0 x 1 = 0 } This method finds the root between points “a” and “b”.
4. F (x, ∞) = P(X ≤ x ; Y ≤ ∞) = F (x) . 1 = F (x)
5. F (∞, y) = F (y) If f(x) is continuous between a and b and f (a) and f (b) are of opposite sign then there is a
root between a & b (IIntermediate Value Theorem).
Joint Probability Density Function:
First approximation to the root is x1 = .
Defined as f(x, y) = F(x, y)
If f(x1) = 0, then x1 is the root of f(x) = 0, otherwise root lies between a and x1 or x1 and
Property: ∫ ∫ f(x, y) dx dy = 1 b.
Note: X and Y are said to be independent random variable Similarly x2 and x3 . . . . . are determined.
9 Simplest iterative method
If fxy(x,y) = fx(x) . fy(y) 9 Bisection method always converge, but often slowly.
9 This method can’t be used for finding the complex roots.
9 Rate of convergence is linear
2. Newton Raphson Method (or Successive Substitution Method or Tangent Method)

( )
xn+1 = xn –
( )
9 This method is commonly used for its simplicity and greater speed.
9 Here f(x) is assumed to have continuous derivative f’(x).
9 This method fails if f’(x) = 0.
9 It has second order of convergence or quadratic convergence, i.e. the subsequent error at
each step is proportional to the square of the error at previous step.
9 Sensitive to starting value, i.e. The Newton’s method converges provided the initial
approximation is chosen sufficiently close to the root.
9 Rate of convergence is quadratic.
3. Secant Method
x =x − ( )– (
f(x )
)
9 Convergence is not guaranteed.

9 If converges, convergence super linear (more rapid than linear, almost quadratic like
Newton Raphson, around 1.62).
4. Regula Falsi Method or (Method of False Position)
9 Regula falsi method always converges.

9 However, it converges slowly.
9 If converges, order of convergence is between 1 & 2 (closer to 1).
9 It is superior to Bisection method. Step 2: Eliminate y from 1st and 3rd

Step 3: Eliminate z from 1st and 2nd
Given f(x) = 0
3. L U Decomposition
Select x0 and x1 such that f(x0) f(x1) < 0 (i.e. opposite sign) 9It is modification of the Gauss eliminiation method.
9Also Used for finding the inverse of the matrix.
– ( )– ( )
x =x - ( ) ( )
, f(x ) =
( ) ( )
[A]n x n = [ L ] n x n [U] n x n
a11 a12 a13 1 0 0 U11 U12 U13
Check if f(x0) f(x2) < 0 or f(x1) f(x2) < 0
a21 b22 c23 = L21 1 0 0 U22 U23
a31 b32 c33 L31 L32 1 0 0 U31
Compute x ………
Ax = LUX = b can be written as
which is an approximation to the root.
a)LY=b and b) UX=Y
Solve for Y from a) then solve for X from b). This method is known as Doolittle’s method.
1.3.2 Solution of Linear System of Equations
9 Similar methods are Crout’s method and Cholesky methods.
1. Gauss Elimination Method
4. Iterative Method
Here equations are converted into “upper triangular matrix” form, then solved by “back
(i) Jacobi Iteration Method
substitution” method.
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
Consider a1x + b1x + c1z = d1
a2x + b2x + c2z = d2 a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
a3x + b3x + c3z = d3
If a1, b2 , c3 are large compared to other coefficients, then solving these for x, y, z
Step 1: To eliminate x from second and third equation (we do this by subtracting suitable
respectively
multiple of first equation from second and third equation)
x = k1 – l1y – m1z
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1’ (pivotal equation, a1 pivot point.)
y = k2 – l2x – m2z
b2’y + c2’ z = d2’
z = k3 – l3x – m3y
b3’y + c3’ z = d3’
Let us start with initial approximation x0 , y0 , z0
Step 2: Eliminate y from third equation x1= k1 – l1y0 – m1z0
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1’ y1= k2 – l2y0 – m2z0
b2’y + c2z = d2’ (pivotal equation, b2’ is pivot point.) z1= k3 – l3y0 – m3z0
c3’’z = d3”
Note: No component of x(k) is used in computation unless y(k) and z(k) are computed.
Step 3: The value of x , y and z can be found by back substitution.
The process is repeated till the difference between two consecutive approximations is
negligible.
Note: Number of operations: N = +n -
In generalized form:
x(k+1) = k1 – l1 y(k) – m1z(k)
y(k+1) = k2 – l2 x(k) – m2z(k)
2. Gauss Jordon Method z(k+1) = k3 – l3 x(k) – m3y(k)
9 Used to find inverse of the matrix and solving linear equations.
9 Here back substitution is avoided by additional computations that reduce the matrix to (ii) Gauss-Siedel Iteration Method
“diagonal from”, instead to triangular form in Gauss elimination method.
9 Number of operations is more than Gauss elimination as the effort of back substitution Modification of the Jacobi’s Iteration Method
is saved at the cost of additional computation.
Step 1: Eliminate x from 2nd and 3rd Start with (x0, y0, z0) = (0, 0, 0) or anything [No specific condition]
In first equation, put y = y0 z = z0 which will give x1 Solution is given by, Yn+1 = yn + h f(xn,yn)
In second equation, put x = x1 and z = z0 which will give y1
In third equation, put x = x1 and y = y1 which will give z1 (ii) Runge Kutta Method
Note: To compute any variable, use the latest available value. Used for finding the y at a particular x without solving the 1st order differential equation
In generalized form: = f(x, y)
x(k+1) = k1 – l1y(k) – m1z(k)
K1 = h f(x0, y0)
y(k+1) = k2 – l2x(k+1) – m2z(k)
z(k+1) = k3 – l3x(k+1) – m3y(k+1) K2 = h f(x0 + , y0 + )
K3 = h f(x0 + , y0 + )
1.3.3 Numerical Integration
K4 = h f(x0 +h, y0 + k3)
K = (k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4)
Trapezoidal Formula: Step size h =
Y(x0+h) = y0 + k
h
f(x)dx = {( first term + last term) + 2 (remaining terms)}
2
Error = Exact - approximate
The error in approximating an integral using Trapezoidal rule is bounded by
h
− (b − a) max |f (ξ)|
12 ∈[ , ]
Simpson’s One Third Rule (Simpson’s Rule):
h
f(x)dx = {( first term + last term) + 4 (all odd terms) + 2 (all even terms)}
3
The error in approximating an integral using Simpson’s one third rule is
h
− (b − a) max |f ( ) (ξ)|
180 ∈[ , ]
Simpson’s Three Eighth Rule:
3h ( first term + last term) + 2 (all multiple of 3 terms)

f(x)dx =
8 +3 (all remaining terms)
The error in approximating an integral using Simpson’s 3/8 rule is
(b − a)
− max |f ( ) (ξ)|
6480 ∈[ , ]
1.3.4 Solving Differential Equations

(i) Euler method (for first order differential equation )
Given equation is y = f(x, y); y(x0) = y0
1.4 Calculus
log(1 + x)
lim =1
1.4.1 Limit of a Function → x
Let y = f(x) x −a
lim = a
→ x−a
Then lim → f(x)= ℓ i.e, “ f(x)→ℓ as x→a” implies for any ∈(>0), δ(>0) such that whenever
0< |x − a|<δ, |f(x) − ℓ|<∈ lim log|x| = − ∞
→
Some Standard Expansions L – Hospital’s Rule

x When function is of or form, differentiate numerator & denominator and then apply
( ) n(n − 1)(n − 2)
(1 + x) = 1 + nx + !
+ x +. . . . . . . . . x limit.
3!
x −a Existence of Limits and Continuity:
=x +x a+x a +. . . . . . . . . a 1. f(x) is defined at a, i.e, f(a) exists.
x−a
2. If lim f(x) = lim f(x) = L ,then the lim f(x) exists and equal to L.
→ → →
e =1+x+ + ......... 3. If lim → f(x) = lim → f(x)= f(a) then the function f(x) is said to be continuous.
! !
Properties of Continuity
log(1 + x) = x − + .........
If f and g are two continuous functions at a; then
log(1 − x) = − x − − ......... a. (f+g), (f.g), (f-g) are continuous at a
b. is continuous at a, provided g(a) ≠ 0
Sin x = x − + − ......... c. |f| or |g| is continuous at a
! ! !
Rolle’s theorem
Cos x = 1− !
+ !
− !
.........
If (i) f(x) is continuous in closed interval [a,b]
Sinh x = x + !
+ !
+ !
.........
(ii) f’(x) exists for every value of x in open interval (a,b)
Cosh x = 1+ + + ......... (iii) f(a) = f(b)

! ! !
Some Important Limits Then there exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that ′( ) = 0
sinx Geometrically: There exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that tangent at c is parallel to
lim =0 x axis
→ x
1
lim 1 + =
→ x C
C
lim(1 + x) =
→
a −1
lim = log a C1
→ x
e −1
lim =1
→ x
Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem Homogenous Function
If (i) f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a,b] and Any function f(x, y) which can be expressed in from xnϕ is called homogenous function of
(ii) f’(x) exists in the open interval (a,b), then atleast one value c of x exist in (a,b) such that order n in x and y. (Every term is of nth degree.)
( ) ( ) f(x,y) = a0xn + a1xn-1y + a2xn-2y2 + …………+ an yn

= f (c).
f(x,y) = xn ϕ
Geometrically, it means that at point c, tangent is parallel to the chord line.
Euler’s Theorem on Homogenous Function
If u be a homogenous function of order n in x and y then,

x x +y = nu
x x + 2xy +y = n(n − 1)u
1.4.3 Total Derivative

Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem
If u=f(x,y) ,x=φ(t), y=Ψ(t)
If (i) f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a,a+h] and
= . + .
(ii) f (x) exists in the open interval (a,a+h), then there is at least one number θ (0<θ<1)
such that
∆u = ∆x + ∆y
f(a+h) = f(a) + h f(a+θh)
Let f1 and f2 be two functions: Monotonicity of a Function f(x)

i) f1,f2 both are continuous in [a,b] 1. f(x) is increasing function if for α > β , f(α) > f(β)
ii) f1, f2 both are differentiable in (a,b) Necessary and sufficient condition, f’ (x) > 0
iii) f2’ ≠ 0 in (a,b) 2. f(x) is decreasing function if for α > β, , f(α) < f(β)
Necessary and sufficient condition, f (x) < 0
then, for a < β < b
Note: If f is a monotonic function on a domain ‘D’ then f is one-one on D.
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
= ( )
Maxima-Minima
1.4.2 Derivative:
a) Global b) Local
( ) ( )
’( ) = lim →
Rule for finding maxima & minima:
Provided the limit exists ’( ) is called the rate of change of f at x. x If maximum or minimum value of f(x) is to be found, let y = f(x)
x Find dy/dx and equate it to zero and from this find the values of x, say x is α, β, …(called the
Algebra of derivative:- critical points).
i. (f + g)′ = f′ + g ′ x Find at x = α,
ii. (f − g)′ = f ′ – g ′
iii. (f. g)′ = f ′. g + f . g′ If > 0, y has a minimum value
. .
iv. (f/g)′ = If < 0,y has a maximum value
If = 0, proceed further and find at x = α. 1.4.4 Standard Integral Results

1. ∫ x dx = , n ≠ −1
If ≠ 0, y has neither maximum nor minimum value at x = α
2. ∫ dx = log x
But If = 0, proceed further and find at x = α.
3. ∫ e dx = e
If > 0, y has minimum value 4. ∫ a dx = (prove it )
If < 0, y has maximum value 5. ∫ cos x dx = sin x
6. ∫ sin x dx = −cos x
If = 0, proceed further
7. ∫ sec x dx = tan x
8. ∫ cosec x dx = −cot x
Note: Greatest / least value exists either at critical point or at the end point of interval. 9. ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x
10. ∫ cosec x cot x dx = −cosec x
Point of Inflexion
11. ∫ dx = sin
If at a point, the following conditions are met, then such point is called point of inflexion √
12. ∫ dx = sec
√
13. ∫ dx = sec x
√
14. ∫ cosh x dx = sinh x
15. ∫ sinh x dx = cosh x
16. ∫ sech x dx = tanh x
17. ∫ cosech x dx = −coth x
Point of 18. ∫ sech x tanh x dx = −sech x
inflexion 19. ∫ cosec h x cot h x dx = −cosech x
20. ∫ tan x dx = log sec x
21. ∫ cot x dx = log sin x
i) =0, 22. ∫ sec x dx = log( sec x + tan x) = log tan(π 4 + x 2)
ii) =0, 23. ∫ cosec x dx = log(cosec x − cot x) = log tan
iii) ≠ 0Æ Neither minima nor maxima exists 24. ∫ dx = log(x + √x − a ) = cosh ( )
√
25. ∫ dx = log(x + √x + a ) = sinh ( )
√
Taylor Series: √
26. ∫ √a − x dx = sin +
f(a + h)= f(a) + h f’(a) + f”(a) + . . . . . . . . . 27. ∫ √a + x dx = √x + a + log(x + √x + a )
!
28. ∫ √x − a dx = √x − a − log(x + √x − a )
Maclaurian Series:
29. ∫ dx = tan
h3
f(x) = f(0) + x f’(0) + f′′(0)+ f'''(0) 30. ∫ dx = log ( ) where x <a
! 3!
31. ∫ dx = log ( ) where x > a
Maxima & Minima (Two variables)
32. ∫ sin x dx = − sin 2x
r= ,s= , t= 33. ∫ cos x dx = + sin 2x
34. ∫ tan x dx = tan x − x
1. = 0, = 0 → solve these equations. Let the solution be (a, b), (c, d)…
35. ∫ cot x dx = − cot x − x
2. (i) if rt− s > 0 and r < 0 → maximum at (a, b) 36. ∫ ln x dx = x ln x − x
(ii) if rt− s > 0 and r > 0 → minimum at (a, b)
37. ∫ e sin bx dx = (a sin bx − b cos bx )
(iii) if rt− s < 0 at (a, b), f(a,b) is not an extreme value i.e, f(a, b) is saddle point.
(iv) if rt− s > 0 at (a, b), It is doubtful, need further investigation. 38. ∫ e cos bx dx = (a cos bx + b sin bx )
39. ∫ e [f(x) + f (x)]dx = e f(x) 1.4.7 Vector Calculus:

Integration by parts: ∫ u v dx = u. ∫ v dx − ∫( ∫ v dx)dx
Scalar Point Function:
I L A T E If corresponding to each point P of region R there is a corresponding scalar then ∅(P) is said to
Selection of U & V be a scalar point function for the region R.
Inverse circular ∅(P)= ∅(x,y,z)

(e.g. tan−1 x) Exponential Vector Point Function:
Logarithmic Algebraic Trigonometric
If corresponding to each point P of region R, there corresponds a vector defined by F(P) then F is
Note: Take that function as “u” which comes first in “ILATE” called a vector point function for region R.
1.4.5 Rules for Definite Integral F(P) = F(x,y,z) = f1(x,y,z) ̂ +f2(x,y,z)ĵ +f3(x,y,z)k
1. ∫ f(x)dx =∫ f(x)dx+∫ f(x)dx a<c<b
Vector Differential Operator or Del Operator: ∇ = î + ĵ + k
2. ∫ f(x)dx =∫ f(a + b − x)dx → ∫ f(x)dx =∫ f(a − x)dx
/ / /
3. ∫ f(x)dx =∫ f(x)dx+∫ f(a − x)dx → ∫ f(x)dx = 2 ∫ f(x)dx Directional Derivative:
if f(a-x)=f(x)
=0 if f(a-x)=-f(x) The directional derivative of f in a direction N⃗ is the resolved part of ∇f in direction N⃗.
4. ∫ f(x)dx =2 ∫ f(x)dx if f(-x) = f(x), even function
=0 if f(x) = -f(x), odd function ∇f. N⃗ = |∇f|cosα
Improper Integral Where N⃗ is a unit vector in a particular direction.
Those integrals for which limit is infinite or integrand is infinite in a ≤ x ≤ b in case of ∫ f(x)dx, Direction cosine: l + m + n = 1
then it is called as improper integral.
Where, l =cos α , m=cos β , n=cos γ ,
1.4.6 Convergence:
1.4.8 Gradient:
x ∫ f(x)dx is said to be convergent if the value of the integral is finite.
x If (i) 0 ≤ f(x) ≤ g(x) for all x and (ii) ∫ g(x)dx converges , then ∫ f(x)dx also converges The vector function ∇f is defined as the gradient of the scalar point function f(x,y,z) and written
x If (i) f(x) ≥ g(x) ≥ 0 for all x and (ii) ∫ g(x)dx diverges, then ∫ f(x)dx also diverges as grad f.
( )
x If lim → = c where c≠0, then both integrals ∫ f(x)dx and ∫ g(x)dx converge or both grad f = ∇f = î +ĵ +k
( )
diverge.
x ∫ is converges when p> 1 and diverges when p≤ 1 ∇f is vector function
x ∫ e dx and ∫ e dx is converges for any constant p> 0 and diverges for p≤ 0 If f(x,y,z) = 0 is any surface, then ∇f is a vector normal to the surface f and has a
magnitude equal to rate of change of f along this normal.
x The integral ∫ ( )
is convergent if and only if p< 1 Directional derivative of f(x,y,z) is maximum along ∇f and magnitude of this maximum
x The integral ∫ is convergent if and only if p< 1 is |∇f|.
( )
1.4.9 Divergence:
The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by div. F and
is defined by the equation.
div. F = ∇. F
F = f î + ∅ĵ + Ψk 9. ∇ × (F × G) = F(∇ × G) − G(∇ × F)
div.F= ∇. f = î + ĵ + k .( f î + ∅ĵ + Ψk) Also note:
1. ∇(f/g)= (g ∇f – f ∇g)/g
∅
= + + 2. (F.G)’ = F’.G + F . G’
3. (F × G)’ = F’× G + F × G’
x ∇. f is scalar 4. ∇ (fg) = g ∇ f + 2 ∇f. ∇g + f ∇ g
x ∇. ∇= ∇ is Laplacian operator
1.4.10 Curl: 1.4.15 Vector product
The curl of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by curl F and is 1. Dot product of A × B with C is called scalar triplet product and denoted as [ABC]
defined by the equation. Rule: For evaluating the scalar triplet product
(i) Independent of position of dot and cross
î ĵ k (ii) Dependent on the cyclic order of the vector
[ABC] = A × B. C = A. B × C
Curl F = ∇ × f = = B × C. A= B.C × A
f φ Ψ = C × A. B = C.A × B
A × B. C = -(B × A. C)
∇ × F is vector function 2. (A⃗ × B⃗) × C⃗ = (extreme × adjacent) × Outer
= (Outer. extreme) adjacent−(Outer. adjacent) extreme
1.4.11 Solenoidal Vector Function
x (A⃗ × B)⃗ × C⃗ = (C⃗ . A⃗ ) B⃗ - (C⃗ . B⃗ ) A⃗
If ∇.A = 0 , then A is called as solenoidal vector function. x A⃗ × (B⃗ × C⃗ ) = (A⃗ . C⃗ ) B⃗ - (A⃗ . B⃗ ) C⃗
x (A⃗ × B⃗ ) × C⃗ ≠ A⃗ × (B⃗ × C⃗ )
1.4.12 Irrotational Vector Function
1.4.16 Line Integral, Surface Integral & Volume Integral
If ∇ × A =0, then A is said to be irrotational otherwise rotational.
x Line integral = ∫ F(R)dR
1.4.13 DEL Applied Twice to Point Functions: If F(R )=î f(x,y,z) + ĵ ∅(x,y,z) + k Ψ(x,y,z)
dR = î dx + ĵ dy + k dz
1. div grad f = ∇ f= + + ---------- this is Laplace equation ∫ F(R )dR = ∫ ( f dx + ∅ dy + Ψ dz )
2. curl grad f = ∇ × ∇f = 0 x Surface integral: ∫ F⃗ . ds⃗ or ∫ F⃗ . N⃗ ds, Where N is unit outward normal to Surface.
3. div curl F = ∇. ∇ × F =0 x Volume integral : ∫ F dv
4. curl curl F = ∇ × (∇ × f) = ∇(∇. f) - ∇ F
5. grad div F = ∇(∇. f)= ∇ × (∇ × F) + ∇ F If F(R ) = f(x,y,z)î + ∅ (x,y,z)ĵ + Ψ (x,y,z) k and δv = δxδyδz , then
∫ F dv = î∫ ∫ ∫ fdxdydz + ĵ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∅dxdydz +k ∫ ∫ ∫ Ψdxdydz

1.4.14 Vector Identities:
1.4.17 Green’s Theorem
f, g are scalar functions & F, G are vector functions
1. ∇(f + g) = ∇f + ∇g
If R be a closed region in the xy plane bounded by a simple closed curve c and if P and Q are
2. ∇. (F + G) = ∇. F + ∇. G
continuous functions of x and y having continuous derivative in R, then according to Green’s
3. ∇ × (F + G) = ∇ × F + ∇ × G
theorem.
4. ∇(fg) = f ∇g + g∇f
5. ∇. (fG)= ∇f. G + f. ∇G
6. ∇ × (fG) = ∇f × G + f × ∇G ∮ (P dx + Q dy) = ∫ ∫ − dxdy
7. ∇(F. G) = F × (∇ × G) + G × (∇ × F)
8. ∇. (F × G) = G.( ∇ × F) − F. (∇ × G)
1.4.18 Stoke’s theorem 1.5: Differential Equations
If F be continuously differentiable vector function in R, then ∮ F. dr = ∫ ∇ × F .N ds

1.5.1 Order of Differential Equation: It is the order of the highest derivative appearing in it.
1.4.19 Gauss divergence theorem
1.5.2 Degree of Differential Equation: It is the degree of the highest derivative occurring in it,
The normal surface integral of a vector point function F which is continuously differentiable over after expressing the equation free from radicals and fractions as far as derivatives are
the boundary of a closed region is equal to the concerned.
∫ F .N.ds =∫ div F dv 1.5.3 Differential Equations of First Order First Degree:
Equations of first order and first degree can be expressed in the form f (x, y, y ) = 0 or
y = f(x, y). Following are the different ways of solving equations of first order and first degree:
1. Variable separable : f(x)dx + g(y)dy = 0
∫ f(x)dx + ∫ g(y)dy = c is the solution

( , )
2. Homogenous Equation: =
( , )
x To solve a homogeneous equation, substitute y = Vx
=V+x
x Separate the variable V and x and integrate.
Equations Reducible to Homogenous Equation:
The differential equation: =
→ This is a non - homogeneous but can be converted to homogeneous equation
Case I: If ≠
Substitute x = X + h y=Y+k (h and K are constants)
Solve for h and k

ah + bk + c = 0
a h+b k+c =0
Case II: If =
= = (say)
( )
= ( )
Substitute ax +by = t, so that, The necessary and sufficient condition for the differential equations M dx +N dy = 0 to be
( )
exact is =
= +a
Solution of exact differential equation: ∫ M dx + ∫(terms of N not contaning x ) dy = C
Solve by variable separable method.
3. Linear Equations:
4.1 Equation Reducible the Exact Equation:
The standard form of a linear equation of first order:
Integrating Factor:
+ P(x) y = Q(x) , where P and Q are functions of x Sometimes an equation which is not exact may become so on multiplication by some
function known as Integrating factor (I.F.).
d y dy
Second order linear equation: + P(x) + Q(x)y = R(x) Rule 0: Finding by inspection
dx dx
1. x dy + y dx = d (x y)
Commonly known as “Leibnitz’s linear equations”
2. =d( )
Integrating factor, I.F. = e∫ 3. = d [log ( )]
ye∫ = ∫ Q. (I. F)dx + C ⇒ y(I. F. ) = ∫ Q. (I. F)dx + C 4. =-d( )

5. = d [tan ( )]
6. =d[ log( )]
Note: The degree of every linear differential equation is always one but if the degree of the
differential equation is one then it need not be linear.
Rule 1: when M dx + N dy = 0 is homogenous in x and y and M x + N y ≠ 0 then I.F. =
Ex: + 3x + y = 0.
Rule 2: If the equation f (x, y) y dx + f (x, y) x dy = 0 and M x – N y ≠ 0 then I.F. =
3.1 Bernoulli’s Equation:
( )
Rule 3: If the M dx + N dy = 0 and − = f(x), then I.F. = e∫
+Py=Qy where, P & Q are functions of x only.
( )
Rule 4: If the equation M dx + N dy = 0 and − = f(y) , then I.F. = e∫
Divide by y
y + Py =Q
1.5.4 Linear Differential Equation with Constant Coefficients:
Substitute, y =z
+ + ------- +k y=X
+ (1 − n)Pz = Q (1-n) → This is a linear equation and can be solved easily
The equation can be written as (D + k D + - - - - - + k )y = X {Where, D = }
4. Exact Differential Equations: f(D) y = X ; f(D) = 0 is called Auxiliary Equation.
M (x, y) dx + N (x, y) dy = 0 Rules for Finding Complimentary Function:
Case I : If all the roots of A.E. are real and different
(D − m ) (D − m ) - - - - - - (D − m ) y = 0 = 0, ф(- ) = 0]
Case III:
So, the solution is: y = C e + C e + -- - - - -+ C e
When X = , m being positive integer
Case II: If two roots are equal i.e. m = m
P.I. = ( )
= [ ( )]
y = (C + C x ) e
= (D) [1 + ]
( )
Similarly, if m = m = m
= (D) [1− ( ) + ( )− ( ) +⋯]
y = (C + C x +C x ) e Case IV:
Case III: If one pair of roots are imaginary When X = V where V is function of x
P. I. = V
i.e. m = ∝ +iβ , m = ∝ −iβ ( )
y = e∝ (C cos βx + C sin βx) = V then evaluate V as in Case I, II & III

( ) ( )
Case IV: If two pairs of root are imaginary

Case V:
i.e. repeated imaginary root ∝ ±iβ, ∝ ±iβ
When X = x V(x)
y = e∝ [(C x + C ) cos βx + (C x + C ) sin βx ] ( )
P.I. = ( )
x V(x) = −
( ) ( )
V(x)
1.5.5 Rules for finding Particular Integral Case VI:
P.,. = X= .X When X is any other function of x

⋯ ( )
Case I: P.I. = ( )
X
When X =
Factorize f(D) = (D − ) (D − ) - - - - - - - (D − ) and resolve ( )
into partial fractions
P.I. = put D = a [ ( ) ≠ 0] and then apply, X= ∫ on each terms.
( )
P.I. = x put D = a [ ’( ) ≠ 0, ( ) = 0] Complete Solution: y = C.F. + P.,.

( )
1.5.6 Cauchy-Euler Equation: (Homogenous Linear Equation)
P.I. = put D = a [ ( ) = 0, ’( ) = 0, ’’( ) ≠ 0]
"( )
+ . +------ - + =X
Case II:
Substitute x=e
When X = sin (ax + b) or cos (ax +b)
x = Dy
P.I. = ф( ( + ) put =- [ф (- )≠0]
)
= D (D-1) y
=xф( )
( + ) put =- [ф’(- ) ≠ 0, ф(- ) = 0]
= ( + ) put =- [ф’’(- ) ≠ 0, ф’(- ) = D (D-1)(D-2) y

ф"( )
After substituting these differentials, the Cauchy – Euler equation results in a linear equation Step II: Finding P.I.
with constant coefficients.
P.,. = ( ,
f (x, y)
)
1.5.7 Legendre’s Linear Equation: 1. when F( ax +by ) = , put [ D = a, ′ = b]

2. when F( x, y) = sin (mx +ny), put ( = − , =− , ′ = − )
( + ) + ( + ) + - - - - -- - =X 3. when F(x, y) = , P., = ( , ) =[ ( , )]
4. when F(x, y) is any function of x and y. P., = f (x, y) , resolve into partial
( , ) ( , )
ax + b = ⇒ t = ln (ax + b) fractions considering ( , ) as a function of D alone and operate each partial fraction
on f(x, y) remembering that f(x, y) = ∫ ( , − ) where c, is replaced by
(ax + b) =aDy ( )
y + mx after integration.
( + ) = D(D-1)y
( + ) = D(D-1)(D-2)y
After substituting these differentials, the Legendre’s equation results in a linear equation with
constant coefficients.
1.5.8 Partial Differential Equation:
z = f(x, y)
=p, =q, = r, = s, =
1.5.9 Homogenous Linear Equation with Constant Coefficients:
+ +------ - = f( x, y) → this is called homogenous because all

terms containing derivative is of same order.
( + +------- ) = f(x, y) { where D = and D’ = }
f (D, D’) = f(x,y)
Step I: Finding the C.F.
1. Write A.E.
+ + - - - - - + = 0,
Where m = and the roots are , ---- -
2. CF = (y + x) + (y + x) + - - - - - - , are distinct
CF = (y + x) + x (y + x) + (y + x) + - - - - - - , , two equal roots.
CF = (y + x) + x (y + x) + (y + x) + - - - - , , three equal roots.
1.6: Complex Variables 1.6.5 Harmonic Functions:
= + is a complex no., where x & y are real numbers called as real and imaginary part of z. If f(z) = u + iv be an analytic function in some region of the z – plane then the C –R equations are
satisfied.
Modulus or absolute value = | | = + , Argument of = = ( )=
= , =−
1.6.1 Function of a Complex Variable: It is a rule by means of which it is possible to find one or
more complex numbers ‘w’ for every value of ‘z’ in a certain domain D, then w = f (z) Differentiating with respect to x and y respectively,
Where z = x + iy, = , =−
w = f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y)
+ =0 → (Laplace Equation)
1.6.2 Continuity of f (z):
Note:
x A function = f (z) is said to be continuous at = if → ( ) = ( ).
x Further f (z) is said to be continuous in any region R of the z-plane, if it is continuous at (1) For a function to be regular, the first order partial derivations of u and v must be
every point of that region. continuous in addition to CR equations.
x Also if w = f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) is continuous at = , then u(x, y) and v(x, y) are also (2) Mean value of any harmonic function over a circle is equal to the value of the function at
continuous at x= & y = . the centre.
1.6.6 Methods of Constructing Analytic Functions:

1.6.3 Theorem on Differentiability:
1. If the real part of a function is given then,
The necessary and sufficient conditions for the derivative of the function f( ) to exist for all ’( ) = -i
values of in a region R.
Integrate with points at (z, 0)
i) , , , , are continuous functions of x and y in R. f(z) = ∫ dz - i ∫ dz + c
( , ) ( , )
Similarly in case v(x, y) is known, then
ii) = , =− , → Cauchy-Riemann equations (CR equations) f’ (z) = +i
f (z) = ∫ dz + i ∫ dz + c
1.6.4 Analytic Functions (or Regular Function) or Holomorphic Functions ( , ) ( , )
o A single valued function which is defined and differentiable at each point of a domain D is 2. If u (x, y) is known, then to find v(x, y) we have
said to be analytic in that domain. dv = dx + dy
o A point at which an analytic function ceases to possess a derivative is called Singular point.
o Thus if u and v are real Single – valued functions of x and y such that , , , are dv = − dx + dy
continuous throughout a region R , then CR equations Integrate this equation to find v.
f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y)
3. If a real part of the analytic function f(z) is given which is harmonic function u (x, y), then
= , =-
f(z) = 2u , - u(0, 0)
are both “necessary and sufficient” condition for the function f(z) = u + iv to be analytic in R.
1.6.7 Complex Integration
o Real and imaginary part i.e. u, v of the function is called conjugate function. o Line integral = ∫ ( ) , C need not be closed path
o An analytic function posses derivatives of all order and these are themselves analytic. Here, f(z) = integrand , curve C = path of integration
o Contour integral = ∮ ( ) , if C is closed path
If f(z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) and dz = dx + i dy 1.6.9 Morera’s Theorem: If f(z) is continuous in a region and ∫ ( ) = 0 around every
simple closed C then f(z) is analytic in that region.
∴∫ ( ) =∫( − )+ ∫( + )
1.6.10 Taylor’s Series: If f(z) is analytic inside a circle C with centre at a then for z inside C
Theorem: f(z) is analytic in a simple connected domain then ∫ ( ) = f( ) − ( ), i.e.
"( )
f(z) = f(a) + f’(a) (z-a) + (z-a) + - - - - - - -
!
integration is independent of the path
f(z) = ∑ ( − )
Dependence on Path: In general “Complex line integration” depends not only on the end points
but also on the path (however analytic function in simple connected domain is independent of ( )
where = ∫ ( )
path.)
1.6.8 Cauchy’s Integral Theorem: Other form, put z = a + h
If f(z) is analytic in a simple connected domain D, then for every simple closed path C in D, f(a+h) = f(a) + h ’( ) + ”( ) + - - - - - - -
!
∮஼ ݂(‫ = ݖ݀)ݖ‬0
1.6.11 Laurent’s Series: If f(z) is analytic in the ring shaped region R bounded by two concentric
circles and of radii and ( > ) and with centre at a then for all z in R
Note: In other words, by Cauchy’s theorem if f(z) is analytic on a simple closed path C and
everywhere inside C (with no exception, not even a single point) then ∮ ( ) = 0 f(z) = + ( − )+ ( − ) + − − − + ( − ) + ( − )
D ( )
where, = ∫ ( )
C If f(z) is analytic inside the curve then = 0 and Laurent series reduces to Taylor’s series.
1.6.12 Zeroes of Analytic Function:
The value of z for which f(z) = 0
If f(z) is analytic in the neighbourhood of a point z = a then by Taylor’s theorem.

1.6.8.1 Cauchy’s Integral Formula:
f(z) = + ( − )+ ( − ) + − − − + ( − ) + − − −
If f(z) is analytic within and on a closed curve and if a is any point within C, then
=∑ ( − )
( )
( )= ∫
( )
where =
!
! ( )
’( ) = ∫ ( )
if = = =------ = 0, then f(z) is said to have a zero of order n at z =a.
! ( )
”( ) = ∫ 1.6.13 Singularities of an Analytic Function:
( )
. . . A “singular point” of a function as the point at which the function ceases to be analytic.
! ( ) 1. Isolated Singularity: If z =a is a singularity of f(z) such that f(z) is analytic at each point in its
( )= ∫ ( ) neighbourhood (i.e. there exists a circle with centre a which has no other singularity 1, then
z =a is called an isolated singularity).
2. Removable Singularity: If all the negative powers of (z-a) in Laurent series are zero then
th th th
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f(z) = ∑ ( − ) 1.7: Laplace Transform

singularity can be removed by defining f(z) at z = a is such a way that it becomes analytic at
z =a 1.7.1 Introduction
→ ( ) exists finitely, then z = a is a removable singularity.
Laplace Transform (LT) is a method to get generalized frequency domain representation of a
Example: f(z) = , then z = 0 is a removable singularity. continuous time signal and is generalization of CTFT (Continuous Time Fourier Transform).
3. Essential singularity: If the numbers of negative power of (z-a) in Laurent’s series is infinite,
then z =a is called an essential singularity. Definition of Laplace Transform
→ ( ) does not exist in this case
ℒ[ ( )] = ( ) = ∫ . ( ) : One sided/ unilateral LT, where S = (σ + J ω)
4. Poles: If all the negative power of (z-a) in Laurent’s series after are missing then. The
singularity at z = a is called a pole of order n. ℒ[ ( )] = ( )= ∫ . ( ) : Two sided/ bilateral LT.
A pole of first order is called a “simple pole”.
1.7.2 Properties of Laplace transform
1.6.14 Residue Theorem
Frequency shift
If f(z) is analytic in and on a closed curve C except at a finite number of singular point within C
then
ℒ [e-at f(t) ] = F(s + a) and ℒ [eat f(t) ] = F(s - a)
∫ f(z)dz = 2 i (sum of the residue at the singular point within C)
Time shift
Calculation of Residues
ℒ [f(t – to)] = . F(s)
1. If f(x) has a simple pole at z=a , then
Res f(a) = → [( − ) ( )] Differentiation in Time domain
∅( )
2. If ( ) = where ø( ) = ( − ) ( ), ( ) ≠ 0 ܽ
ø( ) C
∅( ) ‫ܥ‬ ‫ܥ‬ ℒ[ ( ) ] = s F(s) – f(0) where f(0) is initial value of f(t).
Res ( ) = ܽ
ø( )
3. If ( ) has a pole of order n at z=a , then ‫ܥ‬ If initial conditions are zero (i.e. f(0) = 0),differentiating in time domain is equivalent to
‫ܥ‬
( )=( )!
[( − ) ( )] multiplying by s in frequency domain.
Here n =order of singularity
Similarly, ℒ [ ( )]= F(s) –s f(0) - ′(0) where ′(0) is the value of [ ( ) ] at t = 0
Note: If an analytic function has singularities at a finite number of points, then the sum of
residues at these points along with infinity is zero. Integration in Time domain
( )
ℒ ∫ ( ) = and ℒ ∫ ( ) = ( )+ ∫ ( )
Integration in time domain is equivalent to division by s in frequency domain, if f(t) = 0 for t < 0.
Differentiation in Frequency Domain
( )
ℒ [ t f(t) ] = and ℒ { ( )} = (−1) (F(s))
Differentiation in frequency domain is equal to multiplication by t in time domain.
Integration in Frequency Domain

( )
ℒ = ∫ ( )
Integration in frequency domain is equal to division by t in time domain. 10. cos at. u(t) ( + )
11. sin hat. u(t) ( − )
12. cos hat. u(t) s
(s − a )
1.7.3 Initial Value Theorem 13. f (t) s.F(s)-f(o )
14. f (t) s . F(s) − s. f(o ) –f (o )
If f(t) and its derivative ( ) are Laplace transformable, then 15. ∫ f(u) du 1 F(s)
s
16. ∫ f(u)du F(s) + f (o ). where f (o ) = ∫ f(u)du
→ ( )= → ( )
17. f(t-a).u(t-a) e . F(s)
18. t . F(t) d
This theorem does not apply to the rational function F(s) in which the order of numerator (−1) . F(s)
polynomial is equal to or greater than the order of denominator polynomial. ds
19. f ta |a|. F(as)
1.7.4 Final Value Theorem 20. f(at) 1 s
F( ⁄a)
|a|
If f(t) and its derivative ′(t) are Laplace transformable, then 21. f (t) ∗ f (t)=∫ f (u). f (t − u)du F (s). F (s) where * is convolution operator
e ∝ . cos ω t (s+∝)
( )= ( ) ((s+∝) + ω )
→ →
For applying final value theorem, it is required that all the poles of ( ) be in the left half of ∝ ω
s- plane (strictly) i.e. poles on axis also not allowed. 22 e sin ωt ((s+∝) + ω )
23 . f(t) ∫ F(s)ds
24 √
1.7.5 Convolution theorem t
ℒ[ ( ). ( )] = ( ) ∗ ( ) 25 √
t
ℒ[ ( ) ∗ ( )] = ( ). ( )
1.7.6 Laplace Transform of the Periodic Function
If f(t) is periodic function with period T, then
ℒ( ( )) = ( . (s) where (s) = ∫ ( )

)
1.7.7 Laplace Transform of Standard Functions
Table. Laplace Transform of Standard Functions

S. No Function, f(t) Laplace transform of f(t), L{f(t) = F(s)
1. ( ) 1
2. u(t)
3. 1
4. u(t) 1
5. . ( ) 1
( − )
6. t.u(t) 1
7. . ( ) √
8. f(t). ( ) F(s-a)
9. sin at. u(t) ( + )
Quick Refresher Guide Engineering Mechanics Quick Refresher Guide Engineering Mechanics
Newton’s law of motion:

Part – 2: Engineering Mechanics
First Law: Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless
it is compelled to change that state by force acting on it.
Part 2.1: Statics
Second law: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied
2.1 Statics
force & it takes place in the direction in which the force acts.
Statics deals with system of forces that keeps a body in equilibrium. In other words the dv
resultants of force systems on the body are zero. F α m.
dt
Force: A force is completely defined only when the following four characters are specified.
Third law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
x Magnitude
Principle of transmissibility of force: The state of rest of motion of rigid body is unaltered if a
x Point of application force acting on a body is replaced by another force of the same magnitude and direction but
x Line of action acting anywhere on the body along
x Direction
the line of action of the replaced force.
Scalar and Vector: A quantity is said to be scalar if it is completely defined by its magnitude
alone. e.g. length, energy, work etc. A quantity is said to be vector if it is completely defined only
when its magnitude and direction is specified. e.g. force, acceleration. P
2.1.1 Equivalent force system A
Coplanar force system: If all the forces in the system lie in a single plane, it is called coplanar
force system. B
P
Concurrent force system: If line of action of all the forces in a system passes through a single
point it is called concurrent force system.
Parallelogram law of forces: If two forces acting simultaneously on a body at a point are
Collinear force system: In a system, all the forces parallel to each other, if line of action of all
represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram their
forces lie along a single line then it is called a collinear force system.
resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram which
passes through the point of intersection of the two sides representing the forces.
Force system Example
2.1.2 Equilibrium and Free body diagrams
Coplanar like parallel force Weight of stationary train on rail when the trackis
straight.
2.1.2.1 Coplanar Concurrent Forces
Coplanar concurrent Forces on a rod resting against wall.
Triangle law of forces: If two forces acting simultaneously on a body are represented by the sides
of triangle taken in order, then their resultant is represented by the closing side of the triangle
Coplanar non- concurrent force Forces on a ladder resting against a wall when a
taken in the opposite order.
person stands on a rung which is not at its center
of gravity.
Polygon law of forces:
P3 P2
Non- coplanar parallel The weight of benches in class room
P4 D
E
Non- coplanar concurrent force A tripod carrying camera P3
R2
Non- coplanar Non-concurrent force Forces acting on moving bus R R1 C
P1
P2
P4 A P B
If a number of forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of A ladder resting on smooth wall
a polygon in order, then the resultant of all these forces may be represented in magnitude and
direction by the closing side of the polygon taken in opposite order
P2 E D
ߠ
P1 ߠ
∝ ߠ A cantilever beam
A C
B
Resultant (R) = + +2
tan =
= angle between two forces, = inclination of resultant with force P1
When forces acting on a body are collinear, their resultant is equal to the algebraic sum of
the forces.
Lami’s theorem: (only three coplanar concurrent forces) If a body is in equilibrium under the
action of three forces, then each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other
two forces.
c
∝
P2
P2 P1 J
ߛ
b
ߚ P3
∝
P1
P3
a
ߚ A block on a ramp
P P P In a free body diagram all the contacts/supports are replaced by reaction forces which it will
= =
sinα sinβ sinγ exert on the structure. A mechanical system comprises of different types of contacts/supports.
Free body diagram: A free body diagram is a pictorial representation used to analyze the forces
Types of contacts/supports:
acting on a free body.
A free body diagram shows all contact and non-contact forces acting on the body. Following types of mechanical contacts can be found in various structures:
Sample Free body diagrams
x Flexible cable, belt, chain or rope
600N 600N
W R1 We Weight of cable negligible
Weight of cable not negligible

G
SMOOTH
Force exerted by the cable is always a tension away from the body in the direction of the
P cable.
P
SMOOTH
R2
x Smooth surfaces A built-in or fixed end supports an axial force F, a transverse force V, and a bending moment M.
2.1.2.2 Coplanar Non-Concurrent Forces
Varignon’s theorem: The algebraic sum of the moments of a system of coplanar forces about a
Contact force is compressive and is normal to the surface. momentum center in their plane is equal to the moment of their resultant forces about the same
moment center.
x Rough surfaces
B ‫܌‬૛
ࢊ
R
‫܌‬૚
‫۾‬૛
Rough surfaces are capable of supporting a tangential component F (frictional force as well
as a normal component N of the resultant R.
‫۾‬૚
A
x Roller support
R.d = P1.d1 + P2.d2
Effect of couple is unchanged if
x Couple is rotated through any angle.

x Couple is shifted to any position.
x The couple is replaced by another pair of forces whose rotated effect is the same.
Roller, rocker, or ball support transmits a compressive force normal to supporting surface.
Condition for body in Equilibrium:
x Freely sliding guide
x The algebraic sum of the components of the forces along each of the three mutually ⊥
direction is zero.
x The algebraic sum of the components of the moments acting on the body about each of
the three mutually perpendicular axes is zero.
Collar or slider support force is normal to guide only. There is no tangential force as surfaces
are considered to be smooth. When a body is in equilibrium, the resultant of all forces acting on it is zero. Thus, the resultant
force R and the resultant couple M are both zero, and we have the equilibrium equations
x Pin connection
R ¦F 0 & M= ¦ M=0
For collinear force system
∑ F = 0, ∑ F = 0 & ∑ F = 0
A freely hinged pin supports a force in any direction in the plane normal to the axis; usually
shown as two components Rx and Ry. A pin not free to turn also supports a couple M. For non-collinear force system
x Built in or fixed end ∑M = 0 ,∑M = 0 & ∑M = 0
These requirements are both necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium.
Two forces can be in equilibrium only if they are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction, and
collinear in action. If a system is in equilibrium under the action of three forces, those three
forces must be concurrent.
Types of Equilibrium: 2.1.4 Trusses and Frames

There are three types of equilibrium as defined below:
Trusses are commonly used for construction of roofs of workshop factories and bridges. The
Stable Equilibrium: A body is in stable equilibrium if it returns to its equilibrium position after it trusses are subjected to mainly three types of loads, viz, dead load, live load and wind load. The
has been displaced slightly. dead load is self weight of truss; live load is the load which is applied to the truss; e.g. the load
acting on a bridge truss due to the passing of a train, load acting on a workshop truss due to an
Unstable Equilibrium: A body is in unstable equilibrium if it does not return to its equilibrium
electric overhead, travelling crane, the wind load due to the high velocities of wind blowing in a
position and does not remain in the displaced position after it has been displaced slightly.
particular region.
Neutral Equilibrium: A body is in neutral equilibrium if it stays in the displaced position after if
has been displaced slightly. When the number of members m in a truss satisfies the condition,
m = 2j – 3
where j is the number of joints, then the truss is known as a perfect truss, otherwise imperfect.
The truss is called deficient or redundant, if m < (2j-3) or m > (2j – 3), respectively.
A pin jointed frame which has just sufficient number of members to resist the loads without
undergoing deformation in space is called perfect frame. If number of members in frame is less
than that that required for a perfect frame then it is called deficient frame. If number of
Stable Equilibrium Unstable Equilibrium Neutral Equilibrium members in frame is more than that required for perfect frame then it is called redundant frame.
A redundant frame is indeterminate.
2.1.3 Virtual Work
The following assumptions are made in solving trusses:
Work: When a force acts on a body and moves it through some distance in its own direction, then
work is said to be done. Thus, work may be defined as the product of the force and the distance 1. The members of truss are connected at the joints by friction less joints.
moved in the direction of the force. Mathematically, we can write that 2. The members of truss lie in a common plane (plane truss).
3. The loads are applied only on the pins connecting the members and that the lines of
Work = Force × distance
action of the loads lie in the plane of the truss.
4. The weight of members is negligible as compared to the applied loads.
U=F×S
5. The truss is rigid and that it does not deform or change its shape upon the application of
When the distance moved by the body is not in the direction of the force then to determine the the loads.
work done, the component of the force in the direction of the distance moved may be multiplied
with the distance moved. For example, if the force F is acting at an angle θ with the direction of The member of a truss may be in tension or compression. A member in tension is called a tie and
a member in compression a strut.
the distance S moved, then work done is given by
U = F cos θ × S Methods of Solution: Two methods are generally used for determining the forces in various
members of a truss. These methods are
Virtual Displacement: It may be defined as the infinitesimally small imaginary (or hypothetical or
virtual) displacement given to a body or to a system of bodies in equilibrium, consistent with the 1. Analytical methods
constraints. The virtual displacement may be either rectilinear or angular.
(a) Method of joints (concurrent force system).
Virtual Work: The product of the force F and the virtual displacement δs in the direction of the
force is called virtual work. (b) Method of sections (non-concurrent force system).
δU = F.δs 2. Graphical method
Principle of virtual Work Method of section is used when
It states that if a system of forces acting on a body or a system of bodies are in equilibrium and if x Large truss in which only few forces are required
the system is supposed to undergo a small virtual displacement consistent with its geometrical x Situation where method of joints fail.
constraints, the algebraic sum of the virtual work done by the system of forces is zero.
While determining the reactions at the supports, the following points should be remembered
(a) At simply supported (i.e., pinned or roller support) support there can be only a vertical Part 2.2: Dynamics
reaction.
2.2 Dynamics
(b) At fixed support, the reaction can take an arbitrary direction.
A frame in which all the member lies in a single plane is called plane frame. While a frame in Dynamics can be divided into two main branches:
which all the member do not lie in a single plane is called space frame.
(a) Kinematics
2 4 4 (b) Kinetics
In kinematics, motion of particles or rigid bodies is studied without considering the forces that
3 produce or change this motion.
1
5
In kinetics, motion of particles or rigid bodies is studied with the unbalanced force system that
1 produces or changes this motion.
3
For perfect frame, m = (2j -3) 2
2.2.1 Kinematics of Rectilinear Motion
Motion with constant acceleration:
= +
= +2
For deficient frame, m < (2j -3)
= +
Where u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, s = distance of travel, t = time and a = acceleration
Motion of Bodies Projected vertically upwards

When a body is projected vertically upwards, it is under the effect of the downward acceleration
due to gravity, i.e., it moves with retardation. Its velocity, therefore, gradually decreases until it
becomes zero; the body is then for an instant at rest and immediately begins to fall with a
velocity which increases numerically but is negative. Thus, we get
= −
1
= −
2
v = u − 2gs
If there is only one force acting at joint, then for the equilibrium, this force should be equal zero.
The following important results can be deduced from these equations:
If there are two forces acting at a joint then, for the equilibrium, forces should act along the same Time to reach the highest point, =
straight line. The two forces should be equal and opposite. If the (only) two forces acting at a
joint are not along the same straight line, then for the equilibrium of the joint each force should Maximum height reached, =
be equal to zero.
Time for returning to the starting point time of flight =
If three forces act at a joint and two of them are along the some straight line then, for the
equilibrium of the joint, the third force should be equal to zero.
2.2.2 Kinematics of Curvilinear motion
Motion of projectile:
∝
Maximum height (h) =
∝ v = linear speed
Time required to reach maximum height (t) =
∝
g = acceleration due to gravity
∴ time of flight =
Moment of momentum (angular momentum)of the whole body = Iω
∝
Range (R) = Where I = mk , k being the radius of gyration.
∴ for maximum range, ∝ = 450 2.2.5 Impulse and Momentum
2.2.3 Kinetics of rectilinear motion From Newton’s second law of motion
D’ Alembert’s Principle Σ = =
It was pointed out first of all by D’Alembert that on the line of equation of static equilibrium, Or Σ =
equation of dynamic equilibrium can also be established by introducing inertia force in the
direction opposite to acceleration in addition to the real forces acting on the system. For a finite period of time, integrating, we get
According to Newton’s second law of motion, ∫ Σ =∫
F = ma where =
If Σ is constant, above equation may be integrated, giving
or + − =0 Σ = ⟶
Where ⟶ indicates vector difference of two momentum terms.

Now is the inertia force. Example represents the D’ Alembert’s principle, which may be
stated as follows: If the forces Σ are variable, they must be given as a function of time and should be similarly
integrated. Forces that cannot be expressed mathematically as a function of time may be plotted
When different forces act on a system such that it is in motion in a particular direction, the on a force-time curve, in which the area under the curve is equal to the left side of the equation.
algebraic sum of all the forces acting on the system in the direction of the motion, including the
inertia force taken in opposite direction to motion is zero. Thus in general Linear impulse of a force is defined as Ft and linear momentum is defined as mv. Thus, it may be
expressed as follows:
F − ma = 0
Ft = mv – mvo
Where = , , or
The resultant impulse of the external forces acting upon a body is equal to the change of
momentum of the body. Both impulse and momentum are vector quantities. The units of impulse
F − ma = 0
and momentum are Ns.
where ∑ indicates the sum of all forces acting on the body in the direction of motion. Conservation of Linear Momentum
2.2.4 Kinetics of Curvilinear Motion If the sum of the external forces acting on any system of mutually attracting and impinging
bodies resolved in any direction is always zero, the total momentum of the system in that
Central force motion direction remains constant during the motion.
Centrifugal force = = Let the two bodies have masses and with velocities and respectively, before coming
into contact with each other, and velocities ′ and ′ at the end of the period of contact. Then
Where r = radius of the path according to the conservation of linear momentum, we have
+ = + ′
= angular velocity
Collision of Elastic Bodies 2.2.6 Work and Energy
If two bodies suddenly collide, an impulsive force, or impact, is set up between them. When the Work: If a force acts on a body and causes it to move some distance, work is said to be done by
direction of each body is along the common normal at the point where they touch, the impact is the force. Thus, work is a measure of accomplishment. Therefore, work done by a constant force
said to be direct. When the direction of motion of either or both, is not along the common normal is equal to the product of the force and the displacement of its point of application in the
at the point of contact, the impact is said to be oblique. If the pressure exerted on the surfaces of direction of the force. It is measured in Nm.
contact coincides with the line joining the mass centres of the bodies, the impact is central. If
such is not the case, it is eccentric. Energy: The capacity to do work is called energy. It is measured in N.m.
For a very short period of time after the two bodies come in contact, the mass centres continue Potential Energy: This is the energy which a body possesses because of its position.
to approach each other. This is known as the period of deformation. During this period the
intensity of the force between the surfaces increases. For an instant at the end of the period of Kinetic Energy: This is the energy which a body possesses because of its velocity.
deformation, the mass centres are moving with the same velocity. If the bodies are elastic, the
impulsive forces causes centres to begin separating and, after a second short interval, the Power: The rate of doing work is called power.
surfaces of the bodies are no longer in contact. This second short period is known as the period
is known as the period of restitution. Time of impact is the sum of the period of deformation and Work Done by a Force
period of restitution. The time of impact is very small. For this reason, the resultant impulse of
the external forces acting on the system during this time must be small and can be neglected. On The work done by a force is equal to the product of the force, F, and its displacement, s, provided
the bosis of this assumption, the sum of the momentum before impact is equal to the sum of the the force is constant and the displacement, of the body is in the same direction as the force.
momentum after impact, i.e, the conservation of momentum holds, thus for direct central impact,
we have Denoting work by , we have
+ + + ′ , = F.s
Coefficient of Restitution Relation between work and change of kinetic energy:
For direct central impact Newton verified experimentally that the relative velocity after impact Net work = change in kinetic energy
is in a constant ratio to the relative velocity before impact. If the bodies collide obliquely, the
same fact holds for their compound velocities along the common normal at the point of contact. , =∆
This ratio is known as the coefficient of restitution, and is denoted by e. Thus
Where represents kinetic energy. This equation represents the principle of work and energy..
= Power = (F cos ∝) v.
v is the velocity of the point where the force F is acting.
in which the proper sign of the four velocities must be included. ∝ is the angle between the directions of the force and the velocity.
If both are in the same direction then = . .
The value of e lies between zero and one. It is zero for perfectly inelastic bodies and one for
perfectly elastic bodies. One metric horse power = 735.5 watts
Conservation of Angular Momentum Work of the Elastic force: If a prismatic bar of area of cross section A, length and elastic constant
E is stretched then the work of elastic force can be calculated by treating it as a spring of
According to this principle, if a system of two rotating bodies are brought into contact for a short stiffness k.
time period, and no external torque is applied to the system during this time, the resultant
angular impulse on the system is zero. =
Suppose the two bodies have moments of inertia and and angular velocities Z and Z Principle of work and Energy:
repectively, before coming, into contact, and angular velocities Z ′ and Z ′ and the end of the
period of contact. Then the principle of conservation of angular momentum may be stated as Work energy principle: The work done by a force acting on a particle during its displacement is
equal to the change in kinetic energy of the particle during that displacement.
Z + Z = Z + Z ′
U =( − ) & are . . =
= Net W.D. by the force for displacing a body from (1) to (2) W.D. by the springs ⟹ +ve ⟸ W.D. by the system (springs)
W.D. on the system ⟹ −ve. ⟸ W.D. on the system (springs)
=( − ) When spring is stretched W. D. by force is "–ve" ie work is done on the spring.
When the spring returns returns towards undeformed position W. D. is +ve(or)work is done by the spring.
W.D. by a force for displacing a body from (1) ⟶ (2) is positive (+ve) and from (1) ⟵ (2) is
negative (−ve). Work Done by a Couple or Torque
Principle of conservation of energy: states that the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic Let a couple Fr act on a body so that the body starts rotating. As the body rotates through a small
energy of a particle (or of a system of particles) remains constant during the motion under the angle d , the work done by the force is
action of conservative forces.
= Fds = Fr d
K. E. + P. E. = K. E. + P. E.
When the body rotates through the angle , the total work done is,
This principle cannot be applied where frictional force is involved.
=∫ d = =
Work of the gravity force:
Relation between Work and Kinetic Energy for Rotation
. .= =− ( ) is positive upwards
Consider a rigid body rotating about an axis 0 with an angular velocity w as shown in a Fig. The
is negative upwards. particle of mass dm in this body has a velocity v = rw normal to the radial line r.
=− ( − )
The kinetic energy of the particle is, as
=−
Force exerted by the spring is not a constant force but it varies linearly with the displacement
from the undeformed position.
W
U =− ( − ) U = ∫ du = − ∫ F. dx ࢊ࢓
′ − ′ sign indicates that Force and displacement are in opposite directions.
࢘
=− .
O
=−
2 Rigid body
If a particle of mass m is moving with velocity , it’s kinetic energy k.E is given by.
Therefore,
1
. .= = ( )
2
Let v and be the velocities of the particle at points 1 and 2 and the corresponding distance be ∴ =∫ ( ) = ∫
and .
mV = rotating about a fixed axis.

U = −
2 2
1 Where =∫ is the mass moment of inertia with respect to the axis of rotation.
= ( − )
2
(K. E. ) + (P. E. ) = (K. E. ) + (P. E. )
Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
When an axial member has distinct sections differing in cross-sectional area or composition,
Part – 3: Strength of Material superposition is used to calculate the total deformation as the sum of individual deformations.
Part 3.1: Simple Stress and Strain PL L

G ¦ AE P¦
AE
3.1.1 Simple Stress & Strain When one of the variables (e.g., A), varies continuously along the length,
Stress is the internal resistance offered by the body per unit area. Stress is represented as force PdL dL
G ³ P³
per unit area. Typical units of stress are N/m2, ksi and MPa. There are two primary types of AE AE
stresses: normal stress and shear stress. Normal stress,V, is calculated when the force is normal
to the surface area; whereas the shear stress, W is calculated when the force is parallel to the The new length of the member including the deformation is given by
surface area.
Lf L G
Pnormal _to _area
V
A The algebraic deformation must be observed.
Pparallel _ to _ area Hooke’s law may also be applied to a plane element in pure shear. For such an element, the shear
W stress is linearly related to the shear strain, by the shear modulus (also known as the modulus of
A rigidity), G.
Linear strain (normal strain, longitudinal strain, axial strain), H, is a change in length per unit
W GJ
length. Linear strain has no units. Shear strain, J is an angular deformation resulting from shear
stress. Shear strain may be presented in units of radians, percent, or no units at all.
The relationship between shearing deformation, Gs and applied shearing force, V is then
G expressed by
H
L VL
Gs
AG
G parallel _ to _ area
J tan T | T [T in radians]
Height 3.1.3 Stress-Strain Diagram
3.1.2 Hooke’s Law: Axial and Shearing Deformations Actual rupture

strength
Hooke‘s law is a simple mathematical relationship between elastic stress and strain: stress is Stress Ultimate strength
proportional to strain. For normal stress, the constant of proportionality is the modulus of
=
elasticity (Young’s Modulus), E.
Rupture
strength
V EH
Yield point
The deformation, G, of an axially loaded member of original length L can be derived from Hooke’s
law. Tension loading is considered to be positive, compressive loading is negative. The sign of
the deformation will be the same as the sign of the loading. Elastic limit
Proportional limit
§V· PL
G LH L¨ ¸
©E¹ AE
This expression for axial deformation assumes that the linear strain is proportional to the
normal stress H V 0
E and that the cross-sectional area is constant. =
Proportional Limit: It is the point on the stress strain curve up to which stress is proportional to 1
strain. Hz
E
>
Vz Q Vx Vy @
Elastic Limit: It is the point on the stress strain curve up to which material will return to its W xy
original shape when unloaded. J xy
G
Yield Point: It is the point on the stress strain curve at which there is an appreciable elongation
or yielding of the material without any corresponding increase of load; indeed the load actually W yz
may decrease while the yielding occurs. J yz
G
Ultimate Strength: It is the highest ordinate on the stress strain curve.
W zx
J zx
Rupture Strength: It is the stress at failure G
For an elastic isotropic material, the modulus of elasticity E, shear modulus G, and Poisson’s
3.1.4 Poisson’s Ratio: Biaxial and Triaxial Deformations ratio Q are related by
Poisson’s ratio, Q, is a constant that relates the lateral strain to the axial strain for axially loaded E
members. G
21 Q
H lateral
Q E 2G1 Q
H axial
The bulk modulus (K) describes volumetric elasticity, or the tendency of an object's volume to
Theoretically, Poisson’s ratio could vary from 0 to 0.5, but typical values are 0.33 for aluminum deform when under pressure; it is defined as volumetric stress over volumetric strain, and is the
and 0.3 for steel and maximum value of 0.5 for rubber. inverse of compressibility. The bulk modulus is an extension of Young's modulus to three
dimensions.
Poisson’s ratio permits us to extend Hooke’s law of uniaxial stress to the case of biaxial stress.
Thus if an element is subjected simultaneously to tensile stresses in x and y direction, the strain For an elastic, isotropic material, the modulus of elasticity E, bulk modulus K, and Poisson’s ratio
in the x direction due to tensile stress Vx is Vx/E. Simultaneously the tensile stress Vy will Q are related by
produce lateral contraction in the x direction of the amount QVy/E, so the resultant unit
deformation or strain in the x direction will be E 3K1 2Q
Vx Vy 3.1.5 Thermal stresses

Hx Q
E E
Temperature causes bodies to expand or contract. Change in length due to increase in
Similarly, the total strain in the y direction is temperature can be expressed as
Vy Vx ΔL = L.α.'t
Hy Q
E E
Where, L is the length, α (/oC) is the coefficient of linear expansion, and 't (oC) is the
Hooke’s law can be further extended for three-dimensional stress-strain relationships and temperature change.
written in terms of the three elastic constants, E, G, and Q. The following equations can be used to
find the strains caused due to simultaneous action of triaxial tensile stresses: From the above equation thermal strain can be expressed as:
1 ϵ= = α't
Hx
E
>
Vx Q Vy Vz @
If a temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely no load or the stress will be induced in
1 the structure. But in some cases it is not possible to permit these temperature deformations,
Hy
E
>
V y QV z V x @ which results in creation of internal forces that resist them. The stresses caused by these
internal forces are known as thermal stresses.
When the temperature deformation is prevented, thermal stress developed due to temperature Spherical shells
change can be given as:
σ = E.α.'t
3.1.6 Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
Cylindrical shells
2
¦F x 0 : V 2 (2S rt ) p(2S r ) 0
pr
V1 V 2
Hoop stress = longitudinal stress = 2t
¦F z 0 : V1 (2t 'x) p(2r'x) 0
Hoop stress or circumferential stress = pr/t = pd/2t
2
¦F x 0 : V 2 (2S rt ) p(2S r ) 0
Longitudinal stress = pr/2t = pd/4t
Part 3.2: Shear Force and Bending Moment 3.2.2 Shear Force and Bending Moment Relationships
The change in magnitude of the shear at any point is equal to the integral of the load function,
w(x), or the area under the load diagram up to that point.
3.2.1 Shear and Moment
x2
The shear force, V at a section of a beam is the sum of all vertical forces acting on the beam V2 V1 ³ wxdx
between that section and any one of its ends. It has units of Newtons, pounds, kips, etc. Shear x1
force is not the same as shear stress, since the area of the object is not considered.
dV x
The direction (i.e., to the left or right of the section) in which the summation proceeds is not wx
dx
important. Since the values of shear will differ only in sign for summation to the left and right
ends, the direction that results in the minimum no. of calculations should be selected. The change in magnitude of the moment at any point is equal to the integral of the shear
function, or the area under the shear diagram up to that point.
V ¦F i
ª sec tion _ to º x2
«¬ one _ end »¼
M 2 M1 ³V xdx
x1
Shear is positive when there is a net upward force to the left of a section, and it is negative when
there is a net downward force to the left of the section.
dM x
V x
dx
3.2.3 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams
Both shear force and bending moment can be described mathematically for simple loadings by
the preceding equations, but the formulas become discontinuous as the loadings become more
complex. It is more convenient to describe complex shear and moment functions graphically.
Graphs of shear and moment as functions of position along the beam are known as shear force
and bending moment diagrams.
Shear force sign conventions
The following guidelines and conventions should be observed when constructing a shear
The bending moment, M, at a section of a beam is the algebraic sum of all moments and couples diagram.
located between the section and any one of its ends.
x The shear at any section is equal to the sum of the loads and reactions from the section to
M ¦F d i i ¦C i the left end.
ªsec tion _ to º ªsec tion _ to º
«¬ one _ end »¼ «¬ one _ end »¼ x The magnitude of the shear at any section is equal to the slope of the moment function at
that section.
Bending moments in a beam are positive when the upper surface of the beam is in compression x Loads and reactions to the left of the section acting upward are positive
and the lower surface is in tension. Positive moments cause lengthening of the lower surface and x The shear diagram is straight and sloping for uniformly distributed loads.
shortening of the upper surface. A useful image with which to remember this convention is to x The shear diagram is straight and horizontal between concentrated loads.
imagine the beam “smiling” when the moment is positive. x The shear is undefined at points of concentrated loads.
The following guidelines and conventions should be observed when constructing a bending
moment diagram. By convention, the moment diagram is drawn on the compression side of the
beam.
x The moment at any section is equal to the sum of the moments and couples from the
section to the left end.
x The change in magnitude of the moment at any section is the integral of the shear
diagram, or the area under the shear diagram. A concentrated moment will produce a
Bending moment sign conventions jump or discontinuity in the moment diagram.
x The maximum or minimum moment occurs when the shear is either zero or changes its Part 3.3: Stresses in Beams
sign.
x The moment diagram is parabolic and is curved downward for downward uniformly 3.3.1 Bending Stress
distributed loads.
For positive bending moment, the lower surface of the beam experiences tensile stress while the
Note: upper surface of the beam experiences compressive stress. The bending stress distribution
passes through zero at the centroid, or neutral axis, of the cross section. The distance from the
¾ If the external load is not at right angles to the axis of the beam, the loading can be resolved neutral axis is y; and the distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber (i.e., the top or
axially and transversely to the beam bottom surface most distant from the neutral axis) is c.
Bending stress varies with location (depth) within the beam. It is zero at the neutral axis, and
increases linearly with distance from the neutral axis, as predicted by Equation,
I
My
Vb
I
Transverse: Components (sin ∅) produces B.M. and S.F.
Axial: Component (cos ∅) produces pull or push
¾ If there is any internal hinge in beam , bending moment will be zero at hinge point.
Variation of S.F. and B.M. for different loadings on spans of beams:
S.No. Type of loading Variation of S.F. Variation of B.M.

1 Point load Rectangle Inclined line for linear
2 U.D.L. Linear Square Parabola
3 U.V.L. or Triangular Parabolic Cubic Parabola
4 Parabolic Cubic Fourth degree polynomial Figure. Bending Stress Distribution at a Section in a Beam
5 Bending couple No shear variation A vertical step at the point of
application In the above equation, I is the centroidal area moment of inertia of the beam. The negative sign
in the equation, required by the convention that compression is negative, is commonly omitted.
Since the maximum stress will govern the design, y can be set equal to c to obtain the extreme
fiber stress.
Mc
V b,max
I
This equation shows that the maximum bending stress will occur at the section where the
moment is maximum. For standard structural shapes, I and c are fixed. Therefore, for design, the
elastic section modulus S, is often used.
I
S
c
M
Vb
S
For a rectangular b x h section, the centroidal moment of inertia and section modulus are
bh3 bh 2 QV
I Srec tan gular W xy
12 6 Ib
Also, the strain in any fiber varies directly with its location y from the neutral axis and can be
found by the equation
y Vb y
Hb Or,
R E R
The above mentioned bending stress eqn. is based on following assumptions:
x The transverse sections which are plane and normal before bending remain plane and
normal to the longitudinal fibres after bending (Bernoulli’s Assumption).
Figure: Dimensions for Shear stress Calculations
x Material is homogeneous, isotropic and obeys Hook’s Law and limits of eccentricity are not
exceeded.
In the above equation, I is the area moment of inertia, and b is the width or thickness of the beam
x Every layer is free to expand or contract. at the depth y within the beam where the shear stress is to be found. The first (or statical)
x Modulus of elasticity has same value for tension and compression. moment of the area of the beam with respect to the neutral axis, Q, is defined by,
x The beam is subjected to pure bending and therefore bends in an arc of a circle.
c
x Radius of curvature is large compared to the dimensions of the cross section. Q ³ ydA
y1
Points to remember:
For rectangular beams, dA = bdy. Then, the moment of the area A’ above 1ayer y is equa1 to the
Pure Bending: Only B.M. but no S.F. product of the area and the distance from the centroidal axis to the centroid of the area.
Neutral Layer: The layer which does not undergo any change in length (N.A.)
Q y ' A'
Neutral axis: Line of intersection of Neutral Layer with plane of cross section. It passes through
C.G. of cross section. At this axis the strain changes its sign. For a rectangular beam, the equation for Wmax, can be simplified. The maximum shear stress is 50
percent higher than the average shear stress.
Equation of Pure Bending:
3V 3V
W max, rec tan gular 1.5W avg
M/I=V/y=E/R 2A 2bh
Curvature = (1/ R) = (M / EI), EI = Flexural rigidity For a beam with a circular cross section, the maximum shear stress is
Section Modulus ( S = I/c):: It represents the strength of the section. Greater the value of ‘S’, 4V 4V 4
stronger will be the section. Wmax,circular Wavg
3A 3Sr 2 3
3.3.2 Shear Stress
For a steel beam with web thickness tweb and depth d, the web shear stress is approximated by
The shear stresses in a vertical section of a beam consist of both horizontal and transverse
(vertical) shear stresses.
V V
W avg
Aweb dtweb
The exact value of shear stress is dependent on the location, y, within the depth of the beam. The
shear stress distribution is given by equation shown below. The shear stress is zero at the top
and bottom surfaces of the beam. For a regular shaped beam, the shear stress is maximum at the
neutral axis
Part 3.4: Deflection of Beams
3.4.1 Double Integration Method
The curvature of a beam caused by a bending moment is given by Eq. (1), where U is the radius
of curvature, c is the largest distance from the neutral axis of the beam, and Hmax is the maximum
longitudinal normal strain in the beam.
Figure. Dimensions of a Steel Beam
1 H max M d2y dT
------- (1)
U c EI dx 2 dx
3.3.3 Composite Beams
c ------- (2)
H max
A composite structure is one in which two or more different materials are used. Each material U
carries part of the applied load. Examples of composite structure include steel-reinforced
concrete and timber beams with bolted-on steel plates. Using the preceding relationships, the deflection and slope of a loaded beam are related to the
moment M(x), shear V(x), and load w(x) by Eqs. (3) through (7).
Most simple composite structures can be analyzed using the method of consistent deformations,
also known as the transformation method. This method assumes that the strains are the same in y deflection ------- (3)
both materials at the interface between them. Although the strains are the same, the stresses in
the two adjacent materials are not equal, since stresses are proportional to the modulus of dy
elasticity. y' slope ------- (4)
dx
The transformation method starts by determining the modulus of elasticity for each (usually two
in number) of the materials in the composite beam and then calculating the modular ratio, n. d2 y Mx
y'' ------- (5)
Eweaker is the smaller modulus of elasticity. dx2 EI
E d3 y Vx
n y''' ------- (6)
E wea ker dx3 EI
The area of the stronger material is increased by a factor of n. The transformed area is used to d4 y wx
calculate the transformed composite area, Ac,t , or transformed moment of inertia, Ic,t. For y'''' ------- (7)
dx 4 EI
compression and tension members, the stresses in the weaker and stronger materials are
If the moment function, M(x), is known for a section of the beam, the deflection at any point on
F that section can be found from Eq. (8). The constants of integration are determined from the
V wea ker
Ac,t beam boundary conditions in the table shown below.
nF EIy ³³ Mxdx ------- (8)

V stronger
Ac,t
Table. Beam Boundary Conditions
For beams in bending, the bending stresses in the weaker and stronger materials are
End condition y y’ y’’ V M
Mcwea ker
V wea ker Simple Support 0 0
I c ,t
Built-in Support 0 0
nMcstronger
V stronger Free end 0 0 0
I c,t
Hinge 0
When multiple loads act simultaneously on a beam, all of the loads contribute to deflection. The A = B.M.D area between fixed end and point under consideration.
principle of superposition permits the deflections at a point to be calculated as the sum of the = distance of C.G. of M/EI
deflections from each individual load acting individually. Superposition can also be used to from point under consideration.
calculate the shear and moment at a point and to draw the shear and moment diagrams. This
principle is valid as long as the normal stress and strain are related by the modulus of elasticity,
E. Generally this is true when the deflections are not excessive and all stresses are kept below 3.4.3 Maxwell’s Law of Reciprocal Deflections:
the yield point of the beam material.
Consider cantilever beam AB. Let ‘C’ be an intermediate point. Then the deflection at ‘C’ due to a
Points to be remembered point load ‘P’ at B say , is equal to deflection at ‘B’ due to a point load ‘P’ at C i.e.,
x Curvature = = = - - - - - for -ve B.M B

A C
x EI / =−M - - - - - for + ve B.M ∴ =
x Slope θ = dy / dx radians EIθ = EI. dy / dx = ∫
x Deflection = y, EIy = ∫ ∫ 3.4.4 Slope and deflection of beams
x EI y / = − dM / dx = Shear force +F
x EI y / = dF / dx = Load + Z SL No. 1: Cantilever subjected to point load at free end
3.4.2 Area Moment Method W

B
Theorem 1: The angle between tangents drawn at any two points on the deflected curve is equal A
to the area of M / EI diagram between the two points.
i.e., θ = area of M / EI diagram.
=∫ / = / . A = area of B.M.D.
Theorem 2: The intercept on a vertical line made by two tangents drawn at the two points on the
deflected curve, is equal to the moment of M / EI diagram between the two points about the
vertical line.
= = distance of C.G. of B.M.D. Maximum Bending Moment =−
e.g,: (Suitable for cantilevers) – from objective point of view.
Slope = −
Step 1: To determine slope and deflection at any point say B.
Maximum Deflection = −
A L B
SL No. 2: Cantilever subjected to point load on its span
= x xL= , = x xLx = W
a b
Step 2: Draw (BMD) / (EI) i.e., M / EI C B
Step 3: Slope = area of (M / EI) diagram between fixed end point under consideration. A
Step 4: Deflection A / EI,
M
L B
A
L
= , = xLx =
2 2
Maximum Bending Moment =− Slope = =− = − where W =
Slope =−
Maximum Deflection = − + ( − ) =− + ( −
Maximum Deflection = − (3 − ) SL No. 5 Cantilever subjected to uniformly distributed load up to a certain length from free end
w/unit run
SL No. 3: Cantilever subjected to uniformly distributed load.
a ( − )
B
w/unit run A
B
A
Maximum Bending Moment = − ( − ) +
Slope = − ( − )
Maximum Bending Moment = − =− where W = (total load on the cantilever) Maximum Deflection = − (3 −4 + )
Slope = − SL No. 6 Cantilever subjected to a couple at free end
Maximum Deflection = − B
A
SL No. 4 Cantilever subjected to uniformly distributed load up to a certain length from fixed end
w/unit run
C B Maximum Bending Moment =−

A
-
Slope =−
a
Maximum Bending Moment = −
SL No.7 Cantilever subjected to linearly varying load up to a certain length SL No.9 Simply supported beam subjected to point load on its span
W
/ run
A B
B
A
Maximum Bending Moment =
Slope =−
Maximum Bending Moment = − = +
/
Slope =−
Maximum Deflection =−
√
=
SL No. 8 Simply supported beam subjected to point load at centre.
= −
W SL No. 10 simply supported beam with uniformly distributed load
/ / w/unit run
C
A B
B
A
Slope =−
Maximum Bending Moment = = where W = ( total load on the beam )
= +
Slope =− =−
Maximum Deflection (= )=−
= + =+
Maximum Deflection = − =− Slope = −
SL No.11 Simply supported beam with linearly varying load as shown = +
w/unit run Maximum Deflection (= )=−
Sign conventions used : Slope: Clockwise −
B Counter- clockwise +
A
C
Deflection : upwards +
Downward −

√
Slope = −
= +
∙
( at x = 0∙519 from A )
SL No. 12 simply supported beam with linearly varying loads as shown
w/unit run
A B
Part3.5: Torsion 2. Torsion is uniform along the shaft

3. Material of the shaft is homogeneous, and isotropic.
3.5.1 Torsion 4. Radii remain straight after torsion.
5. Stress is proportional to strain i.e., all the stresses are with in elastic limit.
If moment is applied in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam (or) shaft, it
will be subjected to Torsion. Note:
e.g.: x The stress setup at any point in a cross section is one of pure shear or simple shear.
x The longitudinal axis is neutral axis.
x Shaft Transmitting Torque or power. x The shear stress will vary linearly from zero at the centre to maximum at the outer surface
x L beams (any point on periphery)
x Portico beams
x Curved beams
x Close coiled springs.
Torsion formula:
= = Distribution along vertical

T
Torsional Section Modulus:

= = :
T ℎ
x As the value of Torsional modulus increases, the Torsional strength increases. For E.g.: A
hollow circular shaft compared to that of a solid shaft of same area, will have more
torsional strength.
T = =
Where T = Torque applied For a solid circular shaft, =
T = Twist of cross section ( )

For a hollow circular shaft, =
= Maximum shear stress due to torsion
= Outer diameter, = inner diameter.
R = Radius of shaft
Torsional Rigidity: GJ, unit: kg. or
L = Length of shaft
The torsional which produces unit twist per unit length.
J = Polar moment of inertia = for solid circular shaft
Angle of Twist, =
= for Hollow circular shaft 3.5.2 Torsion of shafts
Assumptions: Power Transmitted by a Shaft:
1. Plane normal sections of shaft remain plane after twisting. In SI system : Power (P) is measured in watts (W)
= where T = Average Torque in kN-m, N in rpm If the Torque ‘T’ is applied at the junction of two shafts and resisting Torque at their remote
ends, the shafts are said to be connected in parallel.
For such a case,
= . . 1 watt = 1 Joule / sec = 1 N. m/sec
x = ;
x T= +
1 metric ‘H.P.’ = 746 watts ≅ 0.75 kW
. ., = =
Metric System = H.P. If both the shafts are of same material
Where T = average torque in kg.m = . =

( + )
Design of Shaft: To be safe against maximum permissible shear stress.
Combined Bending and Torsion:
/
Diameter of shaft, =
Let a shaft be subjected to a bending moment of ‘M’ and twisting moment ‘T’ at a sector.
Composite Shafts: When two dissimilar shafts are connected together to form one shaft, the shaft
is known as composite shaft. Now bending stress, = =
Shafts in Series: If the driving torque is applied at one end, and the resisting torque at the other
end, the shafts are said to have been connected in series. Shear stress, = =
Principle stresses are,
16
( ) = + ( /4) + = ( + + )
2
T ( )
16
= − ( /4) + = ( − + )
2
2 − 16
2 = = = = +
2
Equivalent Torque: It is the twisting moment, which acting along produce the maximum shear
For such shaft, stress due to combined bending and Torsion.
x Both the parts carry same Torque i.e., =
x Total angle of twist at fixed end is sum of separate angles of twist of two shafts. = +
= + = + Equivalent Bending Moment: The bending moment to produce the maximum bending stress
equal to greater principle stress ‘ ’.
Shafts in Parallel:
1
= ( + + )
2
Comparison of Hollow and Solid Shafts:

OR
x When the areas of solid and hollow sections are equal,
=( ) /
ℎ = / ℎ ℎ .
For e.g. If K = 0.6, = 1.7
x When radius of solid shaft is equal to external radius of hollow shaft, Part 3.6: Mohr’s circle
=1−
3.6.1 Mohr’s Circle
x The ratio of the weight of a hollow shaft, and solid shaft of equally strength is
1− Mohr's circle gives us a graphic tool by which, we can compare the different stress
=
(1 − ) / transformation states of a stress cube to a circle. Each different stress combination is described
by a point around the circumference of the circle.
Compare the stress cube to a circle created using the circle offset
3.5.3 Close coiled helical spring subjected to Axial Pull (W)
2
Assumptions: V x V y § V x V y · 2
a V ave and R ¨ ¸ W xy
2y © 2 ¹
x each turn is practically a plane at right angles to the axis of helix
x stresses in the material are due to ‘Pure Torsion’ σy
x Bending couple is negligible
x axial force need not be considered at a section.
τyx
τxy x-face coordinate: ( V x ,W xy )

Stresses at a section of a rod: A section of a rod is subjected to direct shear force (W) and a σx
Torque (T = WR) σx
τxy
Maximum Shear Stress = ( )= + x
τyx y-face coordinates: ( V y , W xy )
= + = 1+ …… (1) σy
-τ y 2
R = Radius of coil, d = dia of circular wire or rod.
§ V x V y · 2
R ¨ ¸ W xy
B © 2 ¹
(σx , -τxy )
Spring Index: (m) 2R/d, σ
If m is large, the effect of direct shearing force may be neglected.

V x V y
(σx , τxy ) 2
16 A
∴ = σave
W xy
+τ R
If m is small, then maximum shear stress can be calculated by A.M. Wahl’s formulae that takes x
account for initial curvature of the spring wire:
.
Max. = + Notes:
Twist and deflection of free end: x +τ (meaning counterclockwise around the cube) is downward
x - τ (meaning clockwise around the cube) is up on the axis
Twist = 64 / , deflection = x A rotation angle of θ on the stress cube shows up as 2θ on the circle diagram and rotates in
the same direction. The largest and smallest values of σ are the principle stresses, σ 1 and σ2.
The largest shear stress, τmax is equal to the radius of the circle, R. The center of the circle is
Stiffness of Spring: Load required to produce unit deflection. = / = /64
located at the value of the average stress, σave
x If σ1 =σ2 in magnitude and direction (nature) the Mohr circle will reduce into a point and
no shear stress will be developed.
x If the plane contain only shear and no normal stress (pure shear), then origin and centre of
the circle will coincide and maximum and minimum principal stress equal and opposite.
=
4
σ1=+ τ , σ2= -τ
( ) = =
x The summation of normal stresses on any two mutually perpendicular planes remains 2 8
constant.
Spherical shells:
σx + σy = σ1 +σ2
Hoop stress = longitudinal stress = σ = σ =
3.6.2 Applications: Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
Cylindrical shells:
Hoop stress or circumferential stress = =
Longitudinal stress = =
σ pd
τ = =
2 8t
Part 3.7: Strain Energy Methods 3.7.3 Elastic Strain Energy in Torsional Loading
3.7.1 Elastic Strain Energy in Uniaxial Loading For a circular bar of constant cross section, the strain energy stored in the body is equal to the
product of average torque and the angular deformation; that is
Strain energy, also known as internal energy per unit volume stored in a deformed material. The
strain energy is equivalent to the work done by the applied force. Simple work is calculated as U = 1/2 TT = T =
the product of a force moving through a distance.
When the torque varies the result may be applied over a segment of length dx and integrated
Work = force x distance = FdL ³ over the length of the bar to obtain
FdL T dx
Work per volume = =
³ AL ³ VdH U=
2GJ
Work per unit volume corresponds to the area under the stress-strain curve.
3.7.4 Castigliano’s Theorem
For an axially loaded member below the proportionality limit, the total strain energy is given by,
It states that the deflection caused by any external force is equal to the partial derivative of the
strain energy with respect to that force.
1 P2 L
U PG
2 2 AE ∂U
δ=
∂P
The strain energy per unit volume is
Interpretation: The partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to one of the external
U V2 loads equals the displacement of the point of application of load in the direction of that load.
u
AL 2E
3.7.5 Impact or Dynamic Loading
3.7.2 Elastic Strain Energy in Flexural Loading
The problem of impact is analogous to that of a falling body stopped by spring. Let us consider a
In the beam shown in the figure consider a differential element isolated by two transverse free falling body of mass ‘m’ from a height h that produces a deflection G in the spring.
Relationship between dynamic and static deflection can be obtained by equating the resultant
sections at a distance dx apart. Treating this element as an axially loaded bar, where P = VdA =
work done to the zero change in kinetic energy.
(My/I)dA, the energy stored in it is
The ratio of the maximum dynamic deformation G to the static deformation Gst can be given by
the equation
N.A. δ 2h
=1+ 1+
y δ δ
P
dx This ratio is called as the impact factor.
dU = P2dx/2AE = M2y2/ (dA)2 dx/2(dA)E Also the stress due to gradually applied load may be applied by the impact factor to obtain the
maximum stress:
dU = y dA =
σ =σ 1+ 1+
Therefore, for the entire length of the beam we obtain:
For sudden loading, free fall ‘h’ does not exist i.e., h = 0. i.e., a suddenly applied load (dynamic
M dx condition), produced a deflection which is twice as great as that obtained when the load is
U= applied gradually.
2EI
3.8: Columns & Struts 3.8.2 Euler’s Theory of Buckling
3.8.1 Columns & Struts Critical load: The load at which a long column fails is known as the critical load or Euler load. The
Euler load is the theoretical maximum load that an initially straight column can support without
Definitions: transverse buckling. For column with frictionless or pinned ends, this load is given by Euler’s
formula shown below.
x Columns and Stanchions : Vertical compression members in building
x Struts : compressions members in roof trusses S2 EI
x Beam : Jib of a crane. Pcr --------- (1)
L2
x Beam column : Co-beam that is acted on by an axial compressive
force in addition to transversely applied loads. The corresponding column stress is given by the equation shown below. This stress cannot
exceed the yield strength of the column material.
Short Column: Short columns, called piers or pedestals, will fail by compression of the material.
These columns fail essentially by direct crushing at ultimate load. Pcr S2 E
V cr 2
≤ --------- (2)
∴ Crushing load P = f . A, f = ultimate crushing stress. A §L·
¨ ¸
©r¹
Long columns: Long columns will buckle in the transverse direction that has the smallest radius
of gyration. Buckling failure is sudden, often without significant warning. If the material is wood L is the longest unbraced column length. If a column is braced against buckling at some point
or concrete, the material will usually fracture (because the yield stress is low); however, if the between its two ends, the column is known as a braced column, and L will be less than the full
column is made of steel, the column will usually fail by local buckling, followed later by twisting column height.
and general yielding failure. Intermediate length columns will usually fail by a combination of
crushing and buckling. The quantity L/r is known as the slenderness ratio. Long columns have high slenderness ratios.
The smallest slenderness ratio for which Eq. (2) is valid is the critical slenderness ratio, which
Radius of gyration: r = I/A can be calculated from the material’s yield strength and modulus of elasticity. Typical
slenderness ratios range from 80 to 120. The critical slenderness ratio becomes smaller as the
Slenderness Ratio: Effective length/least radius of gyration. compressive yield strength increases.
As slenderness ratio increases, permissible stress or critical stress reduces, consequently, load Most columns have two radii of gyration, rx and ry, and therefore, have two slenderness ratios.
carrying capacity also reduces. The largest slenderness ratio will govern the design.
x Radius of gyration will be least along major axis of cross section. The smallest force at which a buckled shape is possible. Prior to this load the column remains
e.g. for a rectangular column along yy−axis straight. The columns buckle in the plane of the major axis of the cross section as shown below.
Y
Y
X X X X
X
Y
x For a given area, Tubular section will have maximum radius of gyration.
x H-Section is more efficient than I-Section.
Equilibrium of a column: A column is said to have buckled or failed when it reaches “Neutral
Equilibrium”.
Assumptions: 2L π EI/4L
6. One end pinned, at
1. Column is initially perfectly straight and is axially loaded. other only lateral
L
2. Section of column is uniform. displacement no
3. The material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous, isotropic and obeys hook’s law. rotation
4. Length of column is very large compared to lateral dimension.
5. Direct stress is small compared to bending stress corresponding to buckling condition.
6. Self weight of column is ignorable. 1.5L π EI/2.5L
7. The column will fail by buckling alone. 7. One end fixed, at
other end lateral
Effective length of columns: L
displacement and
partial rotation.
Effective length and critical loads for various boundary conditions compared to a column whose
both ends are hinged.
L = Eff. Length I = actual length Limitations of Euler’s formula:

Boundary Condition Eff. Length (L) Critical load
L π EI/L Euler’s formula can also be written as σ = π E/(L/r)
1. Both ends hinged
L
As V and E are constant for a particular material, Euler’s formula is valid for a particular range of
slenderness ratio, for e.g. for mild steel whose V = 3300 Kg/cm and E = 2.1 × 10 Kg/cm
L/2 4 π EI/L Euler formula is not valid for slenderness ratio less than 80.
2. Both ends fixed
L Euler’s formula is valid only up to proportional limit i.e., in inelastic zone, the formulae are not
valid
L/√2 2 π EI/L Note:

3. One end fixed and
other hinged i) The relation between slenderness ratio and corresponding critical stress is
L hyperbolic
ii) According to Euler formulae the critical load does not depend upon strength
property of material the only material property involved is the elastic modules ‘E’
which physically represents the stiffness characteristics of the material.
2L π EI/4L
4. One end fixed and 3.8.3 Rankine’s formula
other end free
L x It is empirical formula
x Takes into account both direct crushing (Pc) load and Euler critical load (P ).
1 1 1
i. e. , = +
P P P
L π EI/L P .P
5. One end fixed, at ∴ P =
P +P
other end only lateral
L
displacement and no
Basic Formula:
rotation .
P = ( / )
Where α = Rankine’s constant
L = eff. Length
σ = yield stress.
Rankine’s Co-efficient: is independent of geometry and end conditions, can be modified to
incorporate imperfections
Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
σ
α= Part – 4: Thermodynamics
π E
Material σ Rankine’s Constant Part 4.1: Basic Thermodynamics
4.1.1 Thermodynamic systems

Mild steel 3200 1/7500
Wrought Iron 2500 1/9000 Thermodynamic system is a quantity of matter or region in space considered for the analysis of a
Cast Iron 5500 1/1600
problem.
x Rankine’s formula is valid for any type of column Surroundings: Everything external to the system.
x No limitations for slenderness ratio.
Boundary: It separates system and surroundings
Boundary
System
Surroundings
Classification of system:
Open system: Both energy and mass can transfer across the boundary e.g., Steam turbine,
centrifugal pump.
Energy in
Mass out
Mass in
Energy out
Closed system: Energy transfer occurs across the boundary. No mass transfer across the
boundary
Energy out
Energy in
e.g. Gas compressed in a piston-cylinder assembly
Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
Cylinder
W
Gas
Piston All are in
1
thermodynamic
Q Thermal conductor equilibrium
P
Isolated system: Neither mass nor energy transfers across the boundary e.g. Universe
2
Mass Transfer
X Thermodynamic processes (non-flow V processes):
Energy a) Constant pressure or Isobaric process:
Transfer
X
Thermodynamic property: Any characteristic of a system by which its physical condition can be
described, eg. Pressure, temperature, volume, etc. 1 2
P P=C
W = ∫ pdv
Thermodynamic state: All the properties have definite values.
Change of state: Any operation in which one or more of the properties of the system changes. V
b) Constant volume process or Isochoric process :
Path of change of state: The succession of states passed through during a change of state.
4.1.2 Thermodynamic Processes 2

Process: When path is completely specified, the change of state is called process. P
V=C
Types of thermodynamic properties

1
a) Intensive properties – independent of mass eg. Pressure, temperature, density. V
b) Extensive properties – depends on the mass of the system eg. Volume, energy etc.
c) Isothermal (constant temperature) process:
Thermodynamic equilibrium should satisfy the following.
a) Mechanical equilibrium
b) Thermal equilibrium. 1 T=C
c) Chemical equilibrium
P
Quasi – static process: The departure of the state of the system from the thermodynamic 2
equilibrium is infinitely small. W=∫
The quasi – static process is an ‘infinite slow’ process. V

=
d) Reversible Adiabatic or Isentropic process:
PV = constant
4.1.3 Zeroth law, First law & Second law of thermodynamics
1 Zeroth law of thermodynamics (ZLTD):
- Definition: When a body A is in thermal equilibrium with a body B, and also separately with
P P =C a body C, then B and C will be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
- ZLTD is the basis for temperature measurement
2 - A reference body used for quantitave measurement of temperature is called thermometer
- A certain physical characteristic of thermometer which changes with change in temperature
V
is called thermometer property.
e) Polytropic process (generalized process)
PV = const
n – index of expansion
B
P P =C C
If t = t & t = t
2
Then t = t
V
First law of thermodynamics (FLTD):
n=
FLTD is postulated by J.P. Joule
It is law of conservation of energy (energy can neither be created nor be destroyed)
Energy is of 2 types
Representation of thermodynamic processes on P – V diagram: 1. Energy in transit 2. Energy in storage
e.g. Heat & work e.g. Internal energy
For a closed system undergoing a cyclic process, FLTD states that
P =C
∮ δQ = ∮ δW
For a closed system undergoing non cyclic process, FLTD:
P T =C δQ = δW + ∆U
For a cyclic process ∆U = 0 (i.e.: U = constant)
PV = C (1 < < 1.4) Note: Q – heat supplied/liberated
V=c PV = C W= work done

V U- internal Energy
Thermodynamic Process Index of expansion (n)
- As per FLTD, heat (Q) and work (W) are mutually convertible
Constant volume (V = C) ∞
100kJ of ‘Q’ 100 kJ of ‘W’
Constant pressure (P = C ) 0
100kJ of ‘W’ 100kJ of ‘Q’
Isothermal (T = C) 1
Polytrophic (PV = c ) 1< n < 1.25
Sign convention of heat and work:
Reversible adiabatic (PV = C) (= 1.4 )
Heat supplied to the system (+ve)
Heat liberated from the system (-ve)
pv = flow work per unit mass (kJ/kg)

Q → (+ve) Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE):
Q Q → (−ve)
Q
(1) Control Volume
Work done by the system (+ve) ̇ , , , (2)
Work done on the system (-ve) ̇ , , ,
W W → (−ve)
(3)
W → (+ve) ̇ , , ,
̇ , , ,
W
(4)
Control Surface
Perpetual motion machine of first kind (PMM1)is a fictitious machine which gives continuous
output without any input. It violates FLTD
Fig. SFEE
Q=0
ṁ → mass flow rate(kg/s)
P → density (kg/m ).
PMM1 C → velocity (m/s)
T → temp(℃ or 0K)
SFEE continued
Mass balance:
ṁ = constant
ṁ + ṁ = ṁ + ṁ (From Fig. SFEE)
W
In general,
FLTD for a non cyclic process (non-flow process) ∑ , , ,…. ṁ =∑ , , ,…. ṁ
Q − W = U − U ṁ → mass flow rate at inlet

1 ṁ → mass flow rate at outlet
Continuity equations:
P
2 ṁ = =
V
Where A = Cross-sectional area (m )
C = velocity (m/s)
FLTD for a steady flow process
v = specific volume (m /kg)
x Steady flow – properties of the system are constant with respect to time. = density (m /kg)
x Flow energy or flow work: work done by the fluid on itself to cause the fluid flow.
Flow work = PV kJ
x Flow work is a point function
ṁ = =
x Enthalpy (H): H= (U+PV) kJ
Where, U – internal energy(kJ) Energy balance:
PV – flow work (kJ). [Total Energy ] = [Total Energy ]
Specific enthalpy, h= (u+pv) kJ/kg
Where u – specific internal energy (kJ/kg
(1)
LPS( )
(2)
(1)
(2)
LPW ( )
datum
Condenser
Q̇ + ṁ + + + = Ẇ + ṁ + + +
q =h −h
( Q̇ − Ẇ ) = ṁ + + + − + + +
W =0
C ≈C
( Q̇ − Ẇ ) = ṁ[(ℎ − ℎ ) + − + ( − ) Z ≈Z
- - - - - SFEE
HPW – High Pressure Water LPW – Low Pressure Water
HPS – High Pressure Steam LPS – Low Pressure Steam
( q̇ − ẇ ) = ṁ[(ℎ − ℎ ) + − + ( − ) - - - - - SFEE
(ii) Turbine/Compressor
̇
Where q = ̇
and Turbine
Compressor
̇
w = ̇
LPF( )
Applications of SFEE
HPF( )
(i) Boiler Condenser
HPS( )
LPF( )
q HPF( )
= − = −
HPW( ) q =0
C ≈C
Boiler Z ≈Z
HPF – high pressure fluid
q =h −h
LPF - low pressure fluid.
(iii) Nozzle /Diffuser

Nozzle (ii) SFEE for a water pump:
(1) Diffuser
(2) (2)
(2) (2)
(1)
, ,
0
, h ,C
(2)
(1)
(1) (1) (1)
(2)
h >h h <h
C <C C >C q =0
q =0 C ≈ C
w =0 h ≈ h
Z ≈ Z W = g(Z − Z )
i.e. work input = increase in P.E
SFEE: For Nozzle
(h − h ) + (C − C ) = 0 (h − h ) + (C − C ) = 0 (vi) SFEE for a heat exchanger
q =0
(C − C ) = (h − h ) (h − h ) = (C − C ) W =0
i.e. gain in kE = drop in enthalpy gain in enthalpy = drop in KE Z ≈Z
exit velocity, C = C + 2(h − h ) SFEE: h − h = 0
Increase in enthalpy of cold fluid = decrease in enthalpy of heat fluid
where C = exit velocity, m/s
(h − h ) = enthalpy drop, J/kg , ̇
In general, C <<< C
, ̇
C = 2(h − h ) m/s
= 2000(h − h ) where h and h are given in kJ/kg
C = 44.7 (h − h ) (∆h) = (∆h)
for a gas nozzle h = C (T − T ) ṁ C (t − t )= m (C ̇ ( − ))
where C = specific heat, k ṁ , ̇ → mass flow rates of hot and cold fluids respectively
C , C → spacific heats
C = 2C (T − T )
t , t → temperatures
(i) SFEE for a throttling process:
q =0 Second law of thermodynamics:
W =0
Also called as “law of degradation of energy”
C ≈ C
Z ≈Z
Kelvin Planck Statement: It is impossible for a heat engine to produce net work in a complete
SFEE:
cycle if it exchanges heat only with bodies at a single fixed temperature.
h −h =0
h =h
Throttling process is also called is isenthalpic process.
Part 4.2: Properties of pure substances
4.2.1 Properties of pure substances
A substance that is homogeneous and invariable in chemical composition in all of its three
Impossible
phases (solid, liquid and gases) is called pure substance.
Heat Engine
E.g. Water – steam mixture
HE W
Atmospheric air
η = Combustion Products of a fuel.
Heat supplied: it causes

x Q ≠ i.e. (W<Q )
x No heat engine (HE) is 100% efficient a) Change in temperature without phase change – sensible heat
x PMM 2 – fictitious heat engine with 100% efficiency b) Change in phase at constant temperature – latent heat
Clausius statement: It is impossible to construct a device, which operating in a cycle, will
produce no effect other than the transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter body Phase diagrams:
′′′ (f)
CP
′′ (e)
′′′ 2′′′
′′′ ′
Impossible HP/K+1 ( > ) ′′′ ′′
T (d) ′′
′ (c) 4
′′
2 ′
Q ′
1 (a)
3 (b)
V
Heat pump (HP)/refrigerator
x The performance of heat pump or refrigerator is represented by its COP (coefficient of
performance) (a) - Saturated liquid curve (SLC)
(b) - Saturated vapour curve (SVC)
(c) - vapour dome
(d) - under cooled liquid.
(e) - Super heated vapour zone
(f) - Gaseous Zone
2, 2’, 2”, 2”’ ------- saturated liquid states
3, 3’, 3”, 3’’’ ------ saturated vapour states
CP --- Critical Point.
Critical point: Water changes its phase directly to vapour with no distinction between liquid and
vapour phases.
- At critical point, change in enthalpy, change in specific volume etc. are zero
- At critical point (for water) pressure, p = 220.8 bar
Temperature, T = 374.14 ℃
Triple point: the state at which all three phases solid, liquid and gas exist in equilibrium is called (v) s=s +xs
triple point.
where
For water, triple point is
T = 273.16K h , s ⟶ for saturated liquid
P = 4.587mm of Hg
h = h −h
Dryness fraction: Wet steam characterized by dryness fraction.
s = s − s
=
where m = mass of vapour h , s ⟶ for dry saturated steam
m = mass of liquid
0≤ ≤1 b) Superheated steam ( )
x = 0 → 100% liquid V=V = V
x = 1 → 100% vapour
h = h +C (T −T )
Mollier Diagram: s = s + C ln
where
Constant pressure lines T = superheated steam temperature, Kelvin
T = saturated steam temperature, Kelvin
C = specific heat of steam kJ/kg k
Note: internal energy, u = (h –PV) kJ/kg
h Constant dryness fraction lines
(quality lines)
=
= .
s
h – enthalpy (kJ/kg)
s – entropy (kJ/kg K )
– specific Volume(m /kg)
Sublimation: Solid directly converts into vapour.
Steam Tables: Two types
a) Pressure entry
b) Temperature entry
Properties for pure substance (water)
a) Wet steam:
(iii) =
V = specific volume of dry saturated steam (directly available from steam tables )
= dryness fractio
(iv) h= h + xh
Part 4.3: Irreversibility & Availability Perfect gas Laws:
4.3.1 Availability and irreversibility (a) Boyle’s Law: V ∝ at T = const

(b) Charles’s Law: V∝T at P = const
δW = PdV
reversible process V ∝ ⟹ = const = R
δQ = Tds
PV = RT - characteristic gas equation
δW = PdV − TδS P – Pressure (Pa)
irreversible process v – Specific volume ( / )
δQ = Tds – TδS
R – characteristic gas constant (J/kg K)
δS = entropy generated in the process T – Temperature (K)
For ‘m’ kg of gas
δS ≥ 0, > 0 → irreversible process
PV = mRT
= 0 → reversible process (c) Regnaut’s Law:
C & C are constant for a given gas
TδS = lost work or lost heat = Irreversibility (I) C – specific heat at constant pressure
C – specific heat at constant volume
Irreversibility: (I)
(d) Joule’s Law:
I = W − W − for heat engines u = f(T) only
h = f(T) only
I = W − W – for compressor/ refrigerator
Available Energy (AE) or EXERGY:
Maximum work that can be obtained from the given heat source.
AE=Q T u h
T
(A E) where u = specific internal energy (J/kg)
T0
(U E) h= specific enthalpy (J/kg)
S (e) Avogadro’s hypothesis: It states that equal volumes of different gases at same pressure
and temperature contain equal no of molecules.
AE=Q 1− - At NTP 22.4136 of any perfect gas has its mass equal to its molecular weight in kg.
- In a gram of perfect gas, there are 6.023 × 10 molecules.
Unavailable Energy (UV) or ANERGY:
Avogadro Number, A = 6.023 × 10
UE = T (∆S) .
Universal Gas Constant:
Anergy: Minimum heat losses that are to be suffered during energy conversion process.
PV = mRT - - - - - - - - (1)
4.3.2 Ideal or perfect gases
Where R = characteristic gas constant. Its value changes from gas to gas.
Ideal gas: * Inter molecular forces are negligible
PV = nR⃗T - - - - - - - - - (2)
* Obeys all ‘Perfect gas Laws’ at low pressure and high temperatures.
Where ⃖R = universe gas constant. Its value is constant for all the gases.
̅ < ̅
R⃗ = 8.314 kJ/kg mol K Inter molecular forces attractive
In general 0.95≤Z ≤1.05
a) Vander waal’s equation :
In equation (2) n = no. of moles = = P+ [V − b] = RT
a → is a constant. It is called forces of cohesion.
R⃗ = MR – Relation between R and R⃗
b → another constant. It called as co – volume.
Specific heat (C): x The values of a & b have been obtained using kinetic theory of gases.
C=
kJ kJ
Units:kg K or kg ℃
For solids – only one specific heat
For liquids – only one specific heat
For gases – two specific heats
1. C (specific heat at constant pressure)
2. C ( specific heat at constant volume)
C = and C =
Change in enthalpy Change in internal energy
∆ H = mC (T − T ) ∆U = m C (T − T )
- Relation between C , C &

C − C =R
C
=γ
C
J – adiabatic index
C = C =
γ = 1.4 for diatomic gases
= 1.67 for monoatomic gases
= 1.33 for triatomic gases.
[γ] > [γ] > [γ]
4.3.3 Real gases
a) Compressibility factor, Z =
Where, ̅ = molar specific volume =
If Z = 1 , P ̅ = RT ⟶ a perfect gas
Z ≷1 , ⟶ a real gas
I. Z>1
̅ > ̅
Inter molecular forces are repulsive
II. Z<1
Part 4.4: Work, Heat & Entropy Q = ∆ U +W
4.4.1 Work & Heat = mC (T − T )

P T
=
For any closed system, non- flow work is given by P T
W = ∫ pdV, applicable for any process.
Change in internal energy during any process ∆U = m C (T − T ) Isothermal (constant temperature) process:
Work and Heat calculations for various thermodynamic processes are:

1 T=C
Constant pressure or Isobaric process:
P
Work done, W = ∫ pdV = p (V − )
Change in internal energy ∆u = mC (T − T ) 2
As per FLTD, W=∫
V
P=C
=
W = ∫ pdV = mRT ln
1 2 = mRT ln
P
W = ∫ pdv ∆U = mC (T − T ) = 0
P
Q = mRT ln P =W
V
Q = ∆U +W Reversible Adiabatic or Isentropic process:
= mC (T − T ) + p(V − V )
Q = mC (T − T ) ∵ PV = constant
V T
=
V T 1
Constant volume process or Isochoric process:
P P =C
2 V
V=C W = ∫ pdV =
P
For an isentropic process
1 = 0
=0
V
∴∆ = Q–W=
W = ∫ pdv = 0
( )
T V P
∆U = mC (T − T ) = =
T V P
Polytropic process (generalized process) x Work done by the system, W = C (T − T )

PV = const 3-4 : Isothermal expansion
n – index of expansion x Heat rejected by the system, q = T . ∆s
1
4-1 : Isentropic compression
P =C x Work done on the system, W = C (T − T )
P
Carnot efficiency, η =
2
= =
V
n=
Where T (= T ) − source temp, Kelvin
W = ∫ PdV = T (= T ) - Sink temp, Kelvin
∆U = mC (T − T ) In general representation
Q = ∆U + W = mC (T − T ) + T − source temp, K
T − sink temp, K
T V P =
= =
T V P
x Carnot cycle consists of 4 reversible processes.
Q ≠ 0 in polytropic process. x Carnot cycle is an ideal cycle.
4.4.2 Heat Engine x No other heat engine has more efficiency than heat engine working on carnot cycle
A heat engine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle in which there is net heat transfer to the system Heat engines connected in series:
and a net work transfer from the system. The system which executes a heat engine cycle is called
a heat engine.
The function of a heat engine cycle is to produce work continuously at the expense of heat input
to the system. So the net work done W and heat input Q are of primary interest.
The efficiency of a heat engine is defined as
Net Work Output of the cycle
=
Total heat input to the system
=
Carnot Cycle:
1
1 2
P 2 T
4 4 3
3 η = =
V S η = =
(A) For equal work output (W = W ),
1-2: Isothermal expansion
T =
x Heat supplied to the system, q = T . ∆S (B) For equal efficiency (η =η )
2-3: Isentropic expansion
T = T T Part 4.5: Psychrometrics

Important note: Always convert temperature to “Kelvin” units. The science which investigates the thermal properties of moist air, considers the measurement
4.4.3 Entropy and control of the moisture content of air, and studies the affects of atmospheric moisture on
material and human comfort may properly be termed ‘Psychrometrics’.
- It is outcome of SLTD
- The entropy of the universe always increases and it represents the degree of irreversibility 4.5.1 Dew Point Temperature:
associated with the process.
- Entropy of the system increases upon heating and decreases upon cooling. x Suppose a mixture of air-water vapour which is not saturated is cooled at constant pressure
- Clasius theorem: When closed system undergoes a cyclic process. the partial pressure of water vapour remains constant till it is equal to the saturation
∮ =0 R → Reversible pressure of water. With continued cooling, the water vapour begins to condense. The
constant pressure cooling of a mixture is represented on a T-S diagram in Fig.
i.e, ∮ = 0 for unit mass
ds = ⇒δq = T.ds
= ∫ Tds P = constant
For closed system
1 T
2
T
S
s
Process change in entropy x If a mixture of air-water vapour is cooled at constant pressure, the temperature at which
a) V = C s − s = C log ( ) water vapour begins to condense is called the dew point temperature.
x At dew point the partial pressure of water vapour in the mixture is equal to the saturation
b) P = C s − s = C log ( ) pressure of water.
c) T = C s − s = R log ( ) x The composition of air-water vapour mixture is usually specified in terms of specific
humidity or relative humidity.
d) Adiabatic s −s ≠0
e) Isentropic (Reversible adiabatic) s −s =0 Specific Humidity: Specific humidity (SH) or humidity ratio is defined as the ratio of mass of
water vapour to the mass of dry air in the mixture.
- Clasius inequality: It states that when a closed system undergoes a cyclic process,
a) ∮ < 0, for irreversible cycle = ̇ / ̇ = 0.622 ( / ) = 0.622 ( /( − )
b) ∮ > 0, impossible Where ṁ , ṁ = Mass of water vapour and dry air, respectively
c) ∮ = 0, reversible p , p = Partial pressure of water vapour and air in the mixture, respectively
- Principle of increase of entropy
P = Total pressure.
∮ ≤ 0,
∮ ≤ Relative Humidity: Relative humidity (RH) is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of the
water vapour in the mixture to the saturation pressure (p ) of water at the mixture temperature.
ds ≥ 0
∵ δq = 0 for the universe = / = /0.622
[∆s] ⋛0
i.e. > 0 → irreversible process Adiabatic Saturation: Consider the steady flow of an unsaturated air-water vapour mixture
= 0 → reversible process through an insulated device as shown in fig. called adiabatic saturator. Assume the equilibrium
< →impossible process is attained between the water and air-water vapour mixture in the device and hence saturated
air-water vapour leaves the device.
saturated air – water x The adiabatic saturation relation when expressed in terms of enthalpy reduces to h∗ = h∗ .
1 3 Vapour mixture That is during adiabatic saturation h* remains constant
Unsaturated air –
ṁ , ṁ , T , SH x The lines of constant h* coincide with the lines of constant wet bulb temperature, because h∗
water Vapour
mixture depends on T = (=T ) only. Once T is specified p is fixed because P = p and hence
ṁ , ṁ , T , SH SH is fixed.
Liquid water 4.5.2 Applications of Psychrometry
The field of air conditioning uses various processes such as heating, cooling, humidification and
adiabatic mixing of air-water vapour mixtures. These processes can be easily analysed with the
help of a psychrometric chart.
Consider the device as control volume and apply material and energy balances to get
Adiabatic Mixing of Streams: Consider the steady flow of steams 1 and 2 into the adiabatic mixer
Mass balance of air: ṁ = ṁ
shown in Fig. The mixture leaves the device as stream 3. Considering the device as a control
Mass balance for water: ṁ̇ + ṁ = ṁ
volume, one can write the following material and energy balance equations
Energy balance: ṁ h + ṁ h + ṁ h = ṁ h + ṁ h
Mass balance for air : ṁ + ṁ = ṁa
These equations can be solved to obtain
Mass balance for water : ṁ SH + ṁ SH = ṁ SH
(h − h ) + SH (h − h ) Energy balance : ṁ h ∗ + ṁ h ∗ = ṁ h ∗
SH =
(ℎ − ℎ ) These equations can be solved to obtain
Where,
ṁ = mass flow rate of dry air; ṁ = mass flow rate of water vapour / water ∗ ∗
̇ − ℎ −ℎ
h = specific enthalpy of dry air; h = specific enthalpy of water vapour / water = = ∗ ∗
̇ − ℎ −ℎ
Subscripts 1, 2, 3 denote the conditions at the points shown in fig. If air is treated as an ideal gas,
we can write (h − h ) = C (T − T ). Assume that liquid water enters the device at the same
The adiabatic mixing process is shown in Fig.
temperature as the air leaving the device. That is T = .
Then, h − h = (h − h ) = (h ) and h − h = h − h
Thus,
C (T − T ) + SH (h ) ∗
SH =
ℎ −ℎ
1
x The specific humidity and relative humidity of an air-water vapour mixture can be measured
̇ ,
with an adiabatic saturator. Adiabatic
x For all practical purposes, the adiabatic saturation temperature (T3) does not depend upon ̇ , mixer ̇ ,
the temperature at which liquid water enters the device
x The adiabatic saturation temperature (T3) does not depend upon the temperature at which ∗
Control
liquid water enters the device volume
x The adiabatic saturation temperature (T3) depends only on the conditions (T1, SH1) of the ∗
entering air.
RH
Psychrometric Chart:
x A graphical representation of the solution of the adiabatic saturation relation is called

psychrometric chart. Dry bulb Temp (℃
℃)
x The enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture is expressed on the basis of dry air and is given by Dehumidification: If a mixture of air-water vapour is cooled at constant pressure, the specific
h∗ = h + SHh humidity of the mixture does not undergo any change till the dew point temperature is reached,
That is h* represents the enthalpy of 1 kg dry air and the enthalpy of the accompanying but its relative humidity increases. Further cooling results in condensation of water vapour and
water vapour. the specific humidity decreases. A schematic diagram of a dehumidifier is shown in Fig.
x In the psychrometric chart, the enthalpies of air and water vapour are measured with
reference to 0℃. Some psychrometric charts use 0℉ as reference state for air and 32℉ as
reference state for water vapour.
where, SH and SH denote the specific humidity of air-water vapour mixture at the inlet and
outlet of the cooler, respectively.
Refrigerant Heating coil
x A schematic diagram of an evaporative cooler is shown in fig. And the process of
humidification with cooling is shown on a psychrometric chart.
Water ̇
Dehumidified
Humid air
air 1 2 Heating unit 4
Cooling unit
Condensed Dry air

water Cool and humid
3 air;
x Dehumidification of air-water vapour mixture can be achieved by cooling the mixture below ̇
its dew point temperature, allowing some water to condense, and then reheating the mixture
to the desired temperature
x For cooling the mixture, chilled water can be sprayed into the mixture or the mixture can be
made to pass over cooling coils through which a cold refrigerant is circulated.
x The dehumidification process is represented on a psychrometric chart in Fig. below.
Porous pad
*h
1
SH 2
h∗ kJ/kg dry air 1
h∗
RH
dry air
RH
*h
2 4 SH
Specific Humidity(SH) kgH O/kg

Dry bulb .( )
23 41
Dry bulb Temp. ( C)
Degree of Saturation: The water vapour exists at the dry bulb temperature T of the mixture and
partial pressure P . Consider now that more water vapour is added in this Control volume V at
Humidification with Cooling: If an unsaturated air-water vapour mixture is made to flow through temperature T itself. The partial pressure P will go on increasing with the addition of of water
porous pads soaked in water, the mixture gets saturated. Since the process occurs without any vapour until it reaches a value p corresponding to state 2, after which it cannot increase further
energy exchange as heat with the surroundings, it is adiabatic. The energy required for the as p is the saturation pressure or maximum possible pressure of water at temperature T. The
evaporation of water comes from air-water vapour mixture resulting in a decrease in its thermodynamic state of water vapour is now saturated at point 2. The air containing moisture in
temperature. such a state is called saturated air.
x The process of humidification with cooling is extensively used in evaporative coolers or

desert cooers which are used for cooling homes in hot and dry climates.
x The rate at which water is evaporated in the evaporative cooler is given by
ṁ = ṁ (SH − SH )
From eqs 1 and 2 we get
I = /[1 − (1 − ) / ]
2
3 1 Enthalpy of Moist Air: The enthalpy of moist air h is equal to the sum of the enthalpies of dry air
T
and associated water vapour, i.e (h = h + ω h ) per kg of dry air, where h is the enthalpy of the
Saturated water dry air part and h is the enthalpy of the water vapour part. h = C t = 1.005 t kJ/kg
Vapour in saturated Super heated water vapour
Air in unsaturated Air
C A
B
S
In this state the air is holding the maximum amount of water vapour (the specific humidity being
ω , corresponding to the partial pressure p ) at temperature T of the mixture. The maximum
possible specific humidity, ω at temperature T is thus
Reference state
ωs = 0.622 [P / (p − p )]
S
The ratio of the actual specific humidity ω to the specific humidity ω of saturated air at
temperature T is termed as the degree of saturation denoted by the symbol μ. Thus
Again taking the reference state enthalpy as zero for saturated liquid at 0℃, the enthalpy of the
1− / water vapour part, at point A is expressed as
= =
1− / h =h =C t + (h ) + C (t − t )kJ/kg
Relative Humidity: Relative humidity denoted by the symbol I or RH is defined as the ratio of the
where C = specific heat of liquid water, t = dew point temperature
mass of water vapour m in a certain volume of moist air at a given temperature mass of water
vapour m in the same volume of saturated air at the same temperature. Thus if V and V are
(h ) = latent heat of vaporization at DTP, C = specific heat of superheated vapour
the specific volumes of water vapour in the actual moist air and saturated air respectively at
temperate T and in volume V, at points 1 and 2 respectively
Taking the specific heat of liquid water as 4.1868 kJ/kg K) and that of water vapour as 1.88
/ kJ/kg K in the range 0 to 60℃, we have
I= = =
/
h = 4.1868 t + (h ) + 1.88 (t − t )
/
, I= = Accordingly, enthalpy of water vapour at A, at DPT of t and DBT of t, can be determined more
/
conveniently by the following two methods:
Using the perfect-gas relationship between points 1 and 2,
i) h = h = (h ) ii) h = h = (h ) 0℃ + C (t − 0)
P v = P v or P V = P V
Thus, employing the second expression and taking the latent heat of vaporization of water at 0℃
We have as 2501 kJ/kg, we obtain the following empirical expression for the enthalpy of the water vapour
part
I= / = /
h = 2501 + 1.88 t kJ/kg
It can be shown that (2500 + 1.88 )
ℎ = 1.005 + . .
= 0.622 I ( / ) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
I = ( /0.622) / ( / ) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
Humid Specific Heat: Then t’ = t* i.e. the two temperatures are equal. The dimensionless quantity f /k C is
called the Lewis number. The air and water vapour mixture at low pressures, this
x ℎ=( + ) + ℎ 0℃ number is approximately equal to unity (L = 0.945).
= + ℎ 0℃ x The measurable wet bulb temperature is equal to the thermodynamic wet bulb
where = + temperature.
= (1.005 + 1.88 ω kJ/(kg d.a.) (K) x For any other kind of gas and vapour mixture these would not be the same
x Humid specific heat is the specific heat of moist air (1 + ω) kg per kg of dry air. The term x In the case of air and water vapour mixture, the two temperatures are exactly the same.
C t governs the change in enthalpy of moist air with temperature at constant specific
humidity, and the term ω (h ) 0℃ governs the change in enthalpy with the change in Mixing with Condensation: When large quantity of cold air mixes with a quantity of warmer air at
a high
specific humidity, i.e. due to the addition or removal of water vapour in air.
x Since the second term 1.88 ω is very small compared to the first term 1.005, an
approximated value of C of 1.0216 kJ/kg d.a.) (K) may be taken for all practical 1
purposes in air-conditioning calculations.
1
Thermodynamic wet bulb temperature or temperature of adiabatic saturation: Adiabatic Mixer 4
x For any state of unsaturated moist air, there exists a temperature t* at which the air
2
becomes adiabatically saturated by the evaporation of water into air, at exactly the same
temperature t*
x The leaving air is saturated at temperature t*. The specific humidity is correspondingly
increased to ω*. The enthalpy is increased from a given initial value h to the value h*.
The weight of water added per kg of dry air is ω* - ω which adds energy to the moist air
of amount equal to ω*- ωh ∗, where h * is the specific enthalpy of the injected water at t*. relative humidity, there is a possibility of condensation of water vapour, the mixture will then
consist of saturated air and the condensate.
Adiabatic
Enclosure
Inlet Air Outlet air

t t*
*
h* 4
h t*
* Feed Water 3
=( *- ) per kg of Dry air

2
Therefore, since the process is strictly adiabatic, we have by energy balance
t
ℎ + ( ∗ − )ℎ ∗= ℎ ∗
It the DBT of the mixture falls below 0℃, the condensate may eventually freeze.
∗= − (ℎ ∗/ )( ∗− )
If may be noted that due to condensation, the specific humidity of the mixture ω , will be
x Let us compare the expressions for the wet bulb temperature t’ and the temperature of reduced to below ω . Correspondingly, the temperature of the air would be increased to t from
adiabatic saturation t*, i.e. t due to the release of the latent heat of the condensate. Now, if ω represents the mass of the
∗= − ( / ) ℎ ( ∗ − ) condensate per unit mass of the mixture, we have by moisture and energy balance
∗= − (ℎ ∗ / ) ( ∗ − )
It follows that if k /f = (1/C ) ω =ω −ω or ω = [(ṁ ω + ṁ ω )/(ṁ + ṁ )] − ω
Or f /k C = L = 1 = (α/D) /
and ṁ h + ṁ h = ṁ h
Because of this change in the humidity ratio, there is also a Change in enthalpy of the air
or h = [(ṁ h + ṁ h )/ (ṁ + ṁ )] ω h given by (h − h ). In air-conditioning practice this change in enthalpy due to the change in
the Humidity ratio is considered to cause a latent-heat transfer
Where h is the enthalpy of the condensate at temperature t of the mixture. The two variables Given by Q = m (h − h )
to be solved are t and ω . By assuming different values of t and substituting for ω , h and h ,
the two equations can be solved by trial and error to obtain he final state after mixing.
Sensible Heat Process-Heating or Cooling:
= −
= +ℎ −( +ℎ )
t
= ℎ ( − )
= ℎ = 2500
Q = m (h − h )
x If the building gains or loses moisture, it is supposed to have a latent-heat load. A gain of
= ( − )= ( − )+ ( − ) moisture will require the condensation of moisture for the dehumidification of air in the
conditioning apparatus, and hence a cooling load. On the other hand, a loss of moisture will
= (1.005 + 1.88 )( − ) necessitate the evaporation of water for the humidification of air in the apparatus and hence
a heating load.
where C is the humid specific heat. This heat, denoted by the subscript S, is called the sensible Q = [(cmm)(1.2)(2501)/ 60] ∆ω
heat. If a building to be air conditioned r receives or loses heat due to transmission or other = 50 ( )∆ ,
reasons, it is supposed to have sensible heat load.
Total Heat Process:
x m denotes the mass flow rate of dry air. Generally the flow rate of dry air is measured in
terms of cubic meters of air per minute (cmm). Then the mass flow rate of dry air can be x The change in temperature causes a sensible heat load given by
calculated from Q = m (h − h ) = m C (t − t )
m =Q ρ The change in the humidity ratio causes a moisture transfer given by
where Q is the volume flow rate of air. Expressing this in cmm, we have = m (ω − ω )
m = (cmm)ρ/60 kg d. a./s And a latent heat load given by
For the purpose of calculation, standard air is taken at 20℃ and 50 percent RH. The density Q = m (h − h ) = m h + (ω − ω )
of standard air is approximated to 1.2 kg/m d.a. The value of humid specific heat is taken as Q = Q + Q = m (h − h )
1.0216 kJ/ (kg d.a.) K. we obtain = m [ C (t − t ) + h (ω − ω )]
x Q = [(cmm)(1.2)(1.0216)/ 60] ∆t = 0.0204 (cmm) ∆t, kW again, expressing the mass flow rate in cmm, we get
= [( )(1.2)/ 60] ∆ℎ
Latent Heat Process-Humidification or Dehumidification: = 0.02 ( )∆ℎ,
Which is the same as
x When the state of air is altered along the t = constant line, such as BC moisture in the form of =( )(0.0204 ∆ + 50 ∆ ),
vapour has to be transferred to change the humidity ratio of the air.
x This transfer of moisture is given by = (ω − ω )
Sensible Heat Factor (SHF): The ratio of the sensible heat transfer to the total heat transfer is Part 4.6: Power Engineering
termed as the sensible heat factor. Thus SHF = Q / (Q + Q ) = Q /Q
4.6.1 STEAM NOZZLES
SHF = [(h − h )/(h − h ) + (h − h )] = h − h /(h − h )
= [0.0204 ∆ / 0.0204∆ + 50 ∆ ] = (0.0204 ∆ /0.02∆ℎ) A steam nozzle may be defined as a passage of varying cross – section, through which heat
energy of steam is converted to kinetic energy. Its major function is to produce a steam jet with
The process line AC is called the sensible heat factor line or process or condition line. high velocity to drive steam turbine. A turbine nozzle performs two functions:
A zero SHF line is vertical on the psychrometric chart and implies no sensible heat transfer. An (i) It transforms a portion of energy of steam (obtained from steam generating unit) into
SHF of 0.75 to 0.8 is quite common in air conditioning practice in a normal dry climate. A lower kinetic energy.
value of SHF, such as 0.65, implies a high latent head load, which is quite common (ii) In the impulse turbine it directs the steam jet of high velocity against blades, which are
free to move in order to convert kinetic energy into shaft work. In reaction turbines the
1 1 nozzles discharge high velocity steam. The reactive force of the steam against the nozzle
= =
1 + 2451 (∆ /∆ ) 1 + tan produces motion and work is obtained.
Convergent
Where tan θ = ∆ω / ∆t = (1/2451) [1/SHF) – 1] part
We see tan θ is the slope of the SHF line AC on the Psychrometric chart, which is purely a Divergent
function of SHF
part
∆h
h
Entry Exit
(1 – SHF)
C
SHF
∆ Throat
Fig. Convergent – divergent nozzle.
A The cross – section of a nozzle at first tapers to a smaller section (to allow for changes which
occur due to changes in velocity, specific volume and dryness fraction as the steam expands); the
smallest section being known as throat, and then it diverges to a large diameter. The nozzle
which converges to throat and diverges afterwards is known as convergent – divergent nozzle.
∆t In convergent nozzle there is no divergence after the throat.
In a convergent – divergent nozzle, because of the higher expansion ratio, addition of divergent
portion produces steam at higher velocities as compared to a convergent nozzle.
Velocity of steam at the exit of nozzle, C = 44.2 h
where h = heat drop during expansion of steam.
Discharge through the Nozzle and Conditions for its Maximum Value:
Let p = initial pressure of steam
v = initial volume of 1 kg of steam at pressure p ( )

p = steam pressure at the throat
v = volume of 1 kg of steam at pressure p (m )
A = cross – sectional area of nozzle at throat (m )
C = velocity of steam (m/s) Impulse Turbines

The steam flowing through the nozzle follows approximately the equation given below:
pv = constant Velocity Diagram for Moving Blade
where, n = 1.135 for saturated steam
and = 1.3 for superheated steam
[For wet steam, the value of n can be calculated by Dr. Zenner’s equation,
n = 1.035 + 0.1 x where x is the initial dryness fraction of steam]
The discharge through the nozzle is maximum when critical pressure ratio, i.e.,
= =
The value of maximum discharge is given by
m =A n
)
4.6.2 STEAM TURBINES
Definitions and Formulae

β
1. The steam turbine is a prime mover in which the potential energy of the steam is
transformed into kinetic energy, and latter in its turn is transformed into the mechanical
energy of rotation of the turbine shaft.
2. The most important classification of steam turbines is as follows:
(i) Impulse turbines Fig. Velocity diagram for moving blade.
(ii) Reaction turbines
(iii) Combination of impulse and reaction turbines. Fig. shows the velocity diagram of a single stage impulse turbine.
3. The main difference between Impulse and Reaction turbines lies in the way in which C = liner velocity of moving blade (m/s)
steam is expanded while its moves through them. In the former type, steam expands in C = absolute velocity of steam entering moving blade (m/s)
the nozzle and its pressure does not change as it moves over the blades while in the C = absolute velocity of steam leaving moving blade (m/s)
latter type the steam expands continuously as it passes over the blades and thus there is C = velocity of whirl at the entrance of moving blade.
a gradual fall in pressure during expansion. = tangential component of C .
4. The different methods of compounding are: C = velocity of whirl at exit of the moving blade.
(i) Velocity compounding = tangential component of C .
(ii) Pressure compounding C = velocity of flow at entrance of moving blade.
(iii) Pressure velocity compounding = axial component of C .
(iv)Reaction turbine. C = velocity of flow at exit of moving blade.
5. Force (tangential) on the wheel = axial component of C .
= ṁ + Nm C = relative velocity of steam at moving blade at entrance.
̇ × C = relative velocity of steam at moving blade at exit.
Power per wheel = kW
α = angle with the tangent of the wheel at which steam with velocity C enters. This is also
called nozzle angle.
The common types of steam turbines are:
β = angle which the discharging steam makes with the tangent of the wheel at the exit of
1. Impulse turbine. moving blade.
2. Reaction turbine. θ = entrance angle of moving blade.
ϕ = exit angle of moving blade.
The steam jet issuing from the nozzle at a velocity C impinges on the blade at an angle α.
The tangential component of this jet C performs work on the blade, the axial
compontent C however does not work but causes the steam to flow through the turbine.
As the blades move with tangential velocity of C , the entering steam jet has a relative 8. The blade efficiency of the reaction turbine is given by
velocity C , (with respect to blade) which makes an angle θ with the wheel tangent. The η =2−
steam then glides over the blade without any shock and discharges at a relative velocity of C η becomes maximum when, ρ = cos α
at an angle ϕ with the tangent of the blades. The relative velocity at the inlet C is the
and hence (η ) =
same as the relative velocity at the C if there is no frictional loss at the blade. The absolute
velocity (C ) of leaving steam makes an angle β to the tangent at the wheel. 9. The state point may be defined as that point on h – s diagram which represents the
condition of steam at that instant.
To have convenience in solving the problems on turbines it is a common practice to combine
the two vector velocity diagrams on a common base which represents the blade velocity 10. Theoretical efficiency of reheat cycle is given by
( ) ( )
(C ) as shown in Fig. This diagram has been obtained by superimposing the inlet velocity η =( )
, neglecting pump work.
( )
diagram on the outlet diagram in order that the blade velocity lines C coincide.
4.6.3 Rankine Cycle
- Basis for steam turbine power plant
- Working substance is steam.
M L B- boiler
P Q ST – Steam Turbine
α
SC – Steam Condenser
P – Pump
HPL – High Pressure Liquid
LPL – Low Pressure Liquid
HPV- High Pressure Vapour
LPV – Low Pressure Vapour
N HPV
S (1)
Fig. 6.3
ST
Important Formulae: B
(2) LPV
(4)
1. Blade or diagram efficiency, η =
HPL
×
2. Stage efficiency, η =
( )
3. The axial thrust on the wheel due to difference between the velocities of flow at entrance (3)
and outlet : LPL
Axial force on the wheel = ṁ C − C
4. Energy converted to heat by blade friction
= loss of kinetic energy during flow over blades
= ṁ −
5. Optimum value of ratio of blade speed to steam is, (1)
ρ =
6. The blade efficiency for two stage turbine will be maximum when, (4) (1)
ρ = P (4)
In general optimum blade speed ratio for maximum blade efficiency or maximum work P T
done is given by
ρ = (2)
(3) (2) (3)
and the work done in the last row = of total work
where n is the number of moving rotating blade rows in series. V
In practice more than two rows are hardly preferred. S
7. The degree of reaction of reaction turbine stage is defined as the ratio of heat drop over
moving blades to the total heat drop in the stage.
P − boiler pressure M kg/s

P - Condenser pressure
Rankine cycle contains ST
2 – isentropic processes(expansion & pumping ) Boiler
2 – isobaric processes (boiling & condensation) m kg/s (M –m) kg/s
1-2 isentropic expansion in steam turbine work developed per kg of steam,
W = h − h Condenser
M kg/s Regenerator
2 − 3 isobaric condensation. Heat rejected by the steam, q = h − h
3 – 4 isentropic pumping
Work supplied per kg of steam, M-m
W = h − h = V = V (P − P )
4 − 1: Isobaric heat adition
Heat supplied per kg of steam in the boiler M kg/s
q =h − h
- Net work done = q − q = W − W
( ) ( )
η = = × 100 (1)
In general W <<< W (7) M
∴η = T (6) (2)
- Work ratio, W = 1 − (5) m
- 0.95< W < 0.98 (4) (M – m) (3)
- Specific steam consumption (KJ/KWh): The amount of steam consumed by the steam power
plant per unit power output S
̇
- SSC = M = total mass flow rate of steam
Where ṁ = mass flow rate of steam, kg/h
P = net power output, kW = mass flow rate of bled steam
SSC = = Effects of Regeneration:
SSC = (∵ W <<< W ) - Efficiency increases
- Work output decreases
- Effects of Reheating
1. Net work output increases Rankine cycle with Reheating:
2. Efficiency of the plant increases
3. Life of steam turbine blades increases
HP LPT
T
Rankine Cycle with Regeneration:

Reheated steam
- Purpose of regeneration: To increase the efficiency of the plant by increasing the mean
temperature of heat addition.
- Regeneration: some amount of steam is extracted from the turbine and is used to increase
the temperature of feed water. This process is called ‘bleeding’.
Condenser
Pump
- Purpose of reheating: To avoid blade erosion by increasing the dryness fraction of the steam 1
at the end of expansion process in steam turbine.
- To avoid blade erosion , dryness fraction should be greater than or equal to 0.88
x ≥ 0.88
- Reheating involves partial expansion of steam in HPT and then extract this steam for
reheating in to the boiler, feed the reheated steam to LPT for further expansion (refer Fig. ) 4
T
2
(1) 3
(3) a
T Steam
d
(2)
b
c
(6)
(5) S
(4)
s 4.6.4 Brayton (or) Joule Cycle:
1-2 : expansion in HPT

2-3 : Reheating Process 3 3
2
3-4 : Expansion in LPT
2
Binary power cycles: P T 4
4 1
1
- 2 working fluids are being used
- In general,
Hg − working fluid for primary cycle V S
Steam - working fluid for secondary cycle
1 - Basic cycle for gas turbine plant and jet propulsion systems.
Turbine - Cycle contains – 2 isentropic and 2 constant pressure processes.
ST a - Pressure ratio (r ) =
2 Steam Turbine Compression ratio (r) = = (r )

ST
1-2 : isentropic compression through the required pressure ratio(r )
b
3 W = C (T − T ) KJ/Kg
Condenser = r
4 d
W → work input to the compressor
Pump
2-3 constant pressure heat addition
Cascade Heat exchanger c
Pump q = C (T − T ) KJ/Kg
3-4 Isentropic expansion process work developed by the turbine, Part 4.7: Refrigeration
W = C (T − T )KJ/Kg 4.7.1 Refrigerator
4-1 Isobaric (constant pressure ) heat rejection. Source Q = heat supplied to source Source
q = C (T − T )KJ/Kg
Q = heat extracted from sink
W = W −W =q −q
T = source temperature
1 W W
HP/K+1 T = sink temperature HP/K+1
η = 1− ν
(r ) ν
W = work input
Work ratio (W ) : W = =1− Sink Sink
For gas turbine plants, 0.45 ≤ W ≤ 0.55

COP = COP =
For steam turbine plants, 0.95 ≤ W ≤ 0.98
Heat Pump Refrigerator
Effect of ( ) on Brayton cycle efficiency
Carnot COP = Carnot COP =
−
Actual COP= Actual COP=
Relative COP = Relative COP =

W η
COP = COP +1
Simple Vapor Compression Cycle:

( ) . ( ) ( ) . ( )
r → r →
(r ) ---------- Pressure ratio for η
(r ) . ---------- Pressure ratio for W
(r ) =
( )
(r ) . =
(r ) . = (r )
W = C T − T KJ/Kg Fig. T-s diagram of refrigeration cycle
Figure shows a simple vapor compression refrigeration cycle on T-s diagram for different (c) Power Required by Compressor:
compression processes. The cycle works between temperatures T and T representing the (i) If the compression is isentropic, then,
condenser and evaporator temperatures respectively. The various processes of the cycle A-B-C-
D (A-B’-C’-D and A-B”-C”-D) are as given below: Work of compression = (ℎ − ℎ ) KJ/Kg
( )
i) Process B-C (B’-C’ or B”-C”): Isentropic compression of the vapor from state B to C. If Hence, Power required = (KW / ton)
vapor state is saturated (B), or superheated (B”), the compression is called dry
compression. If initial state is wet (B’), the compression is called wet compression as (ii) If the compression is polytropic (Pv = C).
represented by B’-C’.
ii) Process C-D (C’-D or C”-D): Heat rejection in condenser at constant pressure. Work of compression = ( − )( − / )
iii) Process D-A: An irreversible adiabatic expansion of vapor through the expansion value.
The pressure and temperature of the liquid are reduced. The process is accompanied by ( )
partial evaporation of some liquid. The process is shown by dotted line. Or Power required = ∗ ∗ (KW/ton)
∗
iv) Process A-B (A-B’ or A-B”) : Heat absorption in evaporator at constant pressure. The
final state depends on the quantity of heat absorbed and same may be wet (B’) dry (B) or (d) Heat Rejected to Cylinder Jacket:
superheated (B”).
Q =m ( − ) − (ℎ − ℎ ) (KJ⁄min − ton)
COP of Vapor Compression Cycle:
Heat extracted at low temperature (e) Heat Rejected in Condenser:

COP =
Work supplied Heat rejected in condenser = (ℎ − ℎ ) (KJ / Kg)
Heat extracted at low temperature = Heat transfer during the process A-B = refrigerating effect. Total heat rejected = (ℎ − ℎ ) (KJ /min- ton)
= (ℎ − ℎ ) 4.7.2 Reversed Carnot Cycle
Work of compression = = (ℎ − ℎ ) (adiabatic compression). Reversed Carnot cycle is shown in below Figure. It consists of the following processes.
Process a-b: Absorption of heat by the working fluid from refrigerator at constant low
ℎ −ℎ
So, COP = temperature T during isothermal expansion.
ℎ −ℎ
Process b-c: Isentropic compression of the working fluid with the aid of external work.
Now, heat rejected to the condenser, = = + The temperature of the fluid rises from T to T .
= (ℎ − ℎ ) + (ℎ − ℎ ) Process c-d: Isothermal compression of the working fluid during which heat is rejected at
constant high temperature T .
= (ℎ − ℎ ) = (ℎ − ℎ ) Process d-a: Isentropic expansion of the working fluid. The temperature of the working fluid falls
from T to T .
(a) Mass of Refrigerant in Circulation:
Refrigeration effect = (ℎ − ℎ ) KJ/Kg of refrigerant

. ∗
Or, mass of refrigerant in circulation, = kg/min – ton
( )
(b) Piston Displacement:
Let the specific volume of the vapor at B i.e at suction of the compressor be, v and let the
volumetric efficiency of the compressor be η , then piston displacement required per min.
Piston displacement = (m / min – ton)
Fig. Reversed Carnot cycle
COP of Refrigerator:
= =
−
( − )
= =
( − )− ( − ) ( − )
Practically, the reversed Carnot cycle cannot be used for refrigeration purpose as the isentropic
process requires very high speed operation, whereas the isothermal process requires very low
speed operation.
4.7.3 Reversed Brayton Cycle
(c) Air refrigeration system
The working of air-refrigeration cycle is represented on p-v and T-s diagrams in Fig. (b) and (c).
Process 1-2 represents the suction of air into the compressor. Process 2-3 represents the
isentropic compression of air by the compressor. Process 3-5 represents the discharge of high
pressure air from the compressor into the heat exchanger. The reduction in volume of air from
v to v is due to the cooling of air in the heat exchanger.
Process 5-6 represents the isentropic expansion of air in the expander. Process 6-2 represents
the absorption of heat from the evaporator at constant pressure.
(a) Air refrigeration system
(b) Air refrigeration system
Part 4.8: I.C. Engines V = Vc + Vs

x Compression Ratio (r): It is ratio of cylinder volume to clearance volume.
4.8.1 Basics of I.C. Engine
r = V/Vc
Engine Components: The I.C. Engine Figure below showing its various components.
I.C. Engine classification:
Cylinder head x On the basis of the number of stroke engine can be four-stroke engine or can be two – stroke
Exhaust Valve engine.
Suction Valve
x On the basis of the working cycle it can be spark ignition (otto cycle) engine or it can be
Intake of suction manifold Exhaust manifold
compression ignition engine (diesel cycle).
Four – stroke Engine:

Clearance volume, Vc Stroke Valve position
Top dead center T.D.C
Suction stroke. Suction valve open
Piston Cylinder volume ‘ V ’
Gudgeon of wrist pin Stroke volume Vs Exhaust valve closed
Compression stroke Both valves closed
Bottom dead center BDC
Cylinder Expansion stroke Both valves closed
Connecting rod
Exhaust stroke Exhaust valve open
Crank case Crank Pin Suction valve closed.
Crank Shaft Crank
Valve timing diagrams:
x For four-stroke S.I. engine
Name of the part Material used Intake Exhaust Overlap Intake Exhaust
Closes Opens opens Opens
Cylinder Cast iron
Cylinder head Cast iron, aluminum alloy
Piston Cast iron, aluminum alloy
Piston rings Silicon cast iron
ve
ve
Connecting rods Steel

ve open
ve open
open
open
Crank shaft Alloy steel

n
n
Power
Power
Intake valv
Intake valv
Bearing White metal

Compressio
Compressio
Exhaust valv
Exhaust valv
Cylinder liner Nickel alloy steel
Exhaust Intake Exhaust

Opens Closes Opens
Engine’s Terminology: BDC
Intake BDC
x Piston Swept Volume (Vs): The nominal volume generated by the piston when travelling Closes
( ) ( )
from one dead centre to the next one.
Vs = A × L
x Clearance Volume (Vc): The nominal volume of the space on the combustion side of the
piston at top dead centre
x Cylinder Volume (V) : The sum of piston swept volume and clearance volume
x For two-stroke engine For a muticylinder engine a smaller flywheel is required
Rotation Performance parameter:

Ignition
occurs x Indicated thermal efficiency ( ): It is a ratio of energy in the indicated horse power to the
T.D.C
fuel energy.
=
×
Expansion
Compression
Exhaust port I. P. = Indicated power
Exhaust port closes
Inlet port mf = Mass of fuel
closes
Inlet port closes QLHV = Lower Heat Calorific Value
B.D.C
closes
Inlet port open x Brake thermal efficiency ( ): Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the brake
Exhaust port open power to the fuel energy.
. .
Four-stroke cycle Two-stroke cycle = ×
x The cycle is completed The cycle is completed in
b. p. = break power.
in four strokes of the piston. two strokes of the piston.
x It has only one power stroke It has one power stroke in x Mechanical efficiency ( ): It is a ratio of brake power to the indicated horse power.
in two revolutions of crank each revolution of crank . .
=
Shaft shaft . .
x Turning moment is not More uniform turning

=
uniform hence heavier moment hence lighter
flywheel is needed flywheel is needed. = ×
x More volumetric efficiency Less volumetric efficiency
f. p. = i. p. – b. p.
x Higher thermal efficiency Lower thermal efficiency
It contains only ports not valves f. p. = friction power
x It contains valves
x Better part load efficiency Poor part load efficiency f.p. is usually assumed constant. At part loads b.p. is changed, thus from b.p. & f.p., ip. can be
calculated.
x Volumentric efficiency ( ): It is defined as the ratio of the air actually induced at ambient
S.I. Engines C. I. Engines
conditions to the swept volume of engine.
x Based on otto cycle Based on diesel cycle
x Fuel has high self Fuel has low self =
ignition temperature ignition temperature
x Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio: It is defined as ratio of thermal efficiency of the actual
x Compression ratio Compression ratio cycle to that of the ideal cycle.
is between 6 to 10.5 is between 14 to 22
x Lower max. efficiency Higher max. efficiency =
x Lighter Heavier
x Specific fuel consumption (sfc): It is expressed in grams per horsepower-hour or per kWh.
bsfc = kg/kWh x The kinetic and potential energies of the working fluid are neglected.
. .
x The operation of the engine is frictionless.
x All the process are reversible.
isfc = kg/kWh
. .
The constant volume or Otto cycle:
x Fuel-Air Ratio: It is relative proportion of the fuel and air in the engine. P 3
= T
W.D. in expansion = Constant
3
3-4 = area 3-4-6-5-3 Q
x Mean Piston speed = 2LN
‘L’ – length of cylinder

2 4
‘N’ – r.p.m.
2 4 Q
Mean effective pressure, 1
= Constant
. . ×
= = 1
/ S
5 6 V
n= for 4s Process Remark

1–2 Adiabatic and reversible compression
n = N for 2s 2–3 Combustion
3–4 Adiabatic and reversible expansion
k = No. of cylinders 4–1 Exhaust stroke
x Equivalent ratio: Thermal efficiency, =
= Work done = heat added – heat rejected = cv(T3 – T2) – cv(T4 – T1)
( )
=1−( )
= 1 chemically correct
=1−
< 1 lean mixture
Thus the efficiency of otto cycle depends only on compression ratio (r), and the efficiency
> 1 rich mixture increases with increasing compression ratio and . The efficiency at compression ratio 5 is
47.5% and at compression ratio 10 is 60.2%
NOTE: Monoatamic gas
= 1.67
Air
x In line engines : all cylinders are arranged linearly and transmit power to a single crankshaft
= 1.4
x Radial engines: air cooled aircraft engines, odd cylinders are employed for balancing, pistons
of all cylinders are coupled to same crankshaft. = 1.30
Exchaust gas
4.8.2 Air Standard Cycles
Assumptions in ideal or air standard cycle
x The working medium is a perfect gas throughout, i.e., it follows the law pV= mRT.
x The working medium has constant specific heats. r
x The working medium does not undergo any chemical change throughout the cycle.
Mean effective pressure (mep) The efficiency of the diesel cycle is different from that of the Otto cycle only by the bracketed
term, which is always greater that unity.
mep =
Mean Effective Pressure (mep)
(∝ )
= ( )( ) mep =
Constant pressure or Diesel cycle: ( ) ( )

= ( )( )
3 The efficiency decreases as cut off ratio increases. If cut off ratio is greater than 10% of stroke,
Isothermal T smoking occurs in an actual engine because there is no sufficient time for the combustion
P process to be completed before the exhaust valve opens.
The dual combustion or mixed or limited pressure cycle
x The name dual combustion is derived from the fact that it incorporates the features of both
Reversible otto and diesel cycles.
adiabatic x High speed diesel engine is based on this.
= 2
4 3 4 v = constant (otto )
T
= − 4
v = constant
1
2
P P = constant (Diesel)
2 5
0
5 6 S
1 5 1
r
5
1
= f g s
V
( ) ( )
= ( )
=
=1− ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) = ( ) ( )
= cut off ratio ∝

=1− (∝ ) ( )
= ,r= = , =
= . = x If ρ = 1 in above equation it becomes otto cycle and when α = 1, it becomes diesel cycle.
( )
mep =
( ) ( ) ( )
= ( )( ) 3
Constant pressure
T
′
Comparison of Otto, Diesel, and dual Combustion (Limited - pressure) Cycles:
x For same compression ratio and same heat input: The heat rejected in the Otto cycle is less
than that in the diesel cycle and dual combustion cycle thus the efficiency of the Otto cycle
is more than the diesel and the dual combustion cycle for same compression ratio and same
heat input.
′ 4
ηotto > ηdual > ηdiesel
′
2
T
3 1
Constant volume
"
′ 6 S
x For same maximum pressure and temperature
′ > >
"
T
2 ′ Constant 3
" pressure
4
1
5 6 " ′ S
′ 4
x For constant maximum pressure and same heat input.
2
1 Constant
volume
S
5 6
Quick Refresher Guide Theory of Machines Quick Refresher Guide Theory of Machines
Classification of kinematic pairs:

Part – 5: Theory of Machines
Based on Degrees of Freedom: A kinematic pair allows few degrees of freedom and constraints
some of them. When two bodies are joined together one of the body (base) has all the DOF,
Part 5.1: Mechanisms
whereas the other body looses some DOF and has few DOF relative to the base body. Depending
5.1.1 Introduction on the allowed degrees of freedom and constrained degrees of freedom they are classified into
Mechanism: A system that consists of links and joints and converts one form of motion to Class I, Class II ….. Class V incase of spatial kinematic pairs and class I and class II in planar
another form (or) A system of links and joint that converts the available form of motion to the kinematic pairs.
desired form.
Class-n kinematic pair allows n degrees of freedom for the pair and constrains 6-n (3-n) degrees
Planar Mechanism: A mechanism that is constrained to move in a single plane or in parallel of freedom. A pair that constrains all the degrees of freedom of the second link relative to the
planes is referred as a planar mechanism or plane mechanism. first link is not considered as a kinematic pair. It is a rigid joint.
Degrees of Freedom: Number of independent co-ordinates that are required to specify the
Based on Nature of relative motion: Based on the relative motion that exists between the two
system completely. DOF of a rigid body in spatial motion are 6, consisting of 3 translatory
links the pairs can be classified as Rotary/ Revolute pairs, Sliding/ Prismatic pairs, Cylindrical
freedom and 3 rotational freedoms
pairs, special pairs and so on.
DOF of a rigid body in plane motion are 3 consisting of 2 translatory freedoms and one rotational
freedom. Based on Nature of contact: Based on the nature of contact between the two links the kinematic
pairs are classified as lower pairs and higher pairs. When the two bodies have surface to surface
Link / Kinematic Element: A rigid body or a resistant body that forms the part of a mechanism.
contact they are referred as lower pairs. When the contact between the bodies is a point or line
Classification of links: The links or the kinematic elements are the basic building block. They are contact they are referred as higher pairs.
classified as follows:
Based on type of closure: Closure means the way the two bodies are held together to have
Binary link: It connects with two other links
continuous contact. Two types of joint closures exists they are form closure and force closure.
x Form Closure: The two links are held together by the shape of the links and they cannot
be detached easily.
x Force Closure: The contact is maintained by an external force either the gravity force or
spring force and the two bodies can be separated easily.
Ternary link: It connects with three other links in a system Kinematic chain:
A kinematic chain is formed by connecting number of links with kinematic pairs so that there
exists definite relation between the motion of various links. They can be of two types closed
kinematic chains and open kinematic chains.
A mechanism is obtained by fixing any one link in a kinematic chain.
Degrees of Freedom of a Kinematic chain: A kinematic chain is formed by connecting number of

links with number of pairs. Let ‘n’ be the no. of links and J is the number of pairs of class n. Then
Quatenary Link: It connects with four other links. as for grubler’s criterion the DOF of a spatial kinematic chain is given by
= − − − − −
For a planar kinematic chain.
= − −
Kinematic Pair: Two links or elements connected with a joint that allows the relative motion
between the links.
Degrees of Freedom of a Mechanism: As one link is fixed in a kinematic chain to get a mechanism. A four bar mechanism is as shown in figure; AD, the link 1 is known as the fixed link. AB, the link
Grublers equation for the DOF of a mechanism is as follows for spatial mechanism 2 acts as input link. The link 3 BC is the coupler and the link 4 CD is the output link. The input
and output links can be interchanged. If the input/output link can have complete rotation about
= ( − )− − − − − . its centre it is known as crank. If it has only a partial revolution it is known as a rocker or an
oscillatory link. Based on this the mechanisms can be classified as C-C, C-R, R-C, R- R
For a planar mechanism mechanisms.
= ( − )− − Inversions of Grashoff’s 4-bar chain (l + s < p + q): The mechanisms obtained from the
Grashoff’s kinematic chain are based on the positions of the shortest link
Note: A mechanism has six (three) degrees of freedom less compared to that of the kinematic
chain from which it is obtained. x Shortest link fixed-Double crank mechanism
x Link adjacent to shortest link is fixed crank-Rocker mechanism
Classification based on degrees of freedom: x Link opposite to the Shortest link is fixed: Rocker-Rocker mechanism
Zero degrees of freedom: Structure Inversions of Non-Grashoffs 4-bar chain: l + s > p + q
Negative degrees of freedom: Super structure/ Preloaded structure By fixing any link it results in Rocker-Rocker mechanism.
Positive degrees of Freedom: Mechanism Inversion of Special Grashoff’s Chain:
Parallelogram or anti-parallelogram connection will result in double crank or drag link
Four bar chain/quadric cycle chain: It is the basic chain that consists of four links and four mechanism. Deltoid connection will result in crank-Rocker mechanism.
turning pairs. It is the basic chain from which many one DOF mechanism can be derived. The
necessary condition to form a four bar chain based on their length is l < s + p + q. In parallelogram connection both long links and short links are opposite to each other. In deltoid
connection both long links and short links are side by side.
When l is the length of the longest link, s is that of the shortest link and p, q are the lengths of the
remaining two links. Though a chain is formed by satisfying the above condition it may not Equivalent linkage: By replacing any pair in a kinematic chain with its equivalent (from the same
result in useful mechanism, if one barely satisfy the condition. class). An equivalent chain can be obtained, by replacing any turning pair in a four bar chain
with a sliding pair a slider crank chain can be obtained. By replacing any two turning pairs with
Grashoff’s Condition: Grashoff’s condition checks the link proportions and classifies the chains sliding pairs a double slider crank chain can be obtained.
mechanism
Inversions of a single slider crank chain:
If l + s < p + q Grashoffs or Class –I I inversion: An I.C. engine mechanism/compressor mechanism
If l + s > p + q Non grashoffs or Class-II
If l + s = p + q Special Grashoffs or Class-III II inversion: wit-worth Quick return motion mechanism and rotary engine.
III inversion: Crank and slotted level type quick return motion mechanism and oscillating
Inversion: By fixing one link in a kinematic chain a mechanism is obtained. By fixing different cylinder engine
links, different mechanisms are obtained. Inversion is the process of obtaining different
mechanism by fixing different links in a kinematic chain. IV inversion: Hand pump
C Inversions of Double Slider Crank chain:

B I inversion: Scotch Yoke-mechanism. Useful for generating trignometric functions
II inversion: Elliptical trammel. Useful for tracing the elliptical curves
III inversion: Oldham’s Coupling. Useful for connecting two parallel shafts with little offset.
Mechanical Advantage: The ratio of load to effort is known as mechanical advantage.

A D
∴ Mechanical advantage = =
Nomenclature of four bar mechanisms:
5.1.2 Dynamic Analysis of Slider-crank Mechanism The –ve sign indicates that the sense of angular acceleration of the rod is such that it tends to
reduce the angle β. Thus, in the given case, the angular acceleration of the connecting rod is
clockwise.
A Engine Force Analysis:
An engine is acted upon by various forces such as weight of reciprocating masses and connecting
B rod, gas forces, forces due to friction & inertia forces due to acceleration & retardation of engine
0 ODC
elements, the least being dynamic in nature. The effect of the weight & the inertia effect of the
IDC
connecting rod is neglected.
Fig. 5.1.2.1
A
+ ( + )
Figure shows a slider crank mechanism in which the crank OA rotates in the clockwise direction.
ℓ & r are the lengths of the connecting rod & the crank respectively. B
F
Let x = displacement of piston from IDC (Inner Dead Centre).

Fig. 5.1.2.2
Velocity of Piston:
V = rω sin θ + Let A = area of the cover end

√
If n is large compared to sin θ, A = area of the piston rod
p = pressure on the cover end
V = rω sin θ +
p = pressure on the rod end
If is neglected if ‘n’ is quite large m = mass of the reciprocating parts.
V = rω sin θ
Force on the piston due to gas pressure,
Acceleration of Piston: F =p A −p A
Inertia force, F = m × a.
a = rω cos θ + = mrω cos θ +
If n is very very large Net (Effective) force on the piston,
a = rω cos θ as in case of SHM F=F −F
When θ = 0° i.e. at IDC, a = rω 1 + In case friction resistance F is also taken into account,
Force on the piston, F = F − F − F
θ = 180° i.e. at ODC, a = rω −1 +
In case of vertical engines, the weight of the piston or reciprocating parts also acts as force
At θ = 180° , when direction of motion is reversed and thus,
a = rω 1 − Force on the piston, F = F + mg − F − F
Angular velocity & Angular Acceleration of connecting rod: 1. Force (thrust) along the connecting rod:
Let F = Force in the connecting rod shown in Fig (1.2.2)
ω = ω. Then equating the horizontal components of forces.
√
F × cos β = F or F =
ω = angular velocity of connecting rod.
α = −ω sin θ ( ) / 2. Thrust on the sides of cylinder:

It is the normal reaction on the cylinder walls.
α = angular acceleration of the connecting rod F = F sin β = F tan β
3. Crank Effort: Capital letters deals with the configuration diagram is AB, CD are respective link positions, lower
Force is exerted on the crankpin as a result of the force on the piston. Crank effort is the net case letters indicate the points on the velocity diagram
effort (force) applied at the crank pin perpendicular to the crank which gives the required
Cases:
turning moment on the crank shaft.
Let F = crank effort 1. When the link AB and BC are parallel to each other
As Ft × r = F r sin(θ + β) Velocity of polygon will be a straight line
F = F sin(θ + β) Velocity of B is equal to the velocity of C.
= sin(θ + β) ∴l ω =l ω and ω = 0
If both AB and DC are on the same side of AB both have the angular velocity in the same
sense. If they are on opposite side i.e. BC crosses AD; AB and DC will have velocities in the
4. Thrust on the Bearing opposite sense
The component of F along the crank (in the radial direction) produces a thrust on the crank
shaft bearings. 2. When AB and DC are parallel
F = F cos(θ + β) = cos(θ + β) i.e. they are in the same line, ω = 0 and ω l = ω l .
Turning moment on crank shaft 3. When BC and CD are parallel

i.e. they are in same line, ω = 0 and ω l = ω l
T = F sin θ +
√
Instantaneous Centre: The instantaneous centre, for a plane body moving in a two dimensional
5.1.3 Velocity Analysis in 4-bar Mechanism: plane is a point in its plane around which all other points on the body are rotating at the instant.
Consider the mechanism shown in Figure 5.1.3.1. The pre requisite for the velocity analysis is This point itself is the only point that is not moving at that instant.
the knowledge of position of all the links which is available from the position analysis or from The number of instantaneous centers in a mechanism depends upon number of links. If N is the
configuration diagram. If the link 2 rotates with ω rad/sec in counter clock wise direction. The number of instantaneous centers and n is the number of links.
velocity of other links is obtained as follows.
nn 1
N=
2
There are three types of instantaneous centers namely fixed, permanent and neither fixed nor
⊥ AB permanent.
nn 1 44 1
b For Four bar mechanism, n = 4, N = = 6
B C 2 2
I13
a, d
⊥ DC
D c
A
⊥ BC I34
Fig. 5.1.3.1 3
Construction procedure for velocity polygon: A and D are fixed points having zero velocity mark, I23
a, d at a convenient location and they act as reference for the velocity polygon. Velocity of B
relative to A will be l ω perpendicular to AB in the direction of ω so draw ab ⊥ to AB⃗ with a 4
length l ω . Velocity of C relative to B will be ⊥ to BC but sense is not known hence draw a line ⊥ 2
to BC passing through b. Velocity of C relative to D will be ⊥’lr to DC sense is not known. So draw
a line ⊥lr to DC through d. These two lines will intersect at C that completes the velocity polygon.
In the velocity diagram the vector bc indicates the velocity of C relative to B and ω l = bc gives I24
ω . Similarly dc = ω l from which ω can be obtained. I12 1 I14
Fig. 5.1.3.2
Fixed instantaneous center I12, I14 The tangential component of velocity is Ar to the link and is given by Vt = Zr. In this case Z has
been assumed constant and the slider is moving on the link with constant velocity. Therefore,
Permanent instantaneous center I23, I34 tangential velocity of any point B on the slider 3 will result in uniform increase in tangential
velocity. The equation Vt = Zr remain same but r increases uniformly i.e. there is a constant
Neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous center I13, I24 acceleration Ar to rod.
Coriolis Acceleration: To illustrate this let us take an example of crank and slotted lever ? Displacement B1B2 = ½ at2
mechanisms.
= ½ f (dt)2
? ½ f (dt)2 = VB/A Z2 (dt)2

P P1
fcrB/A = 2Z2 VB/A Coriolis acceleration
2 B1 B2
Q The direction of coriolis component is the direction of relative velocity vector for the two
coincident points rotated at 90o in the direction of angular velocity of rotation of the link.
B on link 3 dT
Figure 5.1.3.4 shows the direction of coriolis acceleration in different situation.
fcr
3 A1
A on link 2
dT Z2
Z2
Z2
Z2
O
fcr
Fig. 5.1.3.3
(a) Rotation CW slider moving up (b) Rotation CW slider moving down
Assume link 2 having constant angular velocity Z2, in its motions from OP to OP1 in a small
interval of time Gt. During this time slider 3 moves outwards from position B to B2. Assume this fcr
motion also to have constant velocity VB/A. Consider the motion of slider from B to B2 in 3 stages.
1. B to A1 due to rotation of link 2.

Z2 Z2
2. A1 to B1 due to outward velocity of slider VB/A.
3. B1 to B2 due to acceleration Ar to link 2 this component in the coriolis component of

acceleration.
fcr
We have Arc B1B2 = Arc QB2 – Arc QB1
(c) Rotation CCW slider moving up (d) Rotation CCW slider moving down
= Arc QB2 – Arc AA1 Fig. 5.1.3.4
? Arc B1B2 = OQ dT - AO dT
= A1B1 dT
= VB/A Z2(dt)2
Part 5.2: Gear Trains Arc of Action: Is the arc of the Pitch Circle between the beginning and the end of the engagement of a
given pair of teeth.
5.2.1 Gears
Gears are machine elements that transmit motion by means of successively engaging teeth. The Arc of Approach: Is the arc of the Pitch Circle between the first point of contact of the gear teeth and
gear teeth act like small levers. Gears are highly efficient (nearly 95%) due to primarily rolling the Pitch Point.
contact between the teeth.
Arc of Recession: That arc of the Pitch Circle between the Pitch Point and the last point of contact of
the gear teeth.
Gear Classification: Gears may be classified according to the relative position of the axes of
revolution. Backlash: Play between mating teeth.
x Gears for connecting parallel shafts: Base Circle: The base circle of an involute gear is the circle from which involute teeth profiles are
1. Spur gears: They are common types of gears with straight teeth. derived.
2. Helical gears: The teeths on helical gears are cut at an angle to the face of the gear. Because Center Distance: The distance between centers of two gears.
of the angle of the teeth on helical gears, they create a thrust load on the gear when they
mesh. Chordal Addendum: The distance between a chord, passing through the points where the Pitch
Circle crosses the tooth profile, and the tooth top.
3. Double helical gears (Herringbone gears): Herringbone gear is a special type of gear which
is a side to side (not face to face) combination of two helical gears of opposite hands. Their Chordal Thickness: The thickness of the tooth measured along a chord passing through the points
advantage over the simple helical gear is that the side-thrust of one half is counter-balanced where the Pitch Circle crosses the tooth profile.
by that of the other half.
Circular Pitch: Millimeter of Pitch Circle circumference per tooth. Pc =
4. Rack and Pinion: Racks are straight gears that are used to convert rotational motion to
translational motion by means of a gear mesh. Circular Thickness: The thickness of the tooth measured along an arc following the Pitch Circle
x Gears for connecting intersecting shafts: Clearance: The distance between the top of a tooth and the bottom of the space into which it fits on
the meshing gear.
1. Bevel Gears: Bevel gears are useful when the direction of a shaft's rotation needs to be
changed. The teeth on bevel gears can be straight, spiral or hypoid. Contact Ratio: The ratio of the length of the Arc of Action to the Circular Pitch.
x Gears for neither parallel nor intersecting shafts: Dedendum: The radial distance between the bottom of the tooth to pitch circle.
1. Worm Gears: Worm gears are used when large gear reductions are needed. It is common for
worm gears to have reductions of 20:1, and even up to 300:1 or greater. Diametral Pitch: Teeth per mm of diameter. DP = T/D
Gear Terminology: Face: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the top of the
tooth.
Face Width: The width of the tooth measured parallel to the gear axis.
Flank: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the bottom of
the teeth
Gear: The larger of two meshed gears. If both gears are of the same size, they are both called "gears".
Land: The top surface of the tooth.
Line of Action: That line along which the point of contact between gear teeth travels, between the
first point of contact and the last.
Module: Millimeter of Pitch Diameter to Teeth. m =

Addendum: The radial distance between the Pitch Circle and the top of the teeth.
Pinion: The smaller of two meshed gears. Mathematically,

PC Circular pitch S u m
Pitch Circle: The circle, the radius of which is equal to the distance from the center of the gear to the Where: and m = Module.
pitch point.
5.2.2 Gear Trains
Pitch Point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of two meshing gears, where the Line of
Centers crosses the pitch circles. The combination of gear wheels by means of which motion is transmitted from one shaft to
another shaft is called a gear train. The gear trains are of the following types:
Pressure Angle: Angle between the Line of Action and a line perpendicular to the Line of Centers.
Simple Gear Trains: The typical spur gears are shown in diagram. The direction of rotation is
Profile Shift: An increase in the Outer Diameter and Root Diameter of a gear, introduced to lower the reversed from one gear to another. It has no affect on the gear ratio. The teeth on the gears must
practical tooth number or acheive a non-standard Center Distance. all be of the same size so if gear A advances one tooth, so does B and C.
Ratio: Ratio of the numbers of teeth on mating gears. t = number of teeth on the gear, v
D = Pitch circle dia meter, N = speedin rpm v
Root Circle: The circle that passes through the bottom of the tooth spaces.
D
m = module =
Root Diameter: The diameter of the Root Circle. t
and module must be the same for all gears , ZA ZB
Working Depth: The depth to which a tooth extends into the space between teeth on the mating
ZC
otherwise they would not mesh.
gear.
D D D
m= A = B = C
Path of contact: The length of path of contact is the length of common normal cut-off by the tA tB tC
addendum circles of the wheel and the pinion. D A = m t A; DB = m t B and DC = m t C
Z = angula r velocity.
Path of approach: R A 2 R 2 cos2 I R sin I
D
v = linear velocity on the circle. v = Z = Z r GEAR 'A' GEAR 'B' GEAR 'C'
Path of recess: ra 2 r 2 cos2 I r sin I 2 (Idler gear)
Length of path of contact R A 2 R 2 cos2 I ra 2 r 2 cos2 I R r sin I The velocity v of any point on the circle must be the same for all the gears, otherwise they would be
slipping. DA DB DC
v ZA ZB ZC
ra = Radius of addendum circle of pinion, 2 2 2
Z A DA ZB DB ZC DC
R A = Radius of addendum circle of wheel
Z A m t A ZB m t B ZC m tC
r = Radius of pitch circle of pinion, Z A t A ZB t B ZC tC
R = Radius of pitch circle of wheel. or in terms of rev / min
N A t A N B t B N C tC
I = Pressure angle.
If A is the driving wheel and C is driven wheel, then
Arc of contact: Arc of contact is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the beginning to
the end of engagement of a given pair of teeth. Velocity Ratio = = =
Length of arc of approach Lenght of path of approach

cos I Train Value: It is reciprocal of velocity ratio.
Length of arc of recess Lenght of path of recess
cos I In an ideal gear box, the input and output powers are the same so;
Length of arc contact Length of path of contact
2S N1 T1 2S N 2 T2
cosI P
Contact Ratio (or Number of Pairs of Teeth in Contact): The contact ratio or the number of pairs of 60 60
teeth in contact is defined as the ratio of the length of the arc of contact to the circular pitch. T2 N1
Length of the arc of contact N1 T1 N 2 T2 GR
Contatratio T1 N2
THE GATE ACADEMY PVT.LTD. H.O.: #74, Keshava Krupa (third Floor), 30PthCCross, 10th Main, Jayanagar 4th Block, Bangalore-11 THE GATE ACADEMY PVT.LTD. H.O.: #74, Keshava Krupa (third Floor), 30th Cross, 10th Main, Jayanagar 4th Block, Bangalore-11
Epicyclic Gear Train: Epicyclic means one gear revolving upon and around another. The design
involves planet and sun gears as one orbits the other like a planet around the sun.
It follows that if the speed is reduced, the torque is increased and vice versa. In a real gear box,
power is lost through friction and the power output is smaller than the power input. The
efficiency is defined as:
Power out 2S u N 2 T2 u 60 N 2 T2 The diagram shows a gear B on the end of an arm. Gear B meshes with gear C and revolves
K around it when the arm is rotated. B is called the planet gear and C the sun.
Power In 2S u N1 T1 u 60 N1 T1
Suppose gear C is fixed and the arm A makes one revolution. Determine how many revolutions
the planet gear B makes.
Because the torque in and out is different, a gear box has to be clamped in order to stop the case
or body rotating. A holding torque T3 must be applied to the body through the clamps. Step Action A B C
The total torque must add up to zero. 1 Revolve all once 1 1 1
T1 + T2 + T3 = 0 tC
2 Revolve C by –1 revolution, keeping the arm fixed 0 -1
tB
If we use a convention that anti-clockwise is positive and clockwise is negative we can determine tC
1
the holding torque. The direction of rotation of the output shaft depends on the design of the 3 Add 1 tB 0
gear box.
Compound Gear Trains: Compound gears are simply a

Step 1 is to revolve everything once about the center.
chain of simple gear trains with the input of the second
Ǥ Step 2 identify that C should be fixed and rotate it backwards one revolution keeping the arm
fixed as it should only do one revolution in total. Work out the revolutions of B.
6LQFHJHDU%DQG&DUHRQWKHVDPHVKDIW
Z B ZC Step 3 is simply add them up and we find the total revs of C is zero and for the arm is 1.
ZA tB tD
u GR § t ·
ZD t A tC The number of revolutions made by B is ¨¨1 C ¸¸
© tB ¹
Since Z 2 u S u N
The gear ratio may be tC
Note: that if C revolves -1, then the direction of B is opposite so .
written as : tB
N In t B t D
u GR
N Out t A t C
Reverted Gear train: The driver and driven axes lies on
the same line. These are used in speed reducers, clocks
N A tB u tD
and machine tools. GR
ND t A u tC
If R and T=Pitch circle radius & number of teeth of the

gear
RA + RB = RC + RD and tA + tB = tC + tD
Part 5.3: Flywheel again maximum at d & minimum at a. Thus, there are two maximum & two minimum speeds for
the turning-moment diagram.
A flywheel is a device which serves as a reservoir to store energy when the supply of energy is
more than the requirement and releases energy when the requirement is more than the supply. The difference between the greatest & the least speeds of the engine over one revolution is
Thereby, it controls the fluctuation of speed of the prime mover during each cycle of operation. known as the fluctuation of speed
5.3.1 Turning Moment Diagram Turning Moment Diagram for Single-cylinder Four stroke Engine:
A turning moment diagram also known as a crank effort diagram is the graphical representation −
of the turning moments for different positions of the crank.
+
Turning Moment Diagram for Single-cylinder Double acting Steam Engine: Turning moment
k
+
e f h j e f
Torque
p
0
p SUCTION COMPRESSION EXPANSION EXHAUST
crank angle,
FIG. 5.3.1.1
Fig.5. 3.1.2
It can be observed from Fig. 5.3.1.1 that during the outstroke ( ) the turning moment is
maximum when the crank angle is little less than 90° (π/2) & zero when the crank angle is zero In case of a four-stroke IC engine, the diagram repeats itself after every two revolutions instead
& 180° (π). Similar turning moment diagram is obtained during the instroke ( ). of one revolution as for a steam engine. It can be seen from the diagram (Fig. 5.3.1.2) that for the
majority of the suction stroke, turning moment is –ve but becomes +ve after point ‘p’. During the
Note that the area of the turning-moment diagram is proportional to the work done per
compression stroke, it is totally –ve. It is +ve throughout the expansion stroke & again –ve for
revolution as the work is the product of turning-moment & the angle turned.
most of the exhaust stroke.
The mean torque against which the engine works is given by = where is the Turning Moment Diagram for Multi-cylinder Engine:
mean torque and is the mean height of the turning-moment diagram.
Mean
When the crank turns from angle to (Fig. 5.3.1.1), the work done by the engine is Torque
represented by area ℎ . But the work done against the resisting torque is represented by the
area ℎ . Thus, the engine has done more work than what has been taken from it. The excess b c d e
work is represented by the area ℎ. This excess work increases the speed of the engine and is
stored in the flywheel.
1st 2nd 3rd
During the crank travel from or the work needed for the external resistance is
Torque
proportional to ℎ , whereas the work produced by the engine is represented by the area under
ℎ . Thus, during this period, more work has been taken from the engine that is produced. The
loss is made up by the flywheel which gives up some of its energy & the speed decreases during
this period.
0 f
Similarly, during the period of crank travel from to , excess work is again developed and is
stored in the flywheel and the speed of the engine increases. During the crank travel from to
, the loss of work is made up by flywheel and the speed again decreases. Fig. 3.1.3
The area ℎ, ℎ , & represent fluctuations of energy of the fly wheel. When the crank is
at b, the flywheel has absorbed energy while the crank has moved from a to b and thereby, the As observed in the foregoing paragraphs, the turning-moment diagram for a single cylinder
speed of the engine is maximum. At c, the flywheel has given out energy while the crank has engine varies considerably & a greater variation of the same is observed in case of four stroke,
moved from b to c and thus, the engine has a minimum speed. Similarly, the engine speed is single-cylinder engine. For engines with more than one cylinder, the total crank shaft torque at
any instant is given by the sum of the torques developed by each cylinder at the instant. For The whole weight of the flywheel is assumed to be concentrated in the rim of the flywheel,
example, if an engine has two cylinders with cranks at 90°, the resultant turning moment therefore it is usual practice to neglect the weight of the arms and the boss in the design of the
diagram has a less variation than that for a single cylinder. In a three-cylinder engine having its flywheel.
cranks at 120°, the variation is still less.
I = moment of Inertia of the Flywheel
Fig. 5.3.1.3 shows the turning moment diagrams for a multi-cylinder engine. The mean torque = maximum speed =
line ab intersects the turning moment curve at a, b, c, d & e. The area under the wavy curve is
equal to the area . As discussed earlier, the speed of the engine will be maximum when the = minimum speed =
crank positions correspond to b, d & minimum corresponding to a, c, e. = mean speed =
= Kinetic energy of the Flywheel at mean speed
Fluctuation of Energy: = Maximum fluctuation Energy
Let , be the areas in work units of the portions above the mean torque ae of the turning = Co-efficient of fluctuation of speed
moment diagram (Fig. 5.3.1.3) these areas represent quantities of energies added to the = ( / ). (radius of gyration)
flywheel. Parallely areas , below ae represents quantities of energies taken from the
= ,
flywheel.
The energies of the flywheel corresponding to positions of the crank are as follows. where, = is the average speed, ks = is the coefficient of fluctuation of speed
Crank position Flywheel energy The Hoop stress in the flywheel can be determined by assuming it is as a ring.
a E
b E+ Hoop stress, =
c E+ − Where, is the density of the rim & is its peripheral speed.
d E+ − + If b & d be the respective width and diameter of the flywheel & t its thickness, then
e E+ − + −
= . . .
− + − =0
Co-efficient of Fluctuation of energy ( )::
The greatest of these energies is the maximum kinetic energy of the flywheel & for the
corresponding crank position, the speed is maximum. Excess energy developed by the engine between two cranks positions.
The least of these energies is the least kinetic Energy of the fly wheel & for the corresponding = where, =
crank position, the speed is minimum.
= =
. .
The difference between the maximum & minimum kinetic energies of the fly wheel is known as
where, = mean torque = ,
the maximum fluctuation of energy.
= mean speed =
Whereas the ratio of this maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle is defined as
the co-efficient of fluctuation of energy. & = 4 for steam engine &
The difference between the greatest speed & the least speed is known as the maximum 4 for four stroke IC engine.
fluctuation of speed & the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is the co-
efficient of fluctuation of speed.
5.3.2 Size of Flywheel
There are two types of flywheels: disc type & arm type. In the arm type of flywheel, the weight of
the flywheel is mainly located in the rim & the arms & boss do not contribute much in storing the
energy.
Part 5.4: Vibrations The undamped natural frequency does not depend on the initial conditions or the amplitude of
motion. It only depends on the mass and stiffness.
Vibration refers to oscillations about an equilibrium point. A system vibrates when, it is possible
for energy to be converted from one form to another and back again. There are three types of 5.4.2 Damped Vibrations
vibrations viz. Free Vibrations, Damped Vibrations & Forced Vibrations
Real vibration systems have a source of energy dissipation and it is convenient to represent this
5.4.1 Free Vibration by a massless viscous damper as shown. This produces a drag force opposing the motion which
depends on the velocity of the mass.
A free vibration is one that dies away with time due to energy dissipation. Usually there is some
initial disturbance. Following this initial disturbance the system vibrates without any further Thus the damping coefficient c, of the damper, results in an additional force − ̇ ( ) on the mass.
input. This is called the transient vibration or free vibration. Consider the motion of the Thus from Newton’s second law of motion using a free body diagram, the equation of motion is,
spring/mass system when it is initially disturbed and then allowed to vibrate freely. The
displacement of the mass with time, x(t), is measured from the static equilibrium position, i.e. m ̈+ ̇ ( ) + kx(t) = 0 . . . 5.4.2.1
the rest position.
If the spring has a linear stiffness k, then = kx.
If at some time t the mass is displaced an amount x(t) in the positive direction as shown.
Then there will be a force on the mass from the spring of –kx(t).
Thus from Newton’s second law of motion using a free – body diagram,
m ̈ + kx(t) = 0 . . .5.4.1.1
Equilibrium
position x(t)
It is useful to divide equation (5.4.2.1) by m so that rearranging we obtain,

̈( ) + 2 ( )+ ( )=0 . . . 5.4.2.2
Equilibrium
Where is the undamped natural frequency as before and the viscous damping ratio is defined
position
as
ξ=
√
The solution of equation (5.4.2.2) has different forms depending on the value of ξ.
x(t)
If the initial conditions are x(0) and ̇ (0) then for
Equation (5.4.1.1) is called the equation of motion. The equation is unchanged if gravity effects ξ<1
are included. The solution of the equation of motion gives, [ ̇( ) ( )]
̇( )
x(t) = (0) 1− +
x(t) = x(0) cos +
=1
where x(0) is the initial displacement from the equilibrium position; ̇ (0) is the initial velocity.
The frequency Zn is called the undamped natural frequency and is given by x(t) = [ (0) + [ ̇ (0) + (0)] ]
>1
= /
[ ̇( ) ( )]
Thus for an initial displacement but with no initial velocity the motion is sinusoidal with an x(t) = (0) ℎ − 1+
amplitude x(0) and frequency Zn,
Logarithmic decrement: For damping ratio ξ < 1.0 then vibration will occur and the motion is
x(t) = x(0) cos defined by
[ ̇( ) ( )] The mathematical solution of the equation of motion may be achieved in various ways. It will be
x(t) = (0) 1− ,
found that after an initial transient (depending on initial conditions and start up effects from
and looks like applying the sinusoidally varying force) the motion becomes a steady sinusoidal displacement.
This situation is known as the steady state.
x(t )
x(t )
The steady state solution for x(t) can be shown to be
x(t) = X sin (ωt + ϕ) . . .5. 4.3.2
Where x = [( ) ( ) ] /
and tan ϕ = ( )
t t X is the displacement amplitude and ϕ is the phase angle between displacement and force.
It is common to non-dimensionalize these equations so that
= / …5. 4.3.3
It can be shown that, if the amplitudes on any two successive peaks are measured, the ratio of /
and tan ϕ = . . . 5.4.3.4
these amplitudes is constant. For any value of m, the log decrement will be
δ = ln[x( )/ ( )] = 2 / 1− Where = / ξ= and =
√
This equation can be rearranged to give, = The equation may be presented in graphical form,
√
For small values of δ, =

5 = 0.1
5.4.3 Forced vibration
4
A forced vibration is usually defined as being one that is kept going by an external excitation. We
now come to look at the vibration of a one degree of freedom system when there is an externally 3
applied force. The system will respond to the force. The response will depend on the particular
forcing function. We will look at a forcing function that illustrate most of the main effects 2
resulting from external forces.
1
It is a sinusoidally varying force that has a particular frequency which is popularly known as
harmonic excitation. 0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0
−
k c
−
−
x(t) F sin ωt
is known as magnification factor (MF)
The equation of motion when the force input f(t) is F sin ωt is M.F o 1 as o0
̈( ) + ̇( ) + ( )= . . . 5.4.3.1 M.F o 0 as o∞
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Notes: Part – 6: Machine Design

The response curve has a resonance. The resonance is at a frequency = 1−2
Part 6.1: Theory of Failures
There is thus no resonance (i.e. no peak in the response) when ξ >1/√2
At resonance the response peak equals 1/2ξ for small ξ. The value of ξ may be determined from
the response curve for small ξ. The phase ϕ varies from 0 to – 180 degrees, i.e. the displacement
lags the force. 6.1.1 Theories of Failure under Static Load
Resonance: The strength of machine members is based upon the mechanical properties of the materials
Resonance used. Since these properties are usually determined from simple tension or compression tests,
predicting failure in members subjected to uniaxial stress is both simple and straight-forward.
5
But the problem of predicting the failure stresses for members subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial
4 stresses is much more complicated, that a large number of different theories have been
formulated. The principle theories of failure for a member subjected to tri-axial stress are as
3
follows:
= 0.1
2
1. Maximum principle (or normal) stress theory (also known as Rankine’s theory).
1 2. Maximum shear stress theory (also known as Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).
3. Maximum principle (or normal) strain theory (also known as Saint Venant theory).
0 4. Maximum strain energy theory (also known as Haigh’s theory).
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 5. Maximum distortion energy theory (also known as Hencky and Von Mises theory).
6. Octahedral Shearing Stress theory.
Resonant frequency
Ductile materials have identifiable yield strength that is often same in compression as in tension
Resonance occurs, i.e. X/ is a maximum, when (X/X ) /dt is zero. This can be shown to be (Syt = Syc = Sy ).
when
ω = ω (1 − 2ξ ) Brittle materials, do not exhibit identifiable yield strength, and are typically classified by
ultimate tensile and compressive strengths, Sut and Suc, respectively (where Suc is given as a
However note that there is no real solution for ω when ξ > 1/√2, i.e the response continuously positive quantity)
falls with frequency. The final point of interest is the response amplitude at resonance, X/X
Maximum principle or Normal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory) for Brittle materials
For small values of ξ, X/X is equal to 1/(2 ξ).
Vibration Isolation: Vibration forces generated by machines and other causes are often The elastic failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum principle or
unavoidable; however, their effects on a dynamical system can be minimized by proper isolator normal stress reaches the limiting strength of the material in a simple tension test irrespective
design. An isolation system reduces the excessive vibration transmission to the delicate objects of the value of other two principle stresses, i.e., when =
from its supporting structure.
Since the limiting strength for ductile materials is yield point stress and for brittle materials is
The force to be isolated is transmitted through spring and damper. Its equation is ultimate stress, the maximum principle or normal stress ( ) is given by
F = (kX) + (cωX) = kX 1 + . . . 5.4.3.5 =
The ratio of transmitted force to that of disturbing force is known as Transmissibility ratio (TR). =
Mathematically, it is
Where, = Yield stress in tension as determined from simple tension test
= Ultimate stress
TR = = . . . 5.4.3.6 FOS = Factor of Safety
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Since this theory ignores the possibility of failure due to shearing stress, it is not used for ductile Shear Strain energy or Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky and Von Mises Theory)
materials.
The failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the distortion strain energy (also
However, for brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear but weak in tension or called shear strain energy) per unit volume in the stressed material reaches the limiting
compression, this theory is generally used. distortion energy (i.e. distortion energy at yield point) per unit volume as determined from a
simple tension test. Mathematically, the maximum distortion energy theory for yielding is
Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s Theory) for ductile materials. expressed as
The elastic failure occurs when the greatest shear stress reaches a value equal to the shear stress ( − ) +( − ) +( − ) = 2
at elastic limit in a simple tension test.
( − )= or
( − )=
Maximum Principle Strain Theory (Saint Venant’s Theory)

The elastic failure occurs when the greatest principle (or normal) strain reaches the elastic limit
point (i.e. strain at yield point) as determined from a simple tensile test.
According to the above theory, the elastic failure will occur, when
1
[ − ( + )] =
This theory over-estimates the elastic strength of ductile materials.
Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Beltrami’s or Haigh’s Theory) for ductile materials
Fig. 6.1.1 The distortion-energy (DE) theory for plane stress states
The failure or yielding occurs when the strain energy per unit volume in a strained material
This theory is mostly used for ductile materials in place of maximum strain energy theory.
reaches the limiting strain energy (i.e. strain energy at the yield point ) per unit volume as
determined from simple tension test. Note: The maximum distortion energy is the difference between the total strain energy and the
strain energy due to uniform stress.
According to this theory, the maximum energy which a body can store without deforming
plastically is constant for that material irrespective of the manner of loading. Octahedral Shearing Stress Theory
1
[ + + −2 ( + + )] = According to this theory, the critical quantity is the shearing stress on the octahedral plane. The
2 2
plane which is equally inclined to all the three principle axes is called the octahedral plane.
[ + + −2 ( + + )] =
This theory breaks down for a case when,
= = =−
And in that case failure is predicted when
=
3(1 − 2 )
But in fact with this type of loading (i.e.,) when there is uniform pressure all round (hydrostatic
pressure), no failure occurs.
This theory may be used for ductile materials.

Fig. 6.1.2 Octahedral surfaces
= [( − ) +( − ) +( − ) ] If the loading conditions are suitably altered, a brittle material may be made to yield before
failure. Hence, design of a member requires the determination of the mode of failure (yielding
or fracture), and the factor (such as stress, strain and energy) associated with it. Full scale tests
Where, simulating all conditions would be ideal but not practicable.
= Octahedral shearing stress
In practice, in complex loading conditions, the factor associated with failure has to be identified
and precautions taken to ensure that this factor does not exceed maximum allowable value
√
Failure is said to occur when = determined on the basis of suitable tests (uniform tension or torsion) on the material in the
laboratory.
This theory is supported quite well by experimental evidences and is identical to Von Mises
theory. Results of many laboratory tests on ductile material shows shear stress from torsion tests varies
between 0.55 and 0.6 of the yield strength determined from tension tests. This result agrees
6.1.2 Theories of failure for two dimensional stresses: with shear strain energy theory and octahedral shear stress theory. The maximum shear stress
theory predicts that the shear yield value is 0.5 times the tensile yield value, which is about 15%
Taking as zero, the above equations reduce to less than the value predicted by the other two theories.
1. Maximum principle stress theory The maximum shear stress theory gives design values on the safe side and is widely used in
= design with ductile materials.
2. Maximum principle strain theory

( − )=
3. Maximum shear stress theory

(a) For like tensile stresses
> >0
−0 =
=
(b) For unlike stresses ≥0> ( )

− =
ℎ =
>0>
− =
4. Maximum strain energy theory

+ −2 =
5. Maximum distortion energy theory

+ − =
6.1.3 Significance of theories of failure
Mode of failure of a ductile material differs from that of brittle material. It depends on a large
number of factors like
x Nature and Properties of the material

x Type of loading
x Shape of member
x Temperature of member, etc.
Part 6.2: Fatigue
6.2.1 Stress concentration
Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross-section, the simple stress
distribution no longer holds good and the neighbourhood of the discontinuity is different. This
irregularity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt changes of form is called stress
concentration.
It occurs for all kinds of stresses in the presence of fillets, notches, holes, keyways, splines,
surface roughness or scratches etc. Fig. 6.2.2 Stress Concentration due to holes
From the stress-distribution, the stress at the point away from the hole is practically uniform
and the maximum stress is induced at the edge of the hole. The maximum stress is given by
2
= 1+
Fig. 6.2.1
and the theoretical stress concentration factor,
In the above member with different cross-section under a tensile load, the nominal stress in the
2
right and left hand sides will be uniform but in the region where the cross-section is changing, a = = 1+
re-distribution of the force within the member must take place. The maximum stress occurs at
some point on the fillet and is directed parallel to the boundary at that point.
When a/b is large (a), the ellipse approaches a crack transverse to the load and the value of Kt
becomes very large. When a/b is small (b), the ellipse approaches a longitudinal slit and the
Theoretical or Form Stress Concentration Factor:
increase in stress is small. When the hole is circular (c), then a/b = 1 and the maximum stress is
The theoretical or form stress concentration factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum stress three times the nominal value.
to the nominal stress at the same section based upon net area.
Maximum stress
K =
Nominal stress
The value of Kt depends upon the material and geometry of the part.
x In static loading, stress concentration in ductile materials is not so serious as in brittle

materials, because in ductile materials local deformation or yielding takes place which Fig. 6.2.3 Stress Concentration due to notches
reduces the concentration. In brittle materials, cracks may appear at these local
concentrations of stress which will increase the stress over the rest of the section. The stress concentration in the notched tension member, is influenced by the depth a of the
x In cyclic loading, stress concentration in ductile materials is always serious because the notch and radius r at the bottom of the notch. The maximum stress, which applies to members
ductility of the material is not effective in relieving the concentration of stress caused by having notches that are small in comparison with the width of the plate, may be obtained by the
cracks, flaws, surface roughness, or any sharp discontinuity in the geometrical form of the following equation,
member. If the stress at any point in a member is above the endurance limit of the material, a
crack may develop under the action of repeated load and the crack will lead to failure of the 2
= 1+
member.
Stress Concentration due to Holes and Notches: Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration:
x Maintain or improve the spacing of the stress flow lines that tend to bunch up and cut very
Consider a plate with transverse elliptical hole and subjected to a tensile load as shown in the close to the sharp re-entrant corner, by providing
figure. 9 Fillets and
9 Notches ( when not possible to use large radius fillets as in case of ball and roller bearing
mountings)
x The stress concentration effects of a press fit may be reduced by making more gradual 1. Mean or average stress,
transition from the rigid to the more flexible shaft
+
=
6.2.2 Dynamic loading
x The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the same nature, 2. Reversed stress component or alternating or variable stress,
(i.e. tensile or compressive) are called fluctuating stresses. −
=
Note: For repeated loading, the stress varies from maximum to zero (i.e. = 0) in each cycle.
∴ = =
3. Stress ratio,
Fig. 6.2.4
x For completely reversed stresses, R = – 1
x The stresses which vary from zero to a certain maximum value are called repeated x For repeated stresses, R = 0.
stresses. x R cannot be greater than unity.
4. Relation between endurance limit and stress ratio
=
−
Where,
= Endurance limit for any stress range represented by R.
Fig. 6.2.5 = Endurance limit for completely reversed stresses, and
x The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the opposite = Stress ratio.
nature (i.e. from a certain minimum compressive to a certain maximum tensile or from a
6.2.3 Fatigue
minimum tensile to a maximum compressive) are called alternating stresses.
When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield point
stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue.
The fatigue of material is effected by the size of the component, relative magnitude of static and
fluctuating loads and the number of load reversals.
Fatigue failure is due to crack formation and propagation. A fatigue crack will typically initiate at
a discontinuity in the material where the cyclic stress is a maximum.
Discontinuities can arise because of:

Fig. 6.2.6
x Design of rapid changes in cross section, keyways, holes, etc. where stress
The variable stress, in general, may be considered as a combination of steady (or mean or
concentrations occur
average) stress and a completely reversed stress component.
x Elements that roll and/or slide against each other (bearings, gears, cams, etc.) under beam machine) of standard laboratory controlled specimens. The loading often is that of
high contact pressure, developing concentrated subsurface contact stresses that can sinusoidally reversing pure bending. The laboratory-controlled specimens are polished without
cause surface pitting or spalling after many cycles of the load. geometric stress concentration at the region of minimum area.
x Carelessness in locations of stamp marks, tool marks, scratches, and burrs; poor joint
design; improper assembly; and other fabrication faults.
x Composition of the material itself as processed by rolling, forging, casting, extrusion,
drawing, heat treatment, etc. Microscopic and submicroscopic surface and subsurface
discontinuities arise, such as inclusions of foreign material, alloy segregation, voids, hard
precipitated particles, and crystal discontinuities.
Conditions that accelerate crack initiation: Fig. 6.2.7 Test-specimen geometry for the R.R. Moore rotating beam machine.
x residual tensile stresses

x elevated temperatures
x temperature cycling
x corrosive environment
x high-frequency cycling
Fatigue-Life Methods
x Stress-life method
x Strain-life method
x Linear-elastic fracture mechanics method
These methods attempt to predict the life in number of cycles to failure, N, for a specific level of
loading.
N ≤ 103 - low-cycle fatigue
N > 103 - high-cycle fatigue
Stress-life method:
Fig. 6.2.8 S-N diagram for steel, normalized; Sut = 116 kpsi; maximum Sut = 125 kpsi.
9 Based on stress levels only
9 Least accurate approach, especially for low-cycle applications.
9 Easiest to implement for a wide range of design applications,
9 Has ample supporting data, and
9 Represents high-cycle applications adequately.
Strain-life method:
9 More detailed analysis of the plastic deformation at localized regions where the stresses
and strains are considered for life estimate
9 Good Method for low-cycle fatigue applications
9 In applying this method, several idealizations must be compounded, and so some
uncertainties will exist in the results.
Fracture mechanics method:
9 Assumes a crack is already present and detected. It is then employed to predict crack
growth with respect to stress intensity.
9 Most practical when applied to large structures in conjunction with computer codes and
a periodic inspection program. Fig. 6.2.9 S-N bands for representative aluminum alloys, excluding wrought alloys with Sut < 38
kpsi
Fatigue Strength and the Endurance Limit:
The strength-life (S-N) diagram provides the fatigue strength Sf versus cycle life N of a material. For steel and iron, the S-N diagram becomes horizontal at some point. The strength at this point
The results are generated from tests using a simple loading (R. R.Moore high-speed rotating- is called the endurance limit [maximum value of the completely reversed bending stress which a
polished standard specimen can withstand without failure for infinite number of cycles (usually
107 cycles)]. S′e and occurs somewhere between 106 and 107 cycles. For non-ferrous materials Fatigue stress concentration factor,
that do not exhibit an endurance limit, a fatigue strength at a specific number of cycles, S′f , may
be given. The strength data are based on many controlled conditions that will not be the same as =
that for an actual machine part. What follows are practices used to account for the differences
between the loading and physical conditions of the specimen and the actual machine part. Notch Sensitivity Factor:
The term endurance limit is used for reversed bending only while for other types of loading, the The notch sensitivity of a material is a measure of how sensitive a material is to notches or
term endurance strength may be used when referring the fatigue strength of the material. It may geometric discontinuities. Mathematically, it is expressed as
be defined as the safe maximum stress which can be applied to the machine part working under
actual conditions. −1
=
−1
Endurance Limit Modifying Factors:
0≤ ≤1
Modifying factors are defined and used to account for differences between the specimen and the
actual machine part with regard to surface conditions, size, loading, temperature, reliability, and Combination of Mean Stress and Fluctuating stress:
miscellaneous factors.
The mean stress can have a significant effect on the failure due to fatigue and must be
Factor of Safety for Fatigue Loading: considered in combination with the alternating stress.. (Under normal fatigue loading conditions
the mean stress is small compared to the alternating stress.)
When a component is subjected to fatigue loading, the endurance limit is the criterion for failure.
Therefore, the factor of safety should be based on endurance limit. Mathematically, A number of interaction criteria are used to quantify the combined stress and the relevant
design factors of safety. These are plotted together below
Factor of safety (FOS) = =
For Steel, Soderberg Line
= . .
Gerber Line
Where,
Goodman Line
= Endurance limit stress for completely reversed stress cycle, and
Modified Goodman Line
= Yield point stress.
Stress Amplitude
Factors to be Considered while Designing Machine Parts to Avoid Fatigue Failure:
x The variation in the size of the component should be as gradual as possible.

x The holes, notches and other stress raisers should be avoided. Mean Stress
x The proper stress de-concentrators such as fillets and notches should be provided
wherever necessary.
The Mean Stress σ is plotted on the horizontal axis and the alternating stress σ is plotted
x The parts should be protected from corrosive atmosphere.
on the vertical axis.
x A smooth finish of outer surface of the component increases the fatigue life.
x The material with high fatigue strength should be selected. Soderberg Line
x The residual compressive stresses over the parts surface increases its fatigue strength.
If the point of the combined stress is below the Soderberg line then the component will not fail.
Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor: This is a very conservative criteria based on the material yield point S
When a machine member is subjected to cyclic or fatigue loading, the value of fatigue stress
To establish the factor of safety relative to the Soderberg Criteria
concentration factor shall be applied instead of theoretical stress concentration factor. Since the
determination of fatigue stress concentration factor is not an easy task, therefore from
experimental tests it is defined as
Part 6.3: Design of Machine Elements

1
+ = 6.3.1 Design of riveted joints
Types of riveted joints and joint efficiency:
Goodman Line/Modified Goodman Line Riveted joints are mainly of two types
1. Lap joints
If the point of the combined stress is below the relevant Goodman line then the component will
2. Butt joints
not fail. This is a less conservative criteria based on the material Ultimate strength yield point
S Table 6.3.1.Efficiencies of riveted joints (in %)
Joints Efficiencies (in %)
To establish the factor of safety relative to the Goodman Criteria
Lap Single riveted 50-60
1 Double riveted 60-72
+ =
Triple riveted 72-80
Butt (double Single riveted 55-60
Gerber Line
strap) Double riveted 76-84
If the point of the combined stress is below the Gerber line then the component will not fail. This Triple riveted 80-88
is a less conservative criteria based on the material Ultimate strength S
Few parameters, which are required to specify arrangement of rivets in a riveted joint are as
To establish the factor of safety relative to the Gerber Criteria follows:
a. Pitch: This is the distance between two centers of the consecutive rivets in a single row.
(usual symbol p)
+ =1 b. Back Pitch: This is the shortest distance between two successive rows in a multiple
riveted joint. (usual symbol p or p )
x S = The Modified fatigue strength c. Diagonal pitch: This is the distance between the centers of rivets in adjacent rows of
x S = The ultimate tensile strength zigzag riveted joint. (usual symbol d )
x S = The yield tensile strength d. Margin or marginal pitch: This is the distance between the centre of the rivet hole to the
x N = The Factor of Safety applicable for Fatigue nearest edge of the plate. (usual symbol m)
These parameters are shown in figure
g 6.3.1.7.
Figure 6.3.1.7 Important design parameters of riveted joint
Strength of riveted joint: c) Crushing of rivet: If the bearing stress on the rivet is too large the contact surface between
the rivet and the plate may get damaged. (see Figure 6.3.1.4). With a simple assumption of
Strength of a riveted joint is evaluated taking all possible failure paths in the joint into account. uniform contact stress the maximum force allowed is
Since rivets are arranged in a periodic manner, the strength of joint is usually calculated P = s dt
considering one pitch length of the plate. There are four possible ways a single rivet joint may
fail. where s = allowable bearing stress between the rivet and plate material.
a) Tearing of the plate: If the force is too large, the plate may fail in tension along the row (see
figure 6.3.1.2). The maximum force allowed in this case is
P = s (p − d)t
where s = allowable tensile stress of the plate material
p = pitch
d = diameter of the rivet hole
t = thickness of the plate
Figure 6.3.1.4 Failure of rivets by
d) Tearing of the plate at edge: If the margin is too small, the plate may fail as shown in figure
6.3.1.5. To prevent the failure a minimum margin of m = 1.5d is usually provided.
Figure 6.3.1.2 Failure of plate in tension (tearing)
b) Shearing of the rivet: The rivet may shear as shown in Figure 6.3.1.3 . The maximum force
withstood by the joint to prevent this failure is
P =s d for lap joint, single strap butt joint
= 2s d for double strap butt joint
where s = allowable shear stress of the rivet material.
Figure 6.3.1.5 Tearing of the plate at the edge
Efficiency:
Efficiency of the single riveted joint can be obtained as ratio between the maximum of P , P and
P and the load carried by a solid plate which is
s pt. Thus
Figure 6.3.1.3 Failure of a rivet by shearing
( , , )
efficiency (η)=
In a double or triple riveted joint the failure mechanisms may be more than those discussed =
above. The failure of plate along the outer row may occur in the same way as above. However, in
addition the inner rows may fail. For example, in a double riveted joint, the plate may fail along where s = allowable tensile strength of the weld material.
the second row. But in order to do that the rivets in the first row must fail either by shear or by
crushing. Thus the maximum allowable load such that the plate does not tear in the second row t = thickness of the weld
is
l = length of the weld.
P = s (p − d)t + min{P , P }
For a square butt joint t is equal to the thickness of the plates. In general, this need not be so
Further, the joint may fail by (see figure 6.3.2.1).
(i) shearing of rivets in both rows

(ii) crushing of rivets in both rows
(iii) shearing of rivet in one row and crushing in the other row.
The efficiency should be calculated taking all possible failure mechanism into consideration.
Design of rivet joints:
The design parameters in a riveted joints are, d, p, and m
Diameter of the hole (d): When thickness of the plate (t) is more than 8 mm, Unwin’s formula is
used,
= 6√t mm. Figure 6.3.2.1 Design of a butt joint
Otherwise d is obtained by equating crushing strength to the shear strength of the joint. In a 2. Design of transverse fillet joint: Consider a single transverse joint as shown in figure 6.3.2.2.
double riveted zigzag joint, this implies The general stress distribution in the weld metal is very complicated. In design, a simple
procedure is used assuming that entire load P acts as shear force on the throat area, which is
s t= d s (valid for t < 8 ) the smallest area of the cross section in a fillet weld. If the fillet weld has equal base and
height, (h, say), then the cross section of the throat is easily seen to be . With the above
However, d should not be less than t, in any case. The standard size of d is tabulated in code IS: √
consideration the permissible load carried by a transverse fillet weld is
1928-1961.
P=s A
Pitch (p): Pitch is designed by equating the tearing strength of the plate to the shear strength of
the rivets. In a double riveted lap joint, this takes the following form.
where s = allowable shear stress
s (p − d)t = s × 2 d A = throat area.
But p ≥ 2d in order to accommodate heads of the rivets. For a double transverse fillet joint the allowable load is twice that of the single fillet joint.
Margin (m): m = 1.5d
In order to design boiler joints, a designer must also comply with Indian Boiler Regulations
(I.B.R.).
(p : usually 0.33p + 0.67d mm)
6.3.2 Design of welded joints
1. Design of a butt joint: The main failure mechanism of welded butt joint is tensile failure.
Therefore the strength of a butt joint is Figure 6.3.2.2 Design of a single transverse fillet
3. Design of parallel fillet joint: Consider a parallel fillet weld as shown in figure 6.3.2.3. Each shear stress develops in the weld in a similar way as in parallel fillet joint. Assuming that the
weld carries a load P 2. It is easy to see from the strength of material approach that the weld thickness is very small compared to the diameter of the shaft, the maximum shear
maximum shear occurs along the throat area (try to prove it). The allowable load carried by stress occurs in the throat area. Thus, for a given torque the maximum shear stress in the
weld is
each of the joint is s A where the throat area A = . The total allowable load is
√
( )
P = 2s A . τ =
where T = torque applied.
d = outer diameter of the shaft
t = throat thickness
I = polar moment of area of the throat section.
= [(d + 2t ) −d ]
When, t ≪ d, τ = =
The throat dimension and hence weld dimension can be selected from the equation
Figure 6.3.2.3 Design of a parallel fillet joint =s
In designing a weld joint the design variables are h and l. They can be selected based on the
above design criteria. When a combination of transverse and parallel fillet joint is required
(see figure-6.3.2.4) the allowable load is
P = 2s A + s A ′
where A = throat area along the longitudinal direction.
A ′= throat area along the transverse direction.
Fig. 6.3.2.5 Design of a fillet weld for torsion
6.3.3 Design of Shafts
Shaft is a common and important machine element. It is a rotating member, in general, has a
circular cross-section and is used to transmit power. The shaft may be hollow or solid. The shaft
Figure 6.3.2.4 Design of combined transverse and parallel fillet joint
is supported on bearings and it rotates a set of gears or pulleys for the purpose of power
4. Design of circular fillet weld subjected to torsion: Consider a circular shaft connected to a transmission. The shaft is generally acted upon by bending moment, torsion and axial force.
Design of shaft primarily involves in determining stresses at critical point in the shaft that is
plate by means of a fillet joint as shown in figure-6.3.2.5. If the shaft is subjected to a torque,
arising due to mentioned loading.
Design based on Strength σ = yield stress in compression
The stress at any point on the shaft depends on the nature of load acting on it. The stresses Stress due to torsion
which may be present are as follows.
τ = ( )
Basic stress equations:
Bending stress Where,
σ = T: Torque on the shaft

( )
τ : Shear stress due to torsion
Where,
Combined Bending and Axial stress
M: Bending moment at the point of interest
Both bending and axial stresses are normal stresses, hence the net normal stress is given by,
d : Outer diameter of the shaft
σ = ( )
+ ( )
k: Ratio of inner to outer diameters of the shaft ( k = 0 for a solid shaft because inner
diameter is zero )
The net normal stress can be either positive or negative. Normally, shear stress due to torsion is
Axial Stress only considered in a shaft and shear stress due to load on the shaft is neglected.
σ = Maximum shear stress theory

( )
Design of the shaft mostly uses maximum shear stress theory. It states that a machine member
Where, fails when the maximum shear stress at a point exceeds the maximum allowable shear stress for
the shaft material. Therefore,
F: Axial force (tensile or compressive)
α: Column-action factor(= 1.0 for tensile load) τ = τ = +τ
The term α has been introduced in the equation. This is known as column action factor. What is a
column action factor? This arises due the phenomenon of buckling of long slender members
Substituting the values of σ and τ in the above equation, the final form is,
which are acted upon by axial compressive loads.
Here, α is defined as, ( )

τ = ( )
C M+ + (C T)
α= . ( / )
for L/K < 115
Therefore, the shaft diameter can be calculated in terms of external loads and material
properties. However, the above equation is further standarized for steel shafting in terms of
α= for L/K > 115 allowable design stress and load factors in ASME design code for shaft.
6.3.4 Design of Bearings

Where,
Bearings are machine elements which are used to support a rotating member viz., a shaft. They
n = 1.0 for hinged end
transmit the load from a rotating member to a stationary member known as frame or housing.
n = 2.25 for fixed end
They permit relative motion of two members in one or two directions with minimum friction,
n = 1.6 for ends partly restrained, as in bearing and also prevent the motion in the direction of the applied load.
K = least radius of gyration, L = shaft length The bearings are classified broadly into two categories based on the type of contact they have
between the rotating and the stationary member
a. Sliding contact Hydrodynamic lubrication:

b. Rolling contact
If a lubricant film is enclosed in a wedge or tapered gap between the stationary and moving
The sliding contact bearings have surface contact and come under lower kinematic pair. members, the oil film is drawn into the wedge shape generating a pressure that can support a
load.
Journal / sleeve bearings:
It has been shown experimentally that the coefficient of friction varies as shown in Figure
Among the sliding contact bearings radial bearings find wide applications in industries and 6.3.4.2. In which a curve of f versus is plotted. It is found that the operation of a bearing to the
hence these bearings are dealt in more detail here.
left of point B, the lubrication is not stable and is known as boundary lubrication.
The radial bearings are also called journal or sleeve bearings. The portion of the shaft inside the A
bearing is called the journal and this portion needs better finish and specific property.
Depending on the extent to which the bearing envelops the journal, these bearings are classified C
as full, partial and fitted bearings. As shown in Fig. 6.3.4.1 f
B
μN/P
Figure 6.3.4.2
However, if we are operating in the region BC, the lubrication is stable and is known as thick film
or hydrodynamic lubrication.
When a journal starts rotating in a bearing as shown in Figure 6.3.4.3, below the lubricant is
(a) Full (b) Partial (c) Fitted forced into a wedge shaped (strictly a curved wedge) space by a pumping type of action and the
pressure built up in the wedge supports the load on the journal.
Figure 6.3.4.1 Various types of journal bearings.
Bearing Line of centres
Petroff’s Equation:
Journal
The relation between bearing friction and viscosity of the lubricant in a circular journal bearing
e O′
which is running truly concentric is given by,
O
f = 2π . .
where f = coefficient of friction, h

β
c = radial clearance
= viscosity,
Figure 6.3.4.3
N = rev/min or rev/sec,
As a result of the lubricant pressure, a minimum film thickness h occurs, not at the bottom of
p = pressure and
the journal, but displaced in the direction of rotation, as shown in the Figure 6.3.4.3. This is
r, c = radius and radial clearance respectively. because the lubricant pressure in converging gap reaches maximum at a point to the left of the
bearing centre.
In the above relation the parameter is called the bearing characteristic or the bearing In a journal bearing, the following nomenclature is used.
modulus. This a very important dimensionless parameter.
c is the radial clearance and is the difference in the radii of the bearing and the journal.
is known as the clearance ratio.
e is the eccentricity and is the distance between the centers O and O′ of the journal and and the other is in relative motion, a frictional force dF is developed between the members. The
bearing respectively. magnitude of the frictional force is equal to the co-efficient of friction times the normal force dN
h is the minimum film thickness and it occurs on the line of centres. (The film thickness
at any other point is normally designated as h)
∈ is the eccentricity ratio = also = 1 − .
β shown in Figure is the angular length of a partial bearing, if it is not a full circle.
A bearing in which the radii of the bearing and the journal are equal, is known as a fitted bearing.
The moment of the frictional force relative to the point of motion contributes to the retardation
of motion and braking. The basic mechanism of braking is illustrated above.
Rated life of a ball or roller bearings:
Design and Analysis: To design, select or analyze the performance of these devices knowledge on
(a) Ball bearings the following are required.
L =
x The braking torque
(b) Roller bearings
/ x The actuating force needed
L = x The energy loss and temperature rise
where L is the millions of revolutions that 90% of a group of bearings (which are apparently There are two major classes of brakes, namely drum brakes and disc brakes. Design and analysis
identical) will complete before any of them develops evidence of fatigue. of drum brakes will be considered in detail in following sections, the discussion that follow on
disc or plate clutches will form the basis for design of disc type of brakes.
When a bearing is installed there is no way of knowing whether it is one of the 90 per cent that
are good or one of the 10 per cent that will not attain the rating life. In other words, one can have Drum brakes basically consists of a rotating body called drum whose motion is braked together
but 90 per cent confidence that the bearing will achieve or exceed its rating life, usually with a shoe mounted on a lever which can swing freely about a fixed hinge H. A lining is attached
designated L . to the shoe and contacts the braked body. The actuation force P applied to the shoe gives rise to
a normal contact pressure distributed over the contact area between the lining and the braked
6.3.5 Brakes body. A corresponding friction force is developed between the stationary shoe and the rotating
body which manifest as retarding torque about the axis of the braked body.
A brake is a device by means of which artificial resistance is applied on to a moving machine
member in order to retard or stop the motion of the member or machine Brakes Classification: Various geometric configuration of drum brakes are illustrated below:
Types of Brakes: Different types of brakes are used in different applications. Based on the
working principle used, brakes can be classified as mechanical brakes, hydraulic brakes,
electrical (eddy current) magnetic and electro-magnetic types.
Mechanical Brakes: Mechanical brakes are invariably used based on the frictional resistance
principles.
In mechanical brakes artificial resistances are created using frictional contact between the
moving member and a stationary member, to retard or stop the motion of the moving member.
Basic mechanism of braking: The illustration below explains the working of mechanical brakes.
An element dA of the stationary member is shown with the braked body moving past at velocity
v. When the brake is actuated contact is established between the stationary and moving member
and a normal pressure is developed in the contact region. The elemental normal force dN is
equal to the product of contact pressure p and area of contact dA. As one member is stationary
Figure 6.3.5.1
Drum Brakes are classified based on the shoe geometry. Shoes are classified as being either The torque on the brake drum is then,
short or long. A short shoe is one whose lining dimension in the direction of motion is so small
that contact pressure variation is negligible, i.e. the pressure is uniform everywhere. T = f Fn. r = f.p.A.r
When the area of contact becomes larger, the contact may no longer be with a uniform pressure, A quasi static analysis is used to determine the other parameters of braking.
in which case the shoe is termed as long shoe. The shoes are either rigid or pivoted, pivoted
shoes are also some times known as hinged shoes. The shoe is termed rigid because the shoes Applying the equilibrium condition by taking moment about the pivot ‘O’ we can write
with attached linings are rigidly connected to the pivoted posts. In a hinged shoe brake – the
shoes are not rigidly fixed by hinged or pivoted to the posts. The hinged shoe is connected to the ∑M = F a − F b + f F c = 0
actuating post by the hinge, G, which introduces another degree of freedom.
Substituting for F and solving for the actuating force, we get,
Preliminary Analysis: The figure shows a brake shoe mounted on a lever, hinged at O, having an
actuating force F , applied at the end of the lever. On the application of an actuating force, a F = F (b − fc)/a
normal force F is created when the shoe contacts the rotating drum. And a frictional force F of
magnitude f. F , f being the coefficient of friction, develops between the shoe and the drum. The reaction forces on the hinged pin (pivot) are found from a summation of forces,
Moment of this frictional force about the drum center constitutes the braking torque.
i.e.
F = 0, R = fp A
F = 0, R = p A − F
Self – energizing:
The principle of self energizing and leading and trailing shoes
With the shown direction of the drum rotation (CCW), the moment of the frictional force f. F c
adds to the moment of the actuating force F . As a consequence, the required actuation force
needed to create a known contact pressure p is much smaller than that if this effect is not
present. This phenomenon of frictional force aiding the brake actuation is referred to as self –
energization.
(a) Brake assembly (b) Free-body diagram
Leading and trailing shoe:
x For a given direction of rotation the shoe in which self energization is present is known
as the leading shoe
x When the direction of rotation is changed, the moment of frictional force now will be
opposing the actuation force and hence greater magnitude of force is needed to create
the same contact pressure. The shoe on which this is prevailing is known as a trailing
shoe
Self Locking: At certain critical value of f.c. the term (b-fc) becomes zero. i.e no actuation force
need to be applied for braking. This is the condition for self-locking. Self-locking will not occur
Figure 6.3.5.2 unless it is specifically desired.
¾ Short Shoe Analysis:

¾ Short and Long Shoe Analysis:
For a short shoe we assume that the pressure is uniformly distributed over the contact area. x Foregoing analysis is based on a constant contact pressure p.
Consequently the equivalent normal force F = p. A, where = p is the contact pressure and A is x In reality, constant or uniform constant pressure may not prevail at all points of contact
the surface area of the shoe. Consequently the friction force Ff = f.Fn where f is the co-efficient of on the shoe.
friction between the shoe lining material and the drum material. x In such case the following general procedure of analysis can be adopted
General Procedure of Analysis: the contact pressure appropriately and uniform pressure condition may no longer prevail.
Hence the analysis here is based on uniform wear condition
x Estimate or determine the distribution of pressure on the frictional surfaces
x Find the relation between the maximum pressure and the pressure at any point Uniform pressure condition: Assuming uniform pressure and considering an elemental area dA
x For the given geometry, apply the condition of static equilibrium to find the actuating
force, torque and reactions on support pins etc. dA = 2Π.r dr
6.3.6 Clutch The normal force on this elemental area is
A Clutch is a machine member used to connect the driving shaft to a driven shaft, so that the dN = 2π.r.dr.p
driven shaft may be started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft. A clutch thus
provides an interruptible connection between two rotating shafts The frictional force dF on this area is therefore
To design analyze the performance of these devices, a knowledge on the following are required. dF = f.2π.r.dr.p
1. The torque transmitted

2. The actuating force.
3. The energy loss
4. The temperature rise
Friction Clutches: As in brakes a wide range of clutches are in use wherein they vary in their are
in use their working principle as well the method of actuation and application of normal forces.
The discussion here will be limited to mechanical type friction clutches or more specifically to
the plate or disc clutches also known as axial clutches.
Frictional Contact axial or Disc Clutches: An axial clutch is one in which the mating frictional
members are moved in a direction parallel to the shaft. A typical clutch is illustrated in the figure
below. It consist of a driving disc connected to the drive shaft and a driven disc connected to the
driven shaft. A friction plate is attached to one of the members. Actuating spring keeps both the
members in contact and power/motion is transmitted from one member to the other. When the
power of motion is to be interrupted the driven disc is moved axially creating a gap between the
members as shown in the figure.
Figure 6.3.6.3 A single-Surface Axial Disk Clutch
Now the torque that can be transmitted by this elemental area is equal to the frictional force
times the moment arm about the axis that is the radius ‘r’
i.e. T = dF. r = f. dN. r = f. p. A. r
= f. p. 2. π. r. dr . r
The total torque that could be transmitted is obtained by integrating this equation between the
limits of inner radius r to the outer radius r
2
T= 2πpfr dr = πpf r − r
Figure 6.3.6.2 3
The applied force can keep the members together with a uniform pressure all over its contact
Integrating the normal force between the same limits we get the actuating force that need to be
area and the consequent analysis is based on uniform pressure condition. However as the time
applied to transmit this torque.
progresses some wear takes place between the contacting members and this may alter or vary
T= f2πp r rdr = fπp r r −r

F = 2πprdr
Substituting the values of actuating force F

F = π r − r .p
The equation can be given as
Equation 1 and 2 can be combined together to give equation for the torque (r + r )
T = fF .
2
2 r −r ¾ Single Clutch and Multiple Disk Clutch
T = fF .
3 (r − r )
Basically, the clutch needs three parts. These are the engine flywheel, a friction disc called the
clutch plate and a pressure plate. When the engine is running and the flywheel is rotating, the
pressure plate also rotates as the pressure plate is attached to the flywheel. The friction disc is
Uniform Wear Condition:
located between the two. When the driver has pushed down the clutch pedal the clutch is
According to some established theories the wear in a mechanical system is proportional to the released. This action forces the pressure plate to move away from the friction disc. There are
‘PV’ factor where P refers to the contact pressure and V to the sliding velocity. Based on this for now air gaps between the flywheel and the friction disc, and between the friction disc and the
the case of a plate clutch we can state pressure plate. No power can be transmitted through the clutch.
Operation of Clutch: When the driver releases the clutch pedal, power can flow through the
The constant-wear rate R is assumed to be proportional to the product of pressure p and clutch. Springs in the clutch force the pressure plate against the friction disc. This action clamps
velocity V. the friction disc tightly between the flywheel and the pressure plate. Now, the pressure plate and
friction disc rotate with the flywheel.
R = pV = constant
As both side surfaces of the clutch plate is used for transmitting the torque, a term ‘N’ is added to
And the velocity at any point on the face of the clutch is V = r.ω include the number of surfaces used for transmitting the torque
By rearranging the terms the equations can be modified and a less general form of the equation
Combining these equation, assuming a constant angular velocity ω can be written as
pr = constant = K T = N. f. F . R
T is the torque (Nm).
The largest pressure p must then occur at the smallest radius r ,
N is the number of frictional discs in contact.
K=p r f is the coefficient of friction
Hence pressure at any point in the contact region F is the actuating force (N).
R is the mean or equivalent radius (m).
p=p
Note that N = n1 + n2 – 1
In the previous equations substituting this value for the pressure term p and integrating Where n1 = number of driving discs
between the limits as done earlier we get the equation for the torque transmitted and the
n2 = number of driven discs
actuating force to be applied.
6.3.7 Flywheel
i.e The axial force F is found by substituting p = p for p. A flywheel is an inertial energy-storage device. It absorbs mechanical energy and serves as a
reservoir, storing energy during the period when the supply of energy is more than the
and integrating equation dN = 2πprdr requirement and releases it during the period when the requirement of energy is less than the
supply.
r Geometry of Flywheel
F = 2πprdr = 2π p rdr = 2πp r (r − r )
r
The geometry of a flywheel may be as simple as a cylindrical disc of solid material, or may be of
spoked construction like conventional wheels with a hub and rim connected by spokes or arms
Similarly the Torque
Small fly wheels are solid discs of hollow circular cross section. As the energy requirements and Stresses in Flywheel
size of the flywheel increases the geometry changes to disc of central hub and peripheral rim
Flywheel being a rotating disc, centrifugal stresses acts upon its distributed mass and attempts
connected by webs and to hollow wheels with multiple arms.
to pull it apart. Its effect is similar to those caused by an internally pressurized cylinder
γ 3+v 1 + 3v
σ = ω r +r − r
g 8 3+v
γ 3+v r r
σ = ω r +r − −r
g 8 r
γ = material weight density, ω = angular velocity in rad/sec. v = Poisson’s ratio, is the radius to
a point of interest, r and r are inside and outside radii of the solid disc flywheel.
Figure 6.3.7.1
Figure 6.3.7.2 Arm Type Flywheel

The latter arrangement is a more efficient of material especially for large flywheels, as it
concentrates the bulk of its mass in the rim which is at the largest radius. Mass at largest radius
contributes much more since the mass moment of inertia is proportional to mr
For a solid disc geometry with inside radius r and outside radius r , the mass moment of inertia
I is
m
I = mk = r +r
2
The mass of a hollow circular disc of constant thickness t is
W γ Figure 6.3.7.3
m= =π r −r t
g g The point of most interest is the inside radius where the stress is a maximum. What causes
failure in a flywheel is typically the tangential stress at that point from where fracture originated
Combing the two equations we can write
and upon fracture fragments can explode resulting extremely dangerous consequences, Since
πγ the forces causing the stresses are a function of the rotational speed also, instead of checking for
I = r −r t
2g stresses, the maximum speed at which the stresses reach the critical value can be determined
Where γ is material’s weight density and safe operating speed can be calculated or specified based on a safety factor. Consequently
ω
The equation is better solved by geometric proportions i.e by assuming inside to outside radius F. O. S (N) = N =
ratio and radius to thickness ratio. ω
Quick Refresher Guide Fluid Mechanics Quick Refresher Guide Fluid Mechanics
Part – 7: Fluid Mechanics Specific gravity of water = 1.0, Mercury = 13.6
Since the density of fluid varies with temperature, specific gravity must be determined and
Part 7.1: Fluid Properties
specified at a particular temperature.
7.1.1 Fluids Viscosity: A measure of its resistance to shear or angular deformation. A property by virtue of
which it offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over the adjacent layer. It is due
It is defined as a substance which deforms continuously even with a small amount of shear force to Intermolecular cohesion and Transfer of molecular momentum between layers.
exerts on it, whereas a solid offers resistance to the force because very strong intermolecular
attraction exists in it. Dynamic Viscosity ( )::
Both liquids and Gases come under the fluids. Units: SI: Pa.sec or N.sec/m2 MKS: kg/m.sec
CGS: Poise = dyne.sec/cm2
i) Liquid: has definite volume but no shape for all practical purposes incompressible
ii) Gas: has no shape and volume highly compressible Conversion: 1 poise = 0.1 Pa.sec.
iii) Vapour: A gas whose temperature and pressure are such that it is very near to the liquid
phase e.g.: Steam Dimensions: ML T or FL T
It is independent of pressure. For Liquids dynamic viscosity decreases with temperature
7.1.2 Properties of fluids: because molecular momentum increases and cohesion is negligible in gases.
Mass Density ( ):: It is defined as mass per unit volume. Unit: kg / m3, Dimension: M / L3 Kinematic Viscosity ( ) = =
Absolute quantity i.e., does not change with location Units: S I: m2/sec CGS: cm2/sec or stokes
As pressure increases mass density increases. (As large number of molecules are forced into a Dimensions: L2T
given volume) Kinematic viscosity depends on both pressure and Temperature
Specific Weight ( ):: Weight of the substance per unit volume. Cavitation: Occurs in a flow system, dissolved gases (vapour bubbles) carried into a region of
high pressure and their subsequent collapse gives rise to high pressure, which leads to noise,
Also represents force exerted by gravity on a unit volume fluid. vibrations and erosion. Cavitation occurs in
Mass density and specific weight of a fluid are related as: = ; 1. Turbine runners 2. Pump impellers
3. Hydraulic structures like spillways and sluice gates 4. Ship propellers.
where g = acceleration due to gravity Compressibility: Change in volume (or density) due to change in pressure. Compressibility is
inversely proportional to Bulk Modulus K.
Units: N/m3, Dimensions: ML2T2 or FL3
= (negative sign indicates a decrease in volume with increase in pressure)
( ) ( )
Specific Volume ( ):: Volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid,, = 1/ (reciprocal of density)
Coefficient of compressibility =
Units: m3/kg
Surface tension:
Specific gravity (G):
Cohesion: Force of attraction between the molecules of the same liquid.
( )
Specific gravity, G = ( )
Adhesion: force of attraction between the molecules of different liquids (or) between the liquid
molecules and solid boundary containing the liquid.
For liquids, standard fluid is water at 40C A liquid forms an interface with a second liquid or gas. This liquid – air interface behaves like a
membrane under tension. The surface energy per unit area of interface is called Surface Tension.
For gases, standard fluid is hydrogen or air.
It can also be expressed as a line surface: Force per unit length.
Units: No units (ratio)
Units: N/m Dimensions: FL-1 or MT-2. θ = angle of contact between liquid and boundary
Surface tension is due to cohesion between liquid molecules. As temperature increases ⟶
d = dia. of tube θ = 00 → Water and glass
surface tension decreases (because cohesion decreases)
Due to cohesion, surface tension pressure changes occur across a curved surface of θ = 1300 → Mercury and gases
(i) Liquid jet (ii) droplet (iii) soap bubble. For tube dia. > 12mm capillary effects are negligible. Hence the dia. of glass tubes used for
A) Liquid jet: Increase in Pressure inside and outside of liquid jet measuring pressure (manometers, piezometer etc.) should be large enough.
△ = , where d = dia of jet
B) Liquid drop: △ = , where d = dia of drop let 7.1.3 Newton’s Law of Viscosity:
C) Soap bubble: △ = , where d = dia of bubble. moving plate

U
Capillarity: The phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface relative to the adjacent general F
level of liquid in small diameter tubes. The rise of liquid surface is designated as capillary rise
and lowering is called capillary depression. It happens due to both cohesion and adhesion.
Gap filled
with fluid
θ
dθ
h Stationary plate
Figure. 7.1.4
Water
Shear stress ∝ time rate of deformation (angular deformation)
∝
Figure. 7.1.2
Where F is the Force required to move the surface Area ‘A’
Units: cm or mm of liquids
∝ or τ = μ (u / y)
Capillary rise: If the adhesion > cohesion
Differential form: = . . . (7.1.2)
For e.g., Mercury depressive with convex upwards is capillary rise or fall
where τ = Shear stress; (du / dy) = Velocity gradient; μ = Dynamic viscosity
According to Newton’s law of viscosity, for a given shear stress acting on fluid ( ), the rate at
. . . (7.1.1) which fluid deforms (u / y) is inversely proportional to viscosity ( ).
7.1.4 Types of fluids:
Ideal Fluid or Perfect Fluid:
x Non viscous (frictionless) and incompressible
x Used in the mathematical analysis of flow problems
x Does not exist in reality
h
mercury x Does not offer shear resistance when fluid is in motion.
Real Fluid:
Figure. 7.1.3
x Possess the properties such as viscosity, surface tension and compressibility.
x Resistance is offered when they are set in motion.
σ = surface tension
Newtonian Fluids: Part 7.2: Fluid Statics

x Which obeys Newton’s Law of Viscosity
x Newtonian fluids have constant viscosity (Viscosity is independent of shear stress) 7.2.1 Fluid Pressure
x There will be linear relationship between shear stress and resulting rate of deformation. e.g.: The normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area of the surface
air, water, light oils and gasoline Units: N/m2 (Pascal) 1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 100kPa
τ
Dimensional Formula: ML-TT-2 (or) FL-2 1 MPa = 10 bar
Q Bingham plastic
Thixotropic Absolute pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Positive Gauge Pressure.
D
Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure – Vacuum Pressure.
E G
Pascal’s Law: Intensity of pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is same in all the directions.
P
Newtonian
Dilatant i) Viscosity of fluid has no effect on fluids at rest, therefore ideal and real fluids behave in a
similar manner.
C Pseudoplastic
B ii) If the fluid is in motion, shear stresses occur and normal stresses are no longer same in all
Ideal fluid
directions at a point of a real fluid.
Figure. 7.1.5 du / dy iii) If the fluid is in motion and fluids is ideal (frictionless) then no shear stresses, hence the
pressure at any point is same in all the directions.
Non – Newtonian Fluids: F
W piston
x Do not follow the Newton’s law of viscosity
x Relationship between shear stress and
velocity gradient is = + P
P
Where A and B are constants depend upon the type of fluid and conditions imposed on
flow. Based on power index ‘n’ and constant B Non – Newtonian fluids are
i) B = 0 and n > 1
(represented by OE in Figure 7.1.5)
Dilatant Fluids, e.g.: Butter, quick sand
ii) B = 0 and n < 1
(represented by OC in Figure 7.1.5) Pseudoplastic Figure 7.2.1
e.g.: Blood, Paper Pulp, Polymeric solutions such as rubber, suspension paints.
iii) = = 1(represented by PD in the Figure 7.1.5)
iv) Application of Pascal’s Law-Hydraulic Press:
Bingham plastic Eg: Sewage sludge, drilling mud require minimum shear stress τ known as
yield stress before they start flowing. Assumption: Pressure variation due to height neglected and friction force is neglected.
iv) Thixotropic Fluids: Printers ink, lipstick
Time dependent fluid i.e., viscosity depends upon both shear stress and duration of = /
application. A = area of plunger
Viscosity increases or decreases with time. Wt. ‘W’ lifted
e.g.: Paints and enamels, when subjected to high shear by the brush during application of W = (F/a) × A
paints, the apparent viscosity is reduced the paint covers the surface smoothly and brush Where A = Area of piston.
marks disappears subsequently.
Intensity of Pressure (Variation of pressure in a static fluid): 7.2.2 Forces on Submerged Bodies:
∗ =− Forces on Plane Surface:
a) Horizontal Plane b) Vertical Plane c) Inclined Plane

Where = specific weight of the fluid
= vertical distance measured from a datum (positive upward) θ
F
The linear variation of pressure with depth below the free surface is known as hydrostatic
pressure distribution. F
Measurement of Fluid Pressure:

M N F = γ.A.
F = γ.A.
a) Piezometer: It consists of a glass tube, open at one end to the atmosphere and another end MN → Plane surface to paper F = γ.A.
inserted in the wall of a pipe or a vessel. The height upto which the liquid rises in the tube is Figure 7.2.2
called pressure head and the pressure = ℎ.
Note:
Suitable for measuring moderate gauge pressures of liquids. Not suitable for high pressures,
i) Force F always acts normal to the plane surface.
suction pressures and pressures of gases. ii) The value of F is independent of the angle of inclination of the plane as long as the depth of
centroid (ℎ ) is unchanged.
iii) Total Force F = Area × Pressure at the centroid = . ̅
b) Manometer: Pressure measuring device based on the principle of balancing the column of a iv) Pressure Prism Concept:
liquid (whose pressure is to be found) by the same or another column of liquid. i) Total force F = volume of pressure prism
= area of pressure diagram X width of plane
i) U – Tube Manometer: Consists of a U – shaped bend unit whose one end is attached to ii) Force F acts at the C.G. of the pressure prism.
the gauge point and other is open to the atmosphere. Can measure both positive as well v) Centre of pressure (C.P): The point of application of resultant force (F).
as negative pressures. Contains liquid of specific gravity greater than that of the fluid of ℎ= ̅+ ̅
= M.I. of the section about an axis parallel o X passing through C.G. of the area.
which the pressure is to be measured. v) C.P is always below the C.G as the depth of immersion is increased, the C.P. approaches the
ii) Inverted U – Tube Manometer: Consists of an inverted U – Tube containing a light liquid. C.G
- This is used only to measure the difference of low pressures between two points Centre of Pressure (CP) on Inclined Plane:
where better accuracy is required. It generally consists of an air cock at top.
iii) Differential Manometer: A U – Tube manometric liquid heavier than the liquid for which
the pressure difference is to be measured, and is not immiscible with it (generally θ
mercury).
iv) Micro Manometer: Modified form of a simple manometer whose one limb is made of
large cross sectional area.
- Measurement of very small pr. differences with very high precision is made possible.
Figure 7.2.3
c) Mechanical Gauges: Generally used for measuring high pressures where high precision is not
required. Eg. Bourdon pressure gauge measures gauge pressures. NOTE:
i) CP always lies below CG.
d) Aneroid Barometer: used to measure local atmospheric pressure. (Absolute pressure) ii) As the depth of immersion is more, CP comes closer to CG.
iii) From eq. it is evident that the position of CP is independent of θ, i.e., θ may be varied by
rotating the surface provided h remains unchanged.
Forces on plane surface (Applications):

(iii) A floating body displaces a volume of fluid whose weight is equal to the weight of the body.
i) Dam: Pressure prism concept is easier for plane rectangular surfaces.
= × ℎ × ℎ/2 (1m length of dam) Stability of Submerged Bodies:
F acts at h = 2/3 h from top
ii) Lock Gates: (*) Lock Gates are used in docks and at the tail end of a river for navigational
purposes.
F = Hydrostatic Force = F − F
R = Resultant Reaction G = center of gravity
Forces on Curved Surfaces:

B = center of buoyancy
E D
Total Force = F = Submerged body is in stable equilibrium when
h
= Horizontal component (i) Buoyancy Force F = W
C Here W = Weight of body
A (ii) CB lies above CG
Force on vertical Projection of the given area
H
L = vertical component Stable Equilibrium:
F = wt. of liquid prism vertically above it.

B
= wt. of liquid prism represented by ABCDE A slight rotational displacement generates forces which oppose the change of position and tend
Figure 7.2.5
7.2.3 Buoyancy
The resultant force exerted on a submerged or floating body in a static liquid is called ‘Buoyancy
Force (F )’.
to bring the body to its original position.
Unstable Equilibrium:
(i) When CG lies above CB.
(i) The Buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body. (ii) The over turning couple produced due to a slight disturbance will cause the body to move
(ii) The Buoyancy force acts through the CG of the displaced volume called ‘Centre of Buoyancy
away from its original position.
(C )’.
M
CB G
BM > BG
B
Neutral Equilibrium:
(i) When CG coincides with CB.
7.2.4. Floating Bodies: Stability

(c) The distance = / is called Meta Centric radius.
(ii) Buoyancy Force (F ) is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body and acts It depends upon the geometry of vessel and draft (depth of submergence).
through the CG of the displaced liquid. For e.g: For a vessel M.I. does not change but ‘V’ (displaced vol.) becomes less when load
(iii) The body is in stable equilibrium if the meta centre lies above its CG. *i.e., BM > BG) is removed.
(iv) Meta Centre
c (vi) Period of Rolling:
Time Period = /( . )
a
k = radius of gyration ‘m’. = meta centric height in ‘m’.
M If GM is large the Time Period of roll will reduce i.e., more stable vessel will have less period
T of roll.
0 Period of Rolling (T) is inversely proportional to stability and directly proportional to radius
G of gyration (k).
B’ b The meta centric height of ocean-going vessel is usually 30 cm to 1.2 m. for war ships it
ranges from 1 m to 1.5 m.
As meta centric height increases less comfort to passenger (because less period of roll) but
d W more stability.
Figure 7.2.6
B = Centre of Buoyancy (CB)
‘B’ is the shift in CB due a tilt through small angle ‘θ’.
The new CB (B ) cuts the vertical axis of the body (line cd) vertically at a point ‘M’ (Meta
centre).
(v) Meta Centric Height ( )

(a) The distance between the centre of gravity ‘G’ and the meta centre ‘M’ of the floating
body i.e., GM as θ → 0 is known as Meta Centric Height.
(b) The Meta Centric Height is independent of magnitude of angular rotation (θ) (as long as
it is small) and is given by
GM = (I / V) – BG, if ‘M’ is above G (stable)
GM = BG – (I / V), if ‘M’ is below G (unstable)
Y
dA
Figure 7.2.7
Where I = second moment of area of water plane (m4) about an axis passing through centre
of area and perpendicular to the axis of tilted longitudinal axis = ∫
V = volume of liquid displaced by the body (m3).
Part 7.3: Fluid Kinematics Y

7.3.1 Velocity of a Fluid Flow: V
= lim → / V = f(x, y, z, t)
V
In x-direction, = →
Classification of Flow:
(a) (i) Steady Flow: At any point of the flowing fluid, various characteristics such as velocity,
pressure density temperature etc., do not change with time.
X
Mathematically, = 0, . . , = =0 0
Figure 7.3.1
= 0, = 0, =0
Stream lines indicate tracing of motion of a group of particles.
e.g.: Flow of fluid through a pipe at constant rate of discharge.
There can be no fluid flow across a stream line.
For steady flow, stream line pattern remains same at different times. For unsteady flow it
(ii) Unsteady Flow: Flow parameters at any point change with time.
varies from time to time and hence instantaneous.
i.e., ≠ , ≠ 0, ≠ 0, ( ) ≠ 0
e.g.: Flow in which the quantity of liquid per second is not constant. (b) Stream Tube: An imaginary tube formed by a group of stream lines passing through a small
closed curve.
(b) (i) Uniform Flow: When the velocity of flow of fluid does not change both in magnitude and There can be no flow across a stream tube.
direction from point to point in the flowing fluid, at any given instant of Only in a steady flow, a stream tube is fixed in space.
time.
i.e., ( / ) = 0 (c) Path Line: The line traced by a single fluid particles as it moves over a period of time.
e.g.: Flow of liquids under pressure through long pipe lines of constant diameter.
(d) Streak Line: A line traced by a fluid particle passing through a fixed point in a flow field.
(ii) Non Uniform Flow: If the velocity of flow of fluid changes from point to point in the flowing e.g.: The trail of a colour dye injected at a point.
fluid at any instant of time. In steady flow a streak line, stream line and a path line are all identical.
Table: 1, 2 and 3 – dimensional flows: Acceleration of a fluid particle (a)

(a) Cartesian Co-ordinates:
Type of Flow Eg: Unsteady Steady v=i.u+j.v+k.w
a = + . + .( / ) + .
3 – dimensional Flood flows V = f (x, y, z, t) V = f (x, y, z)
a = + . + . + .
2 – dimensional flow between plates V = f (x, y, t) V = f (x, y)
shooting flows V = f (x, t) V = f (x) a = + . + . + .
1 – dimensional
Flow Pattern: (b) Local Acceleration or Temporal Acceleration:
(a) Stream Line: An imaginary curve drawn through a flowing fluid in such away that the tangent Expressions that represent rate of increase of velocity with respect to time.
to it at any point gives the direction of the velocity of flow at that point. Also called as flow
e.g: , / , / .
line, since flow is along the stream lines.
Type of Flow Differential Equation of Stream Line (c) Convective Acceleration: Terms that represent the rate of increase of velocity due to
3 – dimensional dx / u = dy / v = dz / w particle’s change of position.
2 – dimensional dx / u = dy / v (or) u dy – V dx = 0 In uniform flow convective acceleration is zero.
Note: In steady flow the local acceleration is zero, but the convective acceleration is not
necessarily zero and hence total or substantial acceleration is not necessarily zero. However if
flow is uniform also, convective acceleration is zero and therefore total acceleration is zero.
(d) Tangential and Normal Acceleration:

th th th
Unlike velocity vector, the acceleration vector has no specific orientation with respect to For incompressible fluids, A V = A V .
stream line i.e., it need not always be tangential to stream line. Therefore, at any point it may
have acceleration components both tangential and normal. Assumptions for equation = .
(i) Flow is steady (ii) Flow is incompressible (iii) Flow is one dimensional over the cross
Tangential Acceleration is developed when the magnitude of velocity changes with respect to section (iv) Velocity is uniform at the across section (v) No branching of steam tube.
space and time. When there is variation of velocity across the cross section of a tube, for an incompressible
Normal Acceleration is developed when a fluid particle moves in a curved path i.e., simply due to fluid discharge,
change in direction of velocity of fluid particle, regardless of whether the magnitude of the
velocity is changing (or) not. For steady flow L.A. = zero ‘O’ ∴ a = V . ( ) Q=∫ . = ∫ .
Tangential Acceleration,
Rotational and Irrotational Motions:
a = + .( ) (a) Rotational Flow: If the fluid particles while moving in the direction of flow rotate about their
Normal Acceleration, mass centers.
a = + ( / ) e.g: Liquid in rotating tanks where the velocity of each particle varies directly as the distance
Where from the centre of rotation.
r = radius of curvature of stream line
V = tangential component of velocity (b) Irrotational Flow: If the liquid particles while moving in the direction of flow do not rotate
V = normal component of velocity about their centers.
/ = local tangential acceleration Mathematically, in irrotational flow curl of velocity vector ∇ × V = 0.
/ = local normal acceleration True irrotational flow exists only in ideal fluids.
If at every point in the flowing fluid, the rotation components ω , ω and ω are equal to
. ( ) = convective tangential acceleration
zero, then the flow is known as irrotational.
= . ( ) = convective normal acceleration For ω = 0, (1/2) [(∂w/dy)) ( ∂v/∂z)]=0 ∴ (∂w/∂y)=( ∂y/∂z)
For steady flow, a = (V . )/ For ω = 0, (1/2) [(∂u/dx) ( ∂w/∂x)]=0 ∴ (∂u/∂z)=( ∂w/∂x)
a = V /r For 2-dimension irrotational flow
w = 0, − = 0∴ =
Note: If the stream lines are
For fluids or flows of large viscosity, flow is invariably rotational.
(i) Equidistant, Tangential convective acceleration is zero.
For fluids such as air and water having small viscosity, the flow in the region away from
(ii) Straight (not curves), Normal convective acceleration is zero.
boundary may be treated as irrotational.
If the stream lines are straight and parallel to each other, there is no acceleration.
In the case of rapidly converging or accelerating flows, flow may be treated as irrotational.
If the stream lines are curved and equidistant there will be only normal convective acceleration.
If the stream lines are curved and converging, then both normal and tangential convective
Circulation and Vorticity:
accelerations.
(a) Circulation (Γ): Flow along a closed curve (i.e., the flow in eddies in vertices) It is the line
If stream lines are diverging, instead of acceleration will be corresponding retardation.
integral of the tangential component of the velocity taken round a closed contour.
Γ (Capital Gamma Greek) = [(∂v/ ∂x) − (∂u/ ∂y)] δ . δ
7.3.2 Continuity Equation:
Basis: Principle of conservation of mass – mass can neither be created nor destroyed (b) Vorticity (ξ): The limiting value of circulation divided by the area of closed contour, as the
(a) Differential form (in Cartesian co – ordinates): area tends to zero.
(i) For compressible fluids, ( / ) + ( ( )/ ) + ( ( )/ ) = 0, Vorticity = circulation / area
= [(∂v/ ∂x) − (∂u/ ∂y)]
(ii) For incompressible fluids, ( u/ ) + + = 0 vertically the divergence of
Note: Vorticity = 2 × rotation component W . i.e., ξ = 2 ω . (zeta)
velocity vector .V=0
Stream Function ( ): It is a scalar function of space and time such that its partial derivative with
Assumptions: respect to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles (in counter clockwise
(1) Flow is steady. (2) Flow is incompressible. (3) Velocity is uniform over a cross section. direction) to this direction.
i.e., ∂ψ/∂x = v and ∂ψ/wy = −
(b) In one dimensional analysis (Flow through a stream tube): Laplace Equation for ‘ψ’:
For compressible fluids, p A V = p A V . For an irrotational flow, (∂ ψ/ ∂x ) + (∂ ψ/ ∂y ) = 0
Also ∂y = ∂x (This will be true if ‘ψ’ is a continuous function and its second Part 7.4: Fluid Dynamics
derivative exists) Dynamics of fluid flow is defined as that branch of science which deals with the study of fluids in
∴ Any function ‘ψ’ which is continuous is a possible case of fluid flow. motion considering the forces which cause the flow.
It is constant along a stream line.
The difference of stream functions for two stream lines is equal to the flow rate between them. 7.4.1 Equations of Motion
Potential Function ( ): A scalar function of space and time such that its negative derivative with A fluid in motion is broadly subjected to various forces as detailed below.
respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction.
=− ,v = − ,w = − . a) Body or Volume forces: These are proportional to the volume of body. Ex: weight,
centrifugal force etc.
b) Surface forces: These are proportional to the surface area. Ex: Pressure force, shear or
Laplace Equation for ‘ ’: tangential force, turbulence force, force of compressibility etc.
(∂ ϕ/ ∂x ) + (∂ ϕ/ ∂y ) + (∂ ϕ/ ∂z ) = 0 c) Linear Forces: Proportional to length. Ex: surface tension
Any function ‘ϕ’ that satisfies the Laplace equation is a possible irrotational flow.
Velocity potential exists only for irrotational flows. Forces acting on a fluid in motion: The various forces that may influence are due to gravity,
Lines of constant ‘ϕ’ are called equipotential lines and these lines will form orthogonal grids pressure, viscosity, turbulence, surface tension and compressibility.
with constant ψ lines.
a) According to Newton’s Second Law of motion, F = Ma
Stream Lines, Equipotential Lines and Flow Net: ∴ Ma = F + F + F + F + F + F
Stream line is given by ψ = constant. b) Reynolds equations of motion: For laminar or viscous flows, turbulence forces are also
Equipotential line is given by ϕ = constant. neglected.
Stream lines and equipotential lines intersect each other orthogonally at all points of ∴ Ma = F + F + F + F
intersection. (Reason: The product of slopes of tangents of these two lines is – 1.) c) Navier – Stoke’s equations: For laminar or viscous flows, turbulence forces are also
A grid obtained by drawing a series of stream lines and equipotential lines is known as “Flow neglected.
Net” ∴ Ma = F + F + F
d) Euler’s equations of motion: If the fluid is ideal, viscous forces are also insignificant.
Flow Net can be drawn for
∴ Ma = F + F
(i) Steady Flow (ii) Irrotational flow and (iii) When the flow is not governed by gravity force.
7.4.2 Euler’s equations of motion
Only pressure and gravity forces (self weight which is a body force) are considered. The
equations are,
– ( / ) .( / ) = ( / ) + .( / ) + .( / ) + .( / )
– ( / ) .( / ) = ( / ) + .( / ) + .( / ) + .( / )
– ( / ). ( / ) = ( / ) + . ( / ) + .( / ) + .( / )
X, Y, Z are components of body force per unit mass at a point.
Note: In derivation of above equations, no assumption has been made that the mass density ′ ′ is
constant. Hence these equations are applicable to compressible or incompressible, non-viscous
fluids in steady or unsteady state of flow.
Integration of Euler’s equation of motion: Integration of Euler’s equation yields the Energy
equation under the following assumptions.
a) There exists a force potential (:) which is defined as that whose negative derivative with For uniform velocity distribution = 1.0
respect to any direction gives the component of body force per unit mass in that For laminar flow through a pipe = 2.0
direction.
∴ X = (∂:/∂x), Y = (∂:/∂y), Z = (∂:/∂z), For turbulent flow through a pipe = 1.01 to 1.20
b) The flow is irrotational, i.e., the velocity potential exists (or) the flow may be rotational,
but is steady. 7.4.4 Practical applications of Bernoulli’s theorem:
7.4.3 Bernoulli’s Equation: The application of Bernoulli’s Equation includes:
a) Integration of Euler’s equation for steady, incompressible and frictionless flow yields the 1. Flow measurement:
Bernoulli’s equation. a) Pitot Tube: Pitot tube consists of a glass tube bent through 90 . The lower end of the tube
( / ) + ( /2 ) + = constant → This is for ideal fluids. faces the direction of flow. The liquid rises up in the tube due to pressure exerted by the
i.e., total energy of a particle remains constant. liquid flow.
Note: It is applicable to all points in the flow field i.e., for all the stream lines, the value of It is used to measure velocity of flow at any section of a pipe or channel.
constant is same. The basic principle: If the velocity of flow at a particular point is reduced to zero, known as
stagnation point, the pressure there is increased due to conversion of kinetic energy into
Assumption made are: pressure energy and level of water rises.
1. Flow is steady
2. Flow is irrotational In the Figure 7.4.1 A is the
3. Flow is incompressible stagnation point. The pressure at h
4. Flow is non-viscous i.e., density is constant stagnation point is called ‘Stagnation (h
5. Flow is continuous Stagnation head
pressure’. )
6. Velocity is uniform over a cross section Static pr. head = /
7. Fluid is ideal.
A
b) For real fluids there will be some loss of energy between two points. Dynamic head (h)
∴ + + = + + +ℎ − (energy equation)
Figure 7.4.1
Here h = energy loss
Stagnation pressure head = Static pressure head ‘h ’ + Dynamic pressure head ‘h’
In the above equation each term represents “Energy per unit weight”. = h + h (h = difference between stagnation pressure and static pressure)
c) When the flow is steady but may not be irrotational i.e., rotational flow: In this case, We have, h = V /2g. ∴ V = 2 ℎ
Bernoulli’s equation is applicable only to particular stream line that is the value of constant Actual velocity V = c 2 ℎ, Where c = pitot tube constant
is different for different stream lines.
With U – tube manometer reading ‘x’, h = x [(S /s) − 1]
d) Basis for Bernoulli’s equation is ‘Law of conservation of Energy’. Therefore, it is also called
‘Energy equation’. Note:
Energies in fluid motion: 1. A pitot measures stagnation pressure head (or the total head) at dipped end.
a) Datum head: A liquid particle ‘Z’ metres above a reference datum is same said to possess 2. A pitot tube measures both static pressure and stagnation pressures.
a potential head or datum head ‘Z’.
b) Pressure head: P/W in metres. (It is due to energy possessed by a body).
c) Velocity head: V /2g (It is due to kinetic energy). b) Venturimeter: It consists essentially of the following parts:
d) Piezometric head: (P/W) + Z.
Kinetic energy correction factor (∝): In one dimensional method of analysis, the average velocity
‘V’ is used to represent the velocity at a cross section. The actual velocity distribution in the
cross section may be non-uniform. Hence, the kinetic energy calculated by using ‘V’ must be
multiplied by a correction factor, to obtain kinetic energy at the cross section due to non-
uniform velocity distribution.
∴ ∝ = ( / )∫ . Here U = Velocity at point.
Converging cone Use: For measuring discharge through pipes.

Diverging cone a a 2gh
Discharge Q =
(a − a )
d) Nozzle meter: Used for measuring discharge.

Inlet Taper angle20°° Throat Taper Angle 5° When compared to venturimeter diverged part is omitted, and therefore a greater
dissipation of energy.
Figure 7.4.2
i) An inlet section (U – tube)
ii) Converging cone
iii) Throat
iv) Divergent cone
Pressure taps are provided at the inlet section and throat.
Use: For determining discharge in pipes i.e., rate of flow of liquid.

Stream lined
a a 2gh Figure Convergent nozzle
Q =
(a − a )
Basic equations are same as those for venturimeter.
Where Q = theoretical discharge, a = area of cross section at inlet,
Coefficient of discharge is almost same as that for a venturimeter.
a = area of cross section at throat, h = venturi head. e) Other flow measurement devices are:
(P /W) − (P /W), i.e., h = pressure head at inlet pressure head of throat. i) Rota meter ii) Elbo meter (or) pipe bend meter
Actual discharge = coefficient of discharge C × Q .
‘C ’ for venturi metre = 0.98 (generally) 2. Analysis of fluid flow
“C ” is a function of Reynold’s number, diameter ratio, roughness of surface, velocity a) Free Liquid Jet: It is a steady curvilinear flow of liquid with a free surface in which at all
distributions at inlet and outlet. points the pressure is atmospheric. Under the action of gravity the liquid jet traverses a
h = X (Sm/S – 1), if U – tube manometer used. parabolic path known as trajectory.
h = X (1 – Sm/S), if inverted U – tube manometer is used.
X = difference in levels of manometric liquid.
S = specific gravity of manometric liquid.
S = specific gravity of liquid in pipe. H
h = head in terms of flowing fluid.
L
c) Orifice meter: It consists of a plate having a sharp edged circular hole known as orifice which Figure 7.4.5
is fixed inside the pipe whose discharge is required.
Bernoulli’s equation is used for analysis.
Since the pressure head is zero at every point, the sum of velocity and datum head is
constant.
area ‘a0’
area ‘a’ a) Maximum vertical elevation of jet profile, H = (V sin θ/2g)
b) Range (L) = (for maximum range θ = 45 )
b) Vortex Motion: A rotating of fluid is known as ‘Vortex’ and the motion of rotating mass of
Figure 7.4.3
fluid is known as ‘Vortex motion’. Different types of Vortex motion are described below :
i) Free Vortex motion: Is that in which the fluid mass rotates without any external force Part 7.5: Boundary Layer
being impressed and the expenditure of energy from any external source takes place.
7.5.1 Boundary Layer
Ex: 1) A whirl pool in a river.
When a solid body is immersed in a fluid, there is a narrow region of the fluid in the
2) A wash basin (or) bath tub draining water through an outlet at a bottom. neighborhood of the solid body, where the velocity of fluid varies from zero to free stream
velocity. This narrow region of fluid is called “Boundary Layer”.
3) Flow of liquid in a centrifugal pump casing after it has left the impeller.
In this region velocity gradient ‘du/dy’ exists and hence the fluid exerts a shear stress on the wall
4) Flow of water in a turbine casing before it enters the guide vanes. in the direction of motion given by
No external torque is required to be exerted on the fluid mass. Therefore, the rate of change = . / .
of angular momentum of the flow must be zero.
( )
Note: Outside the boundary layer velocity is constant and therefore velocity gradient and shear
i.e., ∫ = 0, i.e., v.r = constant stress are zero.
(i.e., the velocity of flow in a free vortex motion varies inversely with the radial distance Laminar Boundary Layer: The boundary layer is called laminar boundary layer if the flow in the
from center of vortex motion). boundary layer exhibits all the characteristics of a laminar flow, irrespective of whether the
incoming flow is laminar or turbulent.
As r → 0, v →f , the point where the velocity ‘V’ becomes infinity is called singular point.
Reynolds number is less than 5 × … for flow over flat plate.
Flow field of a vortex motion is everywhere irrotational except at the axis and therefore it is
Reynolds number is less than 2 × … for flow over sphere.
also called irrotational vortex motion or potential vortex motion.
For flow over flat plates Re = Vx / Q
The equation v.r = constant, is applicable only to the region farther away from the central
Where V = free stream velocity
region of free vortex motion which occurs frequently is known as ‘Rankine Vortex motion’.
x = distance from leading edge.
Ex: Motion of air mass in tornado. Q = kinematic viscosity of fluid.
Turbulent Boundary Layer:
ii) Forced Vortex motion: Forced vortex motion occurs when a constant torque is applied to
a fluid mass. Ex: Cylinder rotated about its vertical axis at a constant angular velocity Reynolds number is more than 5 × for flat plates
Reynolds number is more than 2 × for sphere
Relation: V =r w, w = angular velocity i.e., velocity of flow is directly proportional to its
radial distance from the axis of rotation. Factors affecting boundary layer thickness along a smooth plate:
a) It increases as the distance from leading edge increases.
Equation of pressure variation: ∂p/ ∂r = rw b) It decreases with the increase in the velocity in the direction of flow of the approaching
stream of fluid.
Important points: c) Greater is the kinematic viscosity of fluid, greater is the Boundary Layer thickness.
d) Boundary layer thickness is affected by pressure gradient in the direction of flow. If the
a) On any horizontal plane the fluid pressure increases with the square of the radial
pressure gradient is negative (converging flow), it accelerates the retarded fluid in the
distance from center of vortex motion.
Boundary Layer and hence its growth is retarded. If pressure gradient is positive
b) Surfaces of constant pressure are paraboloids of revolution.
(divergent flow), the fluid in the Boundary Layer is further decelerated and hence assists
c) The free surface is a special surface of constant pressure and is also a paraboloid of
in thickening of boundary layer. In the later case back flow and separation may be
revolution.
caused.
d) Forced vortex is basically a rotational motion.
Laminar Sub-layer : If the plate is very smooth, even in the region of turbulent boundary
iii) Spiral Vortex motion: layer, there is a very thin layer adjacent to the boundary, in which flow is laminar. This layer is
A combination of cylindrical vortex motion and radial flow. known as “Laminar Sub-layer”.
δ = 11.6 v/V., .= /
Thickness of Boundary Layer: Laminar Boundary Layer thickness:

Nominal Thickness ( ): The distance ‘y’ from the boundary surface at which velocity of fluid is ‘K’ is a constant, x = distance from leading edge
approximately equal to 0.99 times free stream velocity.
(i) = (or) δ =K xv/V
Displacement Thickness( ∗ ): The distance by which the boundary surface would have to be
/
displaced outwards so that the total actual discharge would be same as that of an ideal fluid past As per Blasius K = 5, ∴ = 5 / ∴
the displaced boundary Further, = = . / , C = local or shear stress coefficient.
∗
=∫ ( − / )
Momentum Thickness (θ): The distance from the actual boundary such that the momentum flux (ii) Total horizontal force (skin friction drag) on one side of plate
corresponding to the main stream velocity ‘V’ through this distance ‘θ’ is equal to the deficiency F = ∫ τ B dx = C (LB)
or loss Where B = width of plate
∴ = ∫ ( / )( − / ) L = length of plate
.
Average drag coefficient (or) Total frictional drag coefficient C =
Energy Thickness ( ): The distance from the actual boundary such that the energy flux
corresponding to the main stream velocity ‘V’ through this distance δ is equal to the deficiency Where R =
or loss in energy due to the boundary layer formation.
(iii) The velocity Distribution is infact parabolic for laminar boundary layer. Being smaller
∴ =∫ ( / ) − / in thickness it can be assumed as linear distribution.
Relation between θ, δ and δ∗ for Laminar Boundary Layer
Note: Shape factor of Boundary Layer = δ∗ /θ = , δ∗ = , δ∗ = 3θ ⟶ for linear distribution velocity
Transition from Laminar Boundary Layer between R = 1.3 × 10 to 4 × 10
U U
Critical R = 5 × 10
U=0.99 y 0.99 u
Transition from laminar Boundary Layer
If R lies between 1.3 × 10 to 4 × 10
Turbulent Boundary Layer:
δ δ
u Usually thicker than laminar ones.
y R = 5 × 10 to 10 . Velocity distribution is logarithmic or .

θ .
(i) = . ∴ .
( )
Relative magnitudes of
.
Nominal & displacement δ, , θ (ii) Local drag coefficient C =
( )
thickness
.
Average drag coefficient C = − − if 5 × 10 < Re < 10
Von Karman momentum Integral equation of Boundary Layer: ( )
.
= Here τ = shear stress at surface. As per schlitching, C = ( ) .
− if 10 < R < 10
This is applied to Separation of Boundary Layer: Boundary Layer separation takes place due to adverse or positive
(i) Laminar Boundary pressure gradient. i.e., when dp/dx > 0 and / ≤ 0. In fact separation starts when / = 0
(ii) Transition boundary layer and
(iii) Turbulent boundary layer flows. Thus,
Assumptions: (i) = 0 … condition for separation.
1) steady flow
2) Two dimensional flow (ii) = +ve … condition for attached flow.
3) Incompressible
(iii) = −ve … condition for detached flow. Buckingham – Theory (or method of repeating variables):: It offers an advantage over
Rayleigh’s method in letting us know, in advance of the analysis as to how many dimensionless
At the separation point shear stress is zero and velocity gradient, ∂v / ∂y = 0 groups are to be expected.
The method expresses the equation in terms of dimension less groups (π terms),
Number of π terms = (n-m) where n = total number of variables, m = number of repeating
variables
Selection of repeating variables:
A B C 1. A variable describing geometry of flow such as diameter, length,

D 2. A fluid property ex: Viscosity, density, surface tension, elasticity and vapour pressure.
3. A variable characterizing the fluid motion. Eg. Velocity, acceleration, discharge.
Note: The nature or form of the dimensionless − terms would entirely depend upon the
selection of repeating variables.
Matrix approach Number of dimensionless groups:
The number of dimensionless groups = n r, where ‘r’ Rank of dimensional matrix. It is the order
of the determinant whose value is not equal to zero.
P min
As per Buckingham theorem ‘m’ is the number of repeating or Fundamental variables, but the
Effective pressure gradient on number of fundamental variables depend on the system used. If for a phenomenon ‘F’ and ‘L’ are
boundary layer separation chosen fundamental dimensions m = 2. But F = MLT . Hence if M-L-T system is chosen, m = 3.
The dimensional matrix method avoids the confusion over value of ‘m’ depending on system.
7.5.2 Dimensional Analysis
Model and prototype: Prototype is the full size machine. Model is the tool for studying the
Dimensional analysis is a method to describe a physical phenomenon by a dimensionally correct behavior of a prototype. It may be larger, smaller or even of the same size as the prototype.
equation among certain variables which affect the phenomenon. It reduces the number of
Types of similarity: For complete similarity to exist between the model and its prototype. It is
variables and arranges them into dimensionless groups useful for phenomenon which defy
necessary that it must be geometrically, kinematically and dynamically similar.
analytical solution and must be solved experimentally.
a) Geometric similarity:
Fundamental dimensions: Mass (M), Length (L), time (T) and temperature (Q). In place of mass,
Similarity of shape, to satisfy this condition the ratios of the corresponding lengths in the
the force is also considered as a fundamental quantity.
model and its prototype must be same.
Dimensional Homogeneity: Dimensional analysis is based on Fourier’s “Principle of Dimensional = =
Homogeneity”. An equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous if the form of the equation
This ratio is also known as scale factor
does not depend upon the units of measurement. To satisfy this condition, the dimensions of
b) Kinematic similarity: Similarity of motion. Streamline pattern in model must be same as
each side of equation must be same.
that in its prototype. The ratios of kinematic quantities flow characterizing such as time,
The empirical equations involving numerical coefficients are dimensionally non homogeneous velocity, acceleration and discharge must be same at all corresponding points.
Methods of Dimensional analysis: i.e., t = , = = , = , =
Total number of variables = number of Independent variables + one dependent variable. c) Dynamic similarity: Corresponding forces have the same ratio throughout the flow field
i.e., similarity of forces.
Rayleigh’s Method: Gives a special form of relationship among the dimensionless groups.
Note:
Drawbacks:
1. It does not provide any information regarding the number of dimensionless groups to be i) For either dynamic or kinematic similarity to exist geometric similarity is a pre-
obtained as a result of dimensional analysis. requisite.
2. The method becomes rather cumbersome when a large number of parameters are ii) If two flow fields are dynamically similar, they are necessarily, kinamatically and
involved. geometrically similar
Various force ratios:
a) Reynolds number (Re): Inertia force/viscous force = Lift force occurs only when the axis of body is inclined to the direction of flow. If the axis of body
is parallel to the direction of flow, lift force is zero, only drag force acts. If fluid is assumed ideal
significance: and body is symmetrical such as sphere or cylinder, both the drag and lift are zero.
i) completely submerged flow (air planes, torpedo etc)
ii) completely submerged flow (air planes, for flow through pipes and plates) Vo Lift
Resultant
iii) viscous flow (settling of particles fluids) flow in flow meters in pipes (venturimeter, P
orifice meter etc).
b) Froude Number ( ): Inertia force/gravity force = V/ g Drag

Significance: For open channel flow where free surface is present, wave action as in
breakwaters and ships, hydraulic structures such as spillways, stilling basins, weirs and
notches, forces on Bridge piers and off shore structures. (a) Streamlined body: A body whose surface ‘coincides with streamlines.
(b) Bluff body: If the surface of body does not coincide with stream lines.
∆
c) Euler number (R): V / 2. . It is derived from ratio of Inertia and pressure forces. Drag: Total drag is made of two parts. Frictional drag (Due to-shear stresses) + Pressure drag
(due to pressure difference).
=
∆ Total drag F =
Reciprocal of Euler number is called Newton number.
Significance: In cavitation studies, the pressure force is important in addition to the Where C = total drag coefficient A = characteristic area of the body
viscous force, and the dynamic similarity will be obtained when the Reynolds and Euler C = Fn (geometry, Re, F , M) In general
numbers are kept the same for model and prototype. = Fn (geometry, Re) for incompressible and non free surface flows
A = Frontal or projected area for blunt shaped objects such as spheres, cylinders, cars,
d) Cauchy number: Inertia force/Elastic force = projectiles, Missiles etc., = Plan area used for thin flat surfaces (frictional forces are
predominant e.g. vanes and hydrofoils). = Wetted area. E.g. for boats, barges and ships
Note: A new cricket ball is roughened to convert approaching flow laminar boundary layer to
e) Mach number (M): Stream velocity / Acoustic velocity in the fluid turbulent one. Due to this C reduces and the drag resistance and hence the ball can be bowled
medium = at greater speeds.
Comparison of drag force on vertical disc, sphere and streamlined body:
Significance: For compressible flows, high speed flows, motion of objects like aeroplane i. A vertical disc normal to the flow is mainly subjected to pressure drag since the wake
and projectiles through air at super sonic speeds. size is very large.
ii. Streamlined body is predominantly subjected to shear drag and pressure drag is very
less due to very small wake.
f) Weber Number (W): Inertia force/surface tension force = iii. The total drag in sphere is approximately 1/3 of that of vertical disc.
Significance: In formation of water droplet or bubbles, flows of shallow depth over iv. The total drag on streamlined body is approximately about 1/40th of that of vertical disc.
spillways, dams etc., for dynamic similarity to exist between a model and a prototype, Lift: Lift force occurs normal to the direction of relative motion ‘V ’.
(R) = (R)m, (F) = (F)m, (E)p = (E)m, (M)p = (M)m and (W) = (W)m, depending on
F = C . A. where C = lift coefficient
the significance of various forces.
A = Characteristic area
7.5.3 Lift & Drag
For an airfoil or hydro foil vane, characteristic area is plain area
A fluid moving relative to a rigid boundary exerts force on the boundary. Shear stresses acting
on surface and pressure acting normal to the boundary give rise to forces which would add up C = ( / )
vectorially to give a resultant force on the body. The component of the resultant force in the
direction of relative velocity ‘V’ of the flow past the body is called ‘Drag’. The component of the For incompressible flow,
resultant normal to the relative velocity is known as ‘Lift’. C or (C ) = ( , R )
where R =
th th th
Part 7.6: Flow through pipes Major Loss of Head ( ): The basic equation used is Darcy Weis Bach Equation.
7.6.1 Losses in pipes h = where L = Length of pipe of diameter ‘D’

V = mean velocity in pipe
The flow in pipes will generally be under a pressure greater than atmospheric, whether a flow is
f = friction factor, which is a function of R and relative roughness.
Laminar or Turbulent generally depends upon the Reynolds number, that is ratio of inertia force
to viscous force.
The ratio “ = S ” represents the energy slope which is equal to the hydraulic gradient in
Inertia force = Mass × Acceleration = uniform flow. In long pipe lines, ‘h ’ forms a major part of the total loss.
Viscous force = × = × =
The above equation is derived based on experiment of Froude, which revealed that
R = = =
a) The frictional resistance varies approximately with the square of velocity
In case of pipes ‘L’ is replaced by diameter ‘D’. b) The frictional resistance varies with the nature of the surface.
Minor Losses in Pipes:

R = or R =
Situation Head Loss = Explanation
As fluid flows through a pipe certain resistance is offered to the flowing fluid, resulting in a loss Sudden expansion ( ) Expansion from section ‘1’ to ‘2’
of energy. Broadly these are of two types.
a) Major Losses due to friction. ( )

=
b) Minor Losses due to various fittings, transitions, changes in velocity to change in cross-
sections. ( )
=
The frictional resistance in the laminar flow is:
i) Proportional to the velocity of flow

ii) independent of the pressure, Sudden Contraction ( ) V = Velocity in contracted section
iii) proportional to the area of surface in contact,
iv) independent of the nature of the surface in contact, V = Velocity at vena contracta
v) greatly affected by the variation of the temperature of the flowing fluid. ( )
= .
The reason for the frictional resistance in the case of laminar flow being independent of the
nature of the surface in contact, is that when a fluid flows past a surface with velocity less than ≈ 0.5
critical velocity, a film of almost stationary fluid is formed over the surface, which prevents the
flowing fluid to come in contact with the boundary surface. Similarly in the case of laminar flow vena contracta
the resistance is due to viscosity only and the viscosity of a fluid depends on its temperature.
The frictional resistance in the case of turbulent flow is:

i) proportional to (velocity) . Where the index n varies from 1.72 to 2.0, Entrance to a pipe from a 0. 5 V = Velocity in pipe
ii) independent of the pressure, reservoir
iii) proportional to the density of the flowing fluid,

iv) slightly affected by the variation of the temperature of the flowing fluid,
v) proportional to area of surface in contact,
vi) dependent on the nature of the surface in contact.
At exit of a pipe V = Velocity in pipe Note: The pipes are connected in parallel in order to increase the discharge passing through the
main.
Conical expansion ( ) ‘K’ is a constant a) Rate of discharge in main line is equal to sum of discharge in each of parallel pipes.
Q=Q + Q + …
.
b) Head loss is constant
Bends, pipe fittings ‘K’ is a constant
i.e., h = = =⋯
An obstruction to flow [ ]
h = Note: If there are ‘n’ pipes of same diameter laid in parallel in place of a single pipe then
( )
diameter of each parallel pipe.
V
‘C ’ lies between 0.6 to a
2
0.666 A ′d = / d = diameter of each parallel pipe
D = diameter of single main pipe line
n = No. of parallel pipes
Hydraulic transmission of power: The pipes carrying water under pressure from one point to
other may be used to transmit hydraulic power.
= ( − ℎ ) H = total head at the entrance to pipe

Pipes In Series Or Compound Pipe: If a pipe line connecting two reservoirs is made up of several ℎ = head loss in pipe
pipes of different diameters D , D and D etc., and lengths L , L and L , etc… all connected end Q = discharge through pipe
to end, then the system is called pipes in series, in such a case.
The condition for maximum power transmitted through pipe:
i) The difference in liquid surface levels in the two reservoirs is equal to sum of the head
losses in all the sections. = 0, ∴ H = 3 h
i.e., loss of head should be 1/3 of total head to have maximum power transmitted.
i.e., H = + + ⋯ + ⋯ (neglecting minor losses) Efficiency of power transmission η =
ii) Discharge through each pipe will be same, Corresponding to the maximum power transmitted, the efficiency of power transmission is η =
. . .
Q= = = 2/3 or 66.7 %
Note: The efficiency corresponding to maximum transmission of power is not maximum.
7.6.2 Viscous flow

Q Q Q
The laminar flow of a fluid is one in which the fluid moves in layers (laminae), each layer sliding
over the adjacent one. The viscosity plays a dominant role on the fluid motion.
Figure 7.6.1
Critical Reynolds number: The Reynolds value below which the flow can be certainly considered
Equivalent Pipe: Often a compound pipe consisting of several pipes of varying diameters and to be laminar is known as critical Reynolds number
lengths is to be replaced by a pipe of uniform diameter, known as equivalent pipe. The uniform
diameter of equivalent pipe is known as equivalent diameter. It is a function of flow conditions and geometry of flow
CASE LOWER
= + + + … 1 Pipe flow 2000
2 Flow through parallel plates 1000
3 Open Channel flow 500
Pipes in Parallel: When a main pipe line divides into two or more parallel pipes which again join
4 Flow around a sphere 1
together downstream side and continue as a main line, the pipes are said to be parallel.
The basic equations which govern the motion of incompressible viscous fluid in laminar flow are
“Navier stoke’s equation” Shear velocity = V = = (it has unit of velocity)
For a two dimensional, steady uniform flow relation between shear and pressure gradients is:
∂P / ∂X = ∂τ / ∂y Head loss ( ): The variation of head loss ‘h ’ due to uniform laminar flow in a length ‘L’ of a pipe
of diameter ‘D’ is given by Hagen – Poiseuille equation
i.e., pressure gradient in the direction of flow is equal to the shear stress gradient in the normal
direction. i.e., ℎ = = because V = D
Laminar flow through circular pipes:
Power (P): In laminar flow the power required to overcome frictional resistance i.e., (h ) in a
pipe of length ‘L’ and diameter ‘D’ carrying a discharge ‘A’ of a fluid of specific weight ‘r’ and
0.707R Linear viscosity ‘ ’ is
P = γ Qh = = Q (P − P )
D
P and P are pressure between two points.
R
Friction factor for laminar flow, f = 64 / R
Velocity Shear Stress
i.e., friction factor in laminar flow is a function of Reynold’s number only.
Figure 7.6.2 Flow between two stationary parallel plates:
Velocity distribution is parabolic variation
Mean velocity (V) occurs at a distance of 0.707 R from centre of pipe and is equal to half of
maximum velocity which occurs at centre.
B
.e., V =
Shear
General equation for velocity distribution is:
= ( − )= [1 − ( / ) ]
Velocity Shear
Shear stress distribution is linear variation: Distribution Distribution
Linear variation zero at centre and maximum at boundary: Figure 7.6.3
i.e., τ = τ Velocity distribution is parabolic variation
Average velocity V = (2/3) V

Shear stress at boundary τ =
Shear stress at boundary = 6 μV/B
( )
i.e., τ = = Head loss hf = 12 μVL/ γB
V= − [Bγ − γ ]
Laminar flow around a sphere – Stokes Law: Part 7.7: Hydraulic Machines
The force resisting the motion of sphere (i.e., the drag on the sphere) was then obtained by 7.7.1 Dynamic Force on a Curve Blade Moving In Translation
Stokes as
F = 3πμ Vd
Where V = velocity of the sphere relative to the undisturbed fluid,
μ = dynamic viscosity of fluid, d = diameter of sphere.
It has been experimentally found that the Stokes’ law expressed by Eq. is valid only if the
Reynolds number is less than 0.1. It is used to determine the fall of relatively small bodies
through fluids of relatively high viscosity such as the fall of dust particles, mist droplets in the
atmosphere and the settlement of silt in reservoirs.
A small solid particle falling through a fluid under its own weight will accelerate until the net
downward force on it is zero. In other words, when the submerged weight of the particle is equal
to force given by Eq. it will have reached the steady state of its motion. No further acceleration is
then possible and the particle is said to have reached its terminal velocity.
Figure 7.7.1
Thus, the submerged weight (weight of particle minus the buoyant force) = Resisting force
Jet Striking a Moving Vane Tangentially at One Tip
(γ − γ) = 3πμVd and the terminal velocity, = ( − ) In order to obtain a higher efficiency it is always desirable that the relative velocity vector ‘V ’
strike the vane tangentially.
where γ and γ are the specific weights of the solid and the fluid respectively. The Eq. expresses
U = Velocity of curved vane
the Stokes’ law. It’s validity lies within the Reynolds number ≤ 0.1.
V = Absolute velocity of jet at inlet (A C )
u = Vane velocity at inlet (A B )
V = Relative velocity at inlet (B C )
V = Velocity of whirl at inlet (A D )
Component of ‘V ’ in the direction of blade motion i.e., along ‘u’
V = Velocity of flow at inlet (D C )
Normal component of ‘V ’ to the blade motion.
α = Angle made by jet with direction of vane or blade motion ∠C A D
β = Angle made by relative velocity vector at inlet in the direction of motion of vane at inlet.
∠C B D
The direction of fluid jet changes as if flows over the smooth surface of the vane, and at the
outlet tip it emerges with a relative velocity ‘V ’ inclined at angle ‘β ’ as shown in Fig. 7.1.
β = Blade (or) vane angle at outlet. (∠A B C )
If vane surface is very smooth, V = V

If friction of blade surface is considered, V = KV . The effect of blade friction is expressed by a
factor ‘K’ = blade velocity coefficient. K =
Note: If is the change in the whirl velocity ‘V ’ between inlet and outlet sections that produces Vw1
the force on the vane and is responsible for doing work. Vw U1
α1
Force on vane: ‘V ’ denotes the fate of flow passing through control volume. V1 β1 α1 β1
Forces on Vanes: Inlet Vr1
Case (a): If α < 90° Vr1 Vf1
INLET VELOCITY
Force on the vane = ρQ [V − (−V )] = ρQ [V + V ] TRIANGLE
= γQ/g [V + V ] = W/g [V + V ] outlet
‘W’ = Wt of fluid striking the vane/sec = γQ γ = sp. weight of fluid
Vw2
Case (b): If α > 90°, U2
r1
Force on the vane = ρQ [V − V ]
= W/g [V − V ] Vr2 Vf2
V2
Workdone per second = Power (on the vane)
Workdone / second = Power = F.u
Figure 7.7.2 Outlet Velocity Triangle
= W/g (V + V ). u if α < 90°
= W/g (V − V ). u if α > 90° The rate of flow passing through the control volume depends upon only the radial component of
W = γQ the absolute velocity V (or) V .
i.e., on velocity of flows V and V .
Q=A.V
Vane Efficiency: = (2 πr . b ) V
= = (2 πr . b ) V
r , r are radii at inlet and outlet.
( ± ). ( ± ).
= = b and b are width of flow passages with in the runner at inlet and outlet.
. The torque exerted on the axis of rotation by the fluid depends upon only the tangential
components of the absolute velocity V and V i.e., on velocity of whirl.
Note:- If blade friction is negligible, then the workdone by the jet = Change in kinetic energy.
∆( )
From moment of momentum (or) angular momentum equations.
∴ Vane Efficiency = = [V r − V r ] −−−−−( )
→ Euler’s equation for turbo machines.

= (This is the torque exerted by the fluid upon the runner of the turbo machine).
Power delivered to the runner,
=1− P=Tω
Curved Vanes Mounted on a Wheel: For rotation of the wheel at constant angular speed ‘ω’ the = ρQ (V r − V r ). ω
blade tip velocity will be = ρQ [V u − V u ] − − − − − − − (ii)
u = w ,u = w
Further P = γQH − − − − − − (iii)
‘r ’ and ‘r ’ being the radii at the inlet and outlet respectively.
Where H = Head utilized by the turbine comparing (ii) and (iii)
7.7.2 Theory of turbo machines
=
When a fluid flows through the runner of a turbo machine, its radius usually varies along its
path. Hence it is desirable to compute torque rather than the force. Total operating head H = H + ∑h → for a turbine
The heat produced, H = H − ∑h → for a centrifugal pump.
Consider the flow through the runner of a turbo machine. Let the flow enter the runner blade Efficiency of turbine = =
with an absolute velocity ‘V ’ at an angle ‘α ’ and leave it with absolute velocity ‘V ’ at an angle
α .
Efficiency of pump = =( )
It is preferred to draw velocity triangle on the blade tips. As shown in Fig. 7.7.2
7.7.3 Pelton Wheel

It is a tangential flow impulse turbine used for high heads. Whole of the pressure energy in this
Vr1 V2 = Vf2 V2
turbine is converted to kinetic energy. The wheel revolved in open air at atmospheric pressure
Vf2 Vr2
when water strikes on the series of buckets, i.e., there is no difference of pressure at the inlet and V2
outlet of runner. Vf2
β2 α2 β2 α2 β2 α2
Velocity Triangle:
g ((i)) The followingg figure
g shows the velocity triangles
g at the tips of buckets.
Vw2
U2 = U Vw2 U2 = U U2 = U
Figure 7.7.5
α =α;β =β
(α < 90°, V negative) (α = 90°, V = 0) (α > 90°, V is positive)
A
Torque = F.r., Power = F.r.w. = (Tw) = F.u.
∴ Power = F.u. = ρQ (V − u) (1+KCosβ) u

The transfer of energy from the water to the buckets takes place according to the momentum
principle. The dynamic force exerted by water on the buckets in a direction tangential to the
pitch circle is the force which produced a torque and causes the rotation of the runner.
∴ The change of momentum in a direction tangential to the periphery of the runner shall be
Figure 7.7.4 computed.
Notations: 1. Work done and efficiencies of Pelton Wheel:

V = Velocity of jet at inlet = C 2 A. Velocity of Whirl (V ):- The components of absolute velocities V = V Cos ∝ and
(C = Co. eff. of velocity = 0.97 to 0.99 takes care of loss in nozzle) V = V Cos ∝ are velocity of whirls. These are responsible for force exerted and Work
V = Absolute velocity of jet leaving the bucket. done.
U = Absolute velocity of bucket considered along the direction tangential to the pitch circle.
V = (V − U ) = Velocity of incoming jet relative to the bucket. B. Force exerted by the fluid on the buckets:-
V = Velocity of jet leaving the bucket relative to the bucket. = [V − V ]
V = K. V , K = blade friction coeff. If ∝ < 90° ,
V = Velocity of whirl at the inlet tip of bucket. = [V − (−V )]
V = Velocity of whirl at the outlet tip of bucket. = (V Cos β2 − u ) = [V − V Cosβ − u]
β = β = Angle of blade at outlet tip = [V − u) + V Cosβ]
α = α = Angle made by absolute velocity with peripheral velocity at outlet = [V − K. V Cosβ]
U = U = U πDN/60, D = dia of wheel, N = speed of wheel in r.p.m. = V [1 + KCosβ]
Since the inlet and outlet tips of the bucket are at the same radial distance from the center of = [V − ][1 + ]
shaft. Similarly if ∝ = 90°, V = 0.
∴ F = ρQ [V − u]
Inlet Velocity Triangle: It is a straight line. if ∝ > 90°, F = ρQ [V − V ]
Where V = V − U = V − U, V = V
C. Work done/Sec (or) Power developed by buckets (runner): (For α < 90°):-
Outlet Velocity Triangles: At the outlet tip any of the three velocity triangle are possible i) Power developed P = ρQ (V + V )u = ρQ [V - u] [1 + K cosβ] u
depending upon the magnitude of ‘U’, corresponding to which it is a slow, medium or fast ii) Power developed per unit mass/sec = (V − u) (1 + K Cosβ)u
( )( )
runner. iii) Power developed/unit weight of water per sec =
. .
iv) Hydraulic Efficiency w. r. t unit mass of water/sec =
Kinetic Energy/unit mass =
( )( ) Depth D = 0.8d to 1.2d.

∴ Hydraulic Efficiency =
Multiple Jet Pelton Wheel:- A Pelton Wheel having more than one jet spaced around its
(Hydraulic Efficiency represents the effectiveness of wheel in converting the Kinetic runner.
Energy of the jet into mechanical energy of rotation).
v) Conditions for Maximum Efficiency:- (β = outlet blade angle) 7.7.4 Reaction Turbines
= 1, =
( ) Reaction turbine means that the water at the inlet of the turbine possesses kinetic energy as well
∴ Maximum Hydraulic Efficiency η =
as pressure energy. As the water flows through the runner, a part of pressure energy goes on
( )( )
vi) Hydraulic Efficiency w. r. t unit wt. = changing into kinetic energy. Thus runner is completely enclosed in an air tight casing and the
vii) Mechanical Efficiency:- (η ) runner is always full of water.
. . ( ) . .
η = The hydraulic elements of a reaction turbine are as follows:
. .
The mechanical losses are
i) Friction in bearings i) Spiral casing
ii) Windage loss i.e. the friction between the wheel and atmosphere in which it ii) Stay Ring
rotates.. iii) Guide Mechanism
viii) Overall Efficiency:- iv) Runner
Shaft horse power
η = Types of draft tube:
energy svailable at the entrance to the turbine
For Pelton Wheel it lies between 85 to 90%
(A) Straight divergent tube
2. Working Proportions of Pelton Wheel:- (B) Moody spreading tube
(C) Simple Elbow tube
A) Spouting Velocity or Ideal Velocity of Jet = 2gH
(D) Elbow Tube having circular cross section at inlet and rectangular at outlet.
Where H = Net head at base of Nozzle.
B) Actual Velocity of Jet (V) at inlet = V = Cv 2gH ‘A’ and ‘B’ above are most efficient, ‘C’ and ‘D’ have an advantage that they require lesser
Where C = (Coeff. Of velocity = 0.98 (or) 0.99 for nozzle. excavation for their installation
C) The velocity of wheel for maximum efficiency
U = 0.5 V (Theoretical) Francis Turbine: It is a mixed flow type of reaction turbine. Water enters the runner radially at
However in actual practice, U = ∅ 2 its outer periphery and leaves axially at its centre.
Where ∅ = Speed Ratio = 0.43 to 0.47
D) Angle through which the jet of water gets deflected in buckets Work done and efficiencies of Francis turbine:
= 165° (unless otherwise specified).
E) The mean diameter or the pitch diameter ‘D’ of the Pelton Wheel is given by,
= ( ), =
F) Least dia of jet given by Vr Vf = V
= 0.542 metres.
G) Jet Ratio (m):- The ratio of pitch diameter ‘D’ of the Pelton Wheel to the diameter of the
jet (d).
i.e. m = (D/d). It is an important parameter in the design of Pelton Wheel. For maximum U
efficiency jet ratio varies from 11 to 14 and is 12 for most cases.
H) Number of buckets for a Pelton Wheel Runner Figure 7.7.6
= 15 + = 15 + 0.5 , m = jet ratio.
work done = ρaV (Vw U − Vw U )
I) Number of Jets:- It is obtained by dividing the total rate of flow through the turbine by
ρaV = mass of water striking per second
the rate of flow of water through a single jet.
= Maximum output under specified conditions is obtained by Vw equal to zero.
J) Important dimensions of a Pelton Wheel in terms of jet diameter ‘d’: Now work done = ρaV (Vw U )
Axial Width B = 3d to 5d, radial length L = 2d to 3d
work per unit weight of water = (Vw U ) / g
M = 1.1 to 1.25d, β = 10° to 20°, Hydraulic efficiency of Francis Turbine
ηh = Vw U / Gh six blades. Servometer is used for adjustment of runner blades. Eddy losses, which are inevitable
in Francis and Propeller turbines are almost eliminated in a Kaplan Turbine.
Note: If Vw is not equal to zero, ηh = (Vw U − Vw U ) / gH
Working Proportions of a Kaplan turbine:
The value of ‘ηh’ varies from 85 to 95%.
Mechanical Efficiency : If ‘P’ is the horse power developed by runner shaft, mechanical i) Ratio n = d / D
efficiency. where ‘d’ = Hub (or) Boss diameter, D = runner outside dia. It varies from 0.35 to 0.60.
= ( ii) Discharge ‘Q’ through the runner is given by
= = ( − ) 2 /4
ρaV = W / g
Where flow ratio Ψ = 0.70 for Kaplan Turbine.
W = Wt. of water striking per second.
iii) Velocity flow at inlet and outlet are equal i.e. Vf = Vf .
Over all efficiency = × = S.H.P / WQH ⟶ in SI system (S.H.P in W)
S.H.P / (WQH/75) ⟶ S.H.P in H.P iv) Area of flow at inlet = Area of flow at outlet = π (D − d )/4
∴ power ‘P’ developed by runner 7.7.5 Specific Speed and Performance of Turbines
Note: 1 HP ≈ 746 W
Specific Speed: The speed of a homologous turbine developing unit power under unit head.
P = ηo. W.Q.H W = Sp. wt. of water
The overall efficiency of Francis Turbine ranges from 80 to 90% = √ / /
Working Proportions of Francis Turbine: Where N = original speed of rotation of turbine runner
P = shaft horse power
i) The ratio of width ‘B’ of the wheel to the diameter ‘D’ of the runner is represented by H = net head
‘n’, that is n = B/D. It varies from 0.1 to 0.45. Note:
ii) Flow Ratio : The ratio of Velocity of flow V at inlet tip of the vane to the spouting (i) In SI system, if P = power in KW, (‘N’ speed of rotation in r.p.m, ‘H’ in m, ‘Ns’ has the
velocity 2 is known as flow ratio ‘Ψ’. dimensional formula of M1/2 L-1/4 T-5/2
∴ Flow ratio Ψ = V / 2gH. It varies form 0.15 to 0.30. (ii) Homologous Turbine : A turbine which is geometrically and kinematically similar i.e.,
having similar stream lines (or) similar velocity triangles.
iii) Speed ratio ‘I’ = U 2gH, varies from 0.60 to 0.90.
1. Significance of specific speed (Ns) : Defined as the speed of a turbine which is identical in
A) Design of a Francis Turbine Runner:
shape, geometrical dimensions, blade angles, gate opening etc., with the actual turbine but of
i) Determine required discharge from the relation
such a size that it will develop unit horse power. When working under unit head.
P = ηo W.Q.H / 75 P = power in kW W = Sp. Wt. of water in kN/m
It is useful in comparing the different types of turbines as every type of turbine has different
ii) If B = Width of wheel at inlet, D = dia of runner,
specific speed.
discharge Q = K πD B × V k = vane thickness coefficient. /
Mathematically, Ns= /
iii) Tangential velocity of runner at inlet U =
Note:
iv) Velocity of whirl Vw at inlet can be determined from relation ηh = ( ). (1) If ‘P’ is in metric horse power, the specific speed is obtained in M.K.S units.
v) The runner dia at outlet (D ) varies from D/3 to 2D/3. usually taken as D/2. (2) If ‘P’ is taken in Kilowatts, the specific speed is obtained in S.I. units.
Tangential velocity at outlet. Significance:
U V = πD N / 60
vi) Normally width of wheel at outlet B = 2B . (1) For selecting type of turbine.
vii) Generally runner is designed to have the velocity of whirl Vw at outlet equal to zero. Also performance of a turbine can be predicated.
i.e., Vw = 0. and β = 90°. Then runner vane angle ‘β’ at outlet is given by tan β =
viii) The number of runner vanes should be either one more or one less than the
number of guide vanes, in order to avoid setting up of periodic impulse. Specific Speed Type of Turbine
10 to 35 Pelton Wheel with single jet.
Kaplan Turbine: Kaplan is also a reaction type of turbine and hence it operates in an entirely 35 to 60 Pelton Wheel with two or more jets
closed conduct from the head race to the tail race. It is a type of propeller turbine. It is an axial 60 to 300 Francis Turbine
flow turbine, suitable for low heads and hence required a large quantity of water to develop 300 to 1000 Kaplan (Or) Propeller Turbine.
large amount of power.
Between the guide vanes and the runner the water in a Kaplan turbine runs through a right
angle into the axial direction and then passes through the runner. The runner consists of four or
Note: Some of the authors report Ns as 35 to 50. The higher the specific speed, the smaller In reaction turbines the cavitation may occur at the runner exit or the inlet to the draft tube,
the runner diameter as well as overall size of runner, due to which the weight and the cost of where the pressure is considerably reduced.
runner are reduced.
Due to cavitation the metal of the runner vanes and the draft tube is gradually eaten away in
2. Shape Number : A dimensionless form of specific speed is known as Shape Number these zones, which results in lowering the efficiency of the turbine. As such the turbine
Shape Number = Dimensionless specific speed. components should be so designed that as far as possible cavitation is eliminated.
√
= / (for in S.I. System)
( ) / In order to determine whether cavitation will occur in any portion of the turbine,
3. Unit Quantities : In order to predict behaviors of a turbine working under varying conditions D. Thoma of Germany has developed a dimensionless parameter called Thoma’s cavitation
of head, speed, output and grate opening, the results are expressed in terms of quantities factor, which is expressed as
which may be obtained when the head on the turbine is reduced to unity. The conditions of
turbine under unit head are such that the efficiency of the turbine remains unaffected. The =( − − )/ . (H − H ) is also called as barometric head.
important unit quantities are given below.
(A) Unit Speed : It is defined as the speed of a turbine working under a unit head. (ie., under Where H is atmospheric pressure head, H is vapour pressure head, H is suction pressure head
a head of 1 m). Denoted by ‘N ’. (or height of runner outlet above tail race) and H is working head of turbine.
We have N = N√
Where N = speed of turbine under a head ‘H’ Complete similarity in respect of cavitation can be ensured if the value of σ is same in both the
H = head under which a turbine is working model and the prototype. Moreover it has been found that σ depends on Ns of the turbine, and
U = tangential velocity. for a turbine of particular Ns the factor σ can be reduced upto a certain value upto which its
efficiency dose not remains constant. A further decrease in the value of σ results in a sharp fall in
(B) Unit Discharge (Qu): no. The value of ‘σ’, at this turning point is called critical cavitation factor ‘σc’, The value of ‘σc’ for
Where Q = discharge passing through a given turbine under a head ‘H’ different turbines may be determined with the help of the following empirical relationship.
For Francis Turbines σ = 0.625 (N / 444) -------------- (i)
(C) Unit power (Pu) : Pu = P/H3/2
Where P = power developed by turbine under a head ‘H’ For Propeller Turbines = 0.28 + --------------- (ii)
.
Use of Unit Quantities : If a turbine is working under different heads the behavior of the
turbine can be easily known from the values of Unit Quantities. For Kaplan turbines, values of obtained by equation (ii) should be increased by 10 percent.
∴ = = , = / / If ‘σ’ for a turbine is greater than’σ ’, no cavitation.
= =
7.7.7 Centrifugal Pumps
4. Similitude in Turbines: Centrifugal Pumps are rotodynamic type of pumps in which the dynamic pressure developed
Scale models are often used in designing and other studies relating to turbines. Geometric enables the lifting of liquids from a lower level to a higher level.
similarity is assured by having geometrically similar velocity vector diagram. It is usual to
neglect viscous effects in the model studies. The model and prototype characteristic A rotodynamic pump is a reaction turbine “in reverse”.
relationships are usually expressed in terms of the following relationship between the Reaction Turbines placed below the tail water while coupled to electric motor and rotated in
variables: reverse direction will work as pumps.
= A centrifugal Pump is a machine which increase the pressure energy of a fluid.
= 1. Classification of Centrifugal Pumps: The basis for classification of Centrifugal Pumps depends
upon the following characteristics features:
= i) Working Head
ii) Type of Casing
7.7.6 Cavitation in Turbines iii) Relative direction of flow through impeller
iv) Number of impellers per shaft
Cavitation is found to occur in turbines as well as in various hydraulic structures such as v) Number of entrances to the impeller
penstocks, gates, valves, spillway etc due to low pressures. vi) Type of Liquid Handled
vii) Disposition of Shaft
viii) Specific Speed N = / Q = Discharge m /sec .

= Delivery head (Total or manometric) in ‘m’.
ix) Dimensionless Parameter K
Classification based upon working head: Ns *Ns

Types of Impeller Q= /sec, H = 1m With Q = Litres/sec H = 1m
a) Working Head: Based upon the head at which water is delivered the pumps are Classified
as a) Slow speed radial flow runner 10-30 300-900 rpm
i) Low Lift Centrifgal Pumps: b) Normal Speed radial flow 30-50 900-1500
- Heads upto 15m, - Impeller surrounded by volute.
- No guide vane, - Shaft generally horizontal. c) High Speed radial flow 50-80 1500-2400
- Entrance of water to the impeller from one side or both sides depending upon the d) Mixed flow (screw runner) 80-160 2400-5000
quantity of discharge.
ii) Medium lifts Centrifugal Pumps: e) Axial flow or propeller runner 110-500 3400-15000
- Works against the head as high as 40 m * Ns = 30 Ns
-They are provided with guide vanes.
iii) High lift Centrifugal Pumps: Work done by the impeller:
-They deliver liquids at the heads of above 40 m Liquid enters the impeller radially i.e., Abs. Velocity of liquid at inlet is in radial direction.
Classification based upon the direction of flow: ∴ = 90 , =0 - For shock free entry of liquid.
i) Radial Flow Pump: Almost all centrifugal pumps are manufacture with radial flow The relative velocities V and V are parallel to the vane at the inlet and outlet tips.
impellers.
ii) Mixed Flow Pump: Used for irrigation purposes. (In case of diffusion pump, the direction of absolute velocity of liquid leaving the impeller
- Large Q at low ‘H’. coincides with the tangent to the inlet tip).
- Liquid flows in the impeller with a combination of radial and axial flow. U2
Vw2
- These look like a screw and also called as screw impeller pumps. Outlet velocity
iii) Axial Flow Pump: The flow through the impeller is in the axial direction only. α2 β2
- Very large Q at low heads triangle
V2 Vf2 Vr2
- There is no centrifugal action.
Tangent to impeller at
Classification based upon No. of impellers: Outlet of vane
i) Single Stage Centrifugal Pump:
- One impeller mounted to the shaft.
Tangent to impeller of Inlet velocity triangle
- Low lift pumps.
inlet of vane Vr1 V1 = Vf1
ii) Multi Stage Centrifugal Pump: β1 α1 α1 = 900
- Two or more impellers mounted to a single shaft in single casing.
- Pr. is built up in stages. u1
- Used for high working heads.
Figure 7.7.7
- No. of stages depends upon the head.
-
Work-done / sec by the impeller on the liquid = W/g (V U −V U )
Classification based on specific speed:
∴ Work Done = W/g (V U ) α = 90° (W = γ Q)
Specific Speed: “The speed of a geometrically similar pump when delivering one m /sec
V =0
against a head of one metre”.
(Unit discharge) Work done / unit wt. = V = U − V cotα β
= / Speed Ratio : ∅ =
Where N = Actual speed of pump in r.p.m. H = Total or manometric head.
Flow Ratio : Ψ = ∴ U and V can be worked out and substituded in the AB is parallel to the vane inlet tip.
If the flow is reduced or increased from BD to CD while the speed of rotation remains the
expression of work done. same, the vel. triangle is represented by ACD and AC is the new relative at the inlet remains
Low N High N impeller unchanged.
∅ 0.95 1.25
Ψ 0.10 0.25 Also EC is parallel to AB.
∴ Tangential change in velocity AE will take place suddenly and results in shock causing head
i) Fundamental Equation of Centrifugal Pump:- Work done per Kg is also given by loss.
( )
= + + ∴ Loss of head due to shock at entrance = =
= Change in K.E. + Centrifugal head + Static pr. Head (energy produced by impeller)
6. Working proportions of impeller and pipes:
3. Head of pump:
a) Outside dia of impeller
a) Static Head: U =πD N = speed in r.p.m
H =h +h
h = Static suction lift U = Nu ∅ 2gH H = Total head
h = Static delivery lift ∴ = ∅ 2 / … . (1)
( . ) / (√ )
Usually ∅ = 0.95 – 1.25
Static head is the net total vertical height through which the liquid is lifted by the pump.
∴ The above eq. can be used to check an existing pump to determine the head developed
b) Manometric head (or) Total Head (or) Gross Head (or) Effective head if D and N are known.
“Total Head required to be produced by the pump to satisfy external requirements”. b) Inlet dia. of impeller =
H = Energy given to the liquid by the impeller - Losses of head in the pump. = 0.5 D usually
.
= - Losses of head in the pump c) Least dia. of impeller from min. starting speed consideration
=
Also H = h + h + h + h + V ( is neglected).
= 2gH D = 0.5 D
4. Efficiencies: .
D = This equation is similar to (1) for ∅ =2/√3
i) Manometric Efficiency Dia. of suction pipes:
η = ⁄
=
( ) .
= V = velocity of flow in suction pipe.
(or) η =
= = = 1.5 to 3 m/s (usually)
ii) Volumetric Efficiency :- η = Dia. of delivery pipe:

∆
( )
= d = V = 1.5 to 3.5 m/sec
.
iii) Mechanical Efficiency η = Specific Speed : Ns = / (Most commonly used) (Dimension formula)
. .
iv) Overall Efficiency η = η Xη Xη √
* Also on power criteria. The uncommon expression for specific speed. Ns = /
5. Head loss due to shock:

“The speed in r.p.m. of a geometrically similar pump of such a size that under corresponding
conditions it would absorb 1 KW power when working against a head of 1 metre.
The efficiency of a pump decreases due to variation in design discharge and speed because of
loss of head due to shock at the inlet. Non – Dimensional specific speed (or) Shape number of the pump:
ABD = Inlet velocity triangle. =( ) /
* For pumps discharging large quantities at low heads. Such as axial flow pumps the N will ℎ = − −ℎ
have large value.
Suction lift in no case shall be greater than the above value otherwise vaporizations of liquid
7. Multi Stage Pumps in series: due to reduction in pressure takes place leading to cavitation.
* Usually h = 6 to 8 m for water at 10° − 20° C
Head produced by a C.P. depends on the rim speed of the impeller, which can be increased by h =0m for water at 65℃
increasing rotative speed or the dia. of the impeller or both, requiring large impellers. Positive pressure shall be provided at pump inlet if water is at 65℃. i.e., the pump to be
A multi stage pump consists of two or more identical impellers mounted on a common shaft installed below sump water level.
and enclosed in the same casing.
All the impellers are connected in series. 11. Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH):
Total head. H = n (H ) H = head gained in the impeller
= n (H + H ) H = head gained in the guides NPSH = Abs. Pr. Head at pump inlet – vapour pr. Of liquid to be pumped – vel. Head in the
∴H=H +H ,Q=Q =Q suction pipe.
= − +
8. Pumps in Parallel:
When a large quantity of liquid is required to be pumped against a relatively small head, two =K −[ +h +h ]
or more pumps are connected in parallel. ∴ NPSH = − −h −h − +
Pumps in parallel are so arranged that early pump works separately lifting liquid from a
= −ℎ −ℎ
common sump and delivering it to a common collecting pipe.
= + + + ⋯ … …. But R.H.S is the total suction head
= . If = = H = −ℎ −ℎ
H = constant. ∴ NPSH = H i.e. Total suction head
∴ NPSH is the head required to make the liquid flow through the suction pipe into the
9. Priming of Pump: impeller.
Pressure developed is ∝ specific weight of the liquid in contact. If air is in contact, pressure 12. Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps:
developed is for air and cannot pump the liquid.
∴ Priming (i.e. filling the liquid in suction pipe, impeller casing and in delivery pipe upto If the pressure at the suction side of the pump drops below the vapour pressure of the liquid
delivery valve with the liquid to be pumped is essential. then cavitation may occur.
- Gain in pressure head between the outlet of the impeller and the outlet of the pump is given Cavitation in a centrifugal pump results in sudden drop of head and efficiency.
by ( ) ( )
K(V /2g), K = 0.4 for volute casing Thomas’s cavitation factor =
K = 0.7 for turbine pump or diffusion casing.
= =
10. Limitation of Suction Lift: H = atm. Pr. head, H = vapour pr. head, h = suction head.
h = head loss in suction, H = manometric head, H = total suction head.
When pumps are installed above the level of sump. Pressure at inlet < P . N = sp. speed.
Applying Bernoulli’s eq. at pump inlet and the liquid level in sump, the absolute pressure
head. Critical τ = 0.103
+ + +ℎ +ℎ = / V = vel. In suction pipe. “When hot liquids are to be pumped the pumps have to be installed at liquid surface or even
ℎ = ht. of inlet above the sump. below the liquid surface”
[ ]
= − h = head loss in strainer In first case h = 0, in second case h ≤ 0 indicating that there is +ve pr. at pump inlet.
It is not possible to create at the pump inlet, an absolute pressure lower than the vapour Suction specific speed S=N
pressure. If P = vapour pressure of liquid in Abs, units then P + P = P in limiting case. Range of ‘S’ for cavitation free operation of C.P. and propeller pumps.
∴ = − −ℎ −ℎ S = 4700 to 6700
Quick Refresher Guide Heat Transfer Quick Refresher Guide Heat Transfer
Unit thermal conductance = K/dx

Part – 8: Heat Transfer K for different materials are
Freon12 – 0.0083 (min), silver – 410 w/m°K (max), Al – 225, Brass – 107, Copper = 385, Steel –
Part 8.1: Conduction
20 to 45, Concrete – 1.2, Brick – 0.65, earth – 0.3, glass – 0.75, plaster – 0.8, wood – 0.052, saw
dust – 0.07, cork – 0.03, air – 0.024, ash – 0.12, Ice – 2.25, water – 0.55 – 0.7
8.1.1 Fourier equation
¾ For most materials K = K0 (1 + βt).
For 1-D steady state heat conduction through homogeneous material without heat generation is given K0 – Thermal conductivity at 0℃
by β – Constant (+ve or –ve)
Q = – K A (dt/dx) ⇒ q = Q/A = - K (dt/dx) +ve for non metals and insulation materials
-ve for metallic conductors exception in Al and Uranium
¾ dt/dx is the temp gradient
¾ -ve sign indicates that the heat flow is in the direction of negative temperature gradient and that 8.1.2 General heat conduction equation
serves to make the heat flow positive.
+ + + = =
¾ Thermal conductivity “K” is one of its transport properties. Others are the viscosity associated
with the transport of momentum, diffusion coefficient associated with the transport of mass. α = K/ρc called thermal diffusivity and is a physical property of the material. It is more useful in
¾ K provides an indication of the rate at which heat energy is transferred through a medium by unsteady conduction situations.
conduction process.
For one dimensional, steady state with q = 0
Following are the assumptions of Fourier equation
=0
¾ Steady state conduction
¾ Liquids have low “K” and high “ρc” and so low “α”
¾ One directional
¾ Bounding surfaces are isothermal in character i.e, constant and uniform temps are maintained at ¾ Solids have high “K” and low “ρc” and so high “α”
the two faces. ¾ α indicates rate at which heat is distributed in a material
¾ Isotropic and homogeneous material and K is constant ¾ The relative magnitude of thermal diffusivity is a measure of rapidity with which the material
¾ Constant temp gradient and linear temp profile responds to sudden temp changes.
¾ No internal heat generation. ¾ In insulators the heat conduction takes place due to vibration of atoms about their mean positions
¾ In metals besides atomic vibrations, there are large no of free electrons which also participate in
Features of Fourier equation: the process of heat conduction.
8.1.3 Steady state conduction
¾ Valid for all matter – solid, liquid or gas
¾ Is a vector expression indicating that heat flow rate is normal to an isotherm and is in the direction Conduction through a plane wall:
of decreasing temperature. Let δ = isotropic wall thickness
¾ It cannot be derived from first principle
¾ Helps to define the transport property “K” K = Constant thermal conductivity
A = Constant C.S. area
Thermal resistance:
In heat transfer the driving force is the temperature difference. δ

. ( )
∴ Heat flow rate Q = K A
Electric current (I), Heat flow rate (Q),Voltage (V), Temp. difference (dt), Resistance – dx/KA –
called thermal resistance (Rt)
Q
1 KA
Thermal conductance = =
Rt dx
∴ Unit thermal resistance = dx/K
Assume one dimensional heat conduction through homogeneous material and wall is insulated on its Heating and cooling of fluids:
lateral faces but different constant temperatures T1 and T2 are maintained at boundary surfaces.
Hot fluid Cold fluid
The general heat conduction equation of one – dimensional, steady state without heat generation is
T h
=0 T h
T
on integration and substituting the B.C’s, the temp distribution equation becomes Rt T Rt T Rt
T
( )
= +
hall
Differentiating the above equation w.r.t.’x’
dt/dx = (T − T )/δ
=( )
/ ) ( / ) ( /
Taking Fourier equation and substituting dt/dx, we get
( ) Conduction through a cylindrical wall:
=
For steady state unidirectional with no internal heat generation the equation becomes
From temp distribution equation it is seen that it is linear across the wall and it is independent of the
material because it does not involve thermal conductivity. From H.T. equation it can be written as + = 0 ⇒ (1/ ) ( / )=0
= = where R = Thermal resistance = δ / KA on integration and substituting the B.C’s we get the temp distribution equation as
/
Conduction through a composite wall: ( / )

= ( / )
Under steady state conditions heat flow does not vary across the wall i.e., it is same for every layer.
Q = (T − T )/R where R − [log(r /r1)]/2πKL
Therefore
( ) ( )
= =
…
Rt = δ /K A, Rt = δ /K A, Rt = δ /K A … … …
Thermal Contact Resistance
Heat flow through a multi – layer composite wall can be calculated based on the assumption that
Writing the above “Q” equation in the form of plane wall
i. There is perfect contact between adjacent layers
Q = KA (T1 – T2) / δ = KA (T1 – T2) / (r2 – r1)
ii. The temp is continuous at the interface
iii. There is no fall of temp at the interface
Where A is the logarithmic mean area = (A2 – A1) / log (A2 / A1)
However in real systems, the contact surfaces touch only at a discrete locations due to surface
roughness, void spaces etc which are usually filled with air. So there will not be a single plane of
Conduction through sphere:
contact. This implies that the area for heat flow at the interface will be small compared to the
geometric area of the face. Due to this apparent decrease in the heat flow area and also due to the
Steady state, one dimensional with no heat generation equation in spherical co-ordinates is
presence of voids, there occurs a large resistance to heat flow. This resistance is referred as thermal
contact resistance and it causes temp drop between two materials at the interface.
=0
on integration and substituting the B.C’s we get the temp distribution equation as Note: For same inside capacity and same amount of fabrication material, same temp and same material
the heat loss is lowest in cylindrical furnace because of lowest shape factor. The ratio of R.T or S.F are
= cubical : spherical : cylindrical is 1 : 0.71 : 0.439
Effect of variable thermal coductivity:

From the above it is seen that it is hyperbolic
( )
Fourier law of heat conduction through a plane wall can be expressed as
Heat Transfer rate = = ( )
=
Q = -K0(1 + β t)A dt/dx
Where Rt = {(r2 – r1) / 4π K r r }
K0 = thermal conductivity at 00C
If we write the above H.T. equation in the form of plane wall
β = constant
Q = (KA ∆ T / δ) = {(K Am ∆ T) / (r − r )}
On separating the variables and solving it
Where Am = 4π r r = 4π r
Q = -Km A (T1 – T2) where Km = Ko (1 + β T ), T = (T1 + T2)/2
Where rm = √r r
T
Shape factor : In general all the factors relating to geometry of the section are grouped together into a
single constant called the shape factor. Shape factors for different sections are
+
Q = K ∆TS, where S = A/δ for plane wall =
S = 2ΠL/ log (r2/r1) for cylinder
=−
S = 4Π r1 r2/(r2 – r1) for sphere
The unit of shape factor is length units. From the above it is seen that for a prescribed temp difference
(T − T ), bodies with the same shape factor will allow heat transfer proportional to material “K”
Shape factor for an edge is X
S = 0.54 X length of edge
S = 0.15 X dx Critical thickness of insulation:
A complete rectangular furnace has 6 walls, 12 edges and 8 corners. The shape factor for complete The insulation radius at which resistance to heat flow is minimum is called critical radius and
furnace is corresponding thickness of insulation is critical thickness.
Stotal = 2/dx (ab + bc + ca) + 4 X 0.54 (a + b + c) + 8 x 0.15 x dx Critical radius = r = K/h for cylinder
dx = wall thickness Critical radius = r = 2K/h for sphere
a, b, c are inside dimensions Critical thickness = r − r
the above relation for “S” is valid when a, b, c > (1/5) dx When r > r the effect of wall thickness dominates the overall thermal resistance
if not S = 0.79 A ×A Similarly for sphere the critical radius works out to be r = 2K/h
8.1.4 Heat transfer from extended surfaces (fins)
Generally H.T from a surface is calculated based on Q = hA (T – Ta), from this it is seen that H.T. can (T – Ta) = (To – Ta)e
be increased by increasing h or A or (T – Ta) or combination, but h depends on geometry, fluid
properties, flow rate so we cannot increase much amount of “h” and also (T – Ta) is difficult to For estimating heat transfer
increase
Q = - K Ac (dt/dx)x = 0
So the only way is to increase the surface area of H.T. This can be done by providing extensions to the
surfaces which are called extended surfaces or fins. On simplification
Steady flow of heat along a Rod: Q = - K. Ac (- m θ) = K. Ac (m θ) = hpK A . θ
For rectangular Fin
Ac = b.t − m <m <m
Perimeter = 2 (b + t) −
m
For circular Fin
Ac = πd /4 m
Perimeter = πd m
Assumptions
¾ Thickness is small when compared to L and b and H.T is one dimensional

¾ Homogeneous and isotropic fin material and K is constant
¾ Uniform h.t.c which also includes radiation effects x
¾ No heat generation within the fin
¾ Joint is perfect Generally tapered fin is preferred because it has more lateral area near the base where the difference in
¾ Steady state heat dissipation temperature is high.
Take a small element of fin which has thickness dx and is located at a distance “x” from wall. Heat (ii) Short Fin Insulated at the Tip
conducted into the element at plane “x” = Heat Conducted out from fin at (x + dx) + heat convected
from the fin between plane x and (x + dx) The boundary conditions are
The general solution for the above equation is Θ = θo at x = 0
= + … dt / dx = 0 at x = 1
This is the general heat dissipation equation from the fin surface applying the above BC’s, the temp distribution equation is
( )
(i) Infinitely long fin (L → α) =
The boundary conditions are The heat transfer equation is

T = To at x = 0 and θ = θo = To – Ta
Q = hpKA . . tan h (ml)
T = Ta at x = ∝ and θ = 0
(iii) Finite Fin without tip insulation
On substitution
The boundary conditions are
1. θ = θo at x = 0 ( )
= ( )
2. heat conducted to the fin at x = L equals to the heat convected from the end of the fin to
surroundings.
Where
Applying the BC’s, the temp distribution equation is
T = Temperature at the bottom of the well
( ) {( / )( ( )}
= ( )} T = Gas temperature
{( / ) (
The heat transfer equation is T = Temperature of the pipe wall
( ) ( / )
Q = h p K A .θ m= hp/KA = h/Kt, t = thickness of the wall
( / ) ( )
Fin performance:
Efficiency of Fin: It is the ratio of performance of an actual fin to that of an ideal or fully effective fin
8.1.5 Transient Heat Conduction
. .
η =
. For steady state the main assumption is temp at both sides is constant over a period of time. But in
reality it is not possible to maintain constant temp and so is called unsteady state heat conduction, it is
For long fin, η = (K A /h p). 1/ = (1/m ) of time dependent
( ) ¾ Change in temperature during unsteady state may follow a periodic or non-periodic variation
For fin insulated at tip, η =
¾ In non-periodic the variation in temp is neither according to any definite pattern nor is in repeated
cycles.
Ex:- heating of ingot in a furnace
Effectiveness of fin: It is the ratio of the H.T. with fin to H.T. without fin. ¾ In periodic variation, temp changes in repeated cycles and the conditions get repeated after some
fixed time interval.
H.T. without fin = hA (t − t ) = h . A . θ Ex : temperature variations in the cylinder of I.C engine
H.T. with long fin = hA (t0 − ta) = hPKA . θ THC in solids with Infinite ‘K’
H.T in cooling or heating of a body depends upon

For long fin =
- internal conduction resistance =

From the effectiveness equation the following observations were made
¾ For improving H.T, the ε should be greater than 1 - surface convection resistance =
pK/hA > 1
but in general, convection resistance is more than conduction resistance
But from practice the fins on surfaces is justified only if the ratio PK / hAc > 5
for ex:- quenching of small metal billet casting in bath. In this case convection is more predominant
¾ Fins are generally made of Al (even though its thermal conductivity is less than that of copper) than conduction. So conduction resistance is neglected.
because of its lower cost and weight
¾ ρ/Ac increases, the ε also increases and to accommodate this we use thin fins at less pitch ∴K⟶α⟶R ⟶O
¾ Fins will always be used where the h.t.c is less. Suppose if there is fluid at one side and gas at the
other side, it is preferred to use fins in gas side. This is the reason for not using fins in steam ∴ Heat transfer is mainly controlled by convection only
condenser tubes:
ε = η × Pl/A = η × A /A for fin insulated at tip. But in reality R never equal to 380 and K never tends to infinity
Note: For calculating error in measurement of temp of gas with thermometric well
Note:- The problems which comes under this type requires solids of large K, with areas that are large = (− . )
in proportion to their volumes like thin metallic wires and plates
¾ Heat treatment of metals by quenching, time response of thermocouples, thermometers etc can be Instantaneous heat flow rate Q = −hA (T − T )Exp (−B . F )
analyzed by this method.
¾ The process in which R << R is called Newtonian heating or cooling For total heat flow rate, integrate Q with time interval τ = 0 to τ = τ
In Newtonian heating or cooling the temperature throughout solid is considered to be uniform at a And on simplification
given time, such an analysis is called lumped heat capacity analysis. .
Q = ρVC (T − T )[e − 1]
Let us consider a body of
Response Time of a Temperature Measuring System:
A = surface area, V = volume, ρ = density.
The important application of lumped heat parameter is thermocouple and thermometer. In general we
K = Thermal Conductivity, C = Specific heat expect that the temp of measuring instrument should reach the temp of source as early as possible.
That is the response time should be as min as possible.
Ti = initial temperature, Tα = temp of surroundings
∴ For rapid response the index [hAτ / ρVC] should be as large as possible to make the exponential
∴ Rate of change of I.E = Convection H.T term reach zero faster.
on substitution and simplification, the temp distribution equation becomes The above can be reached by decrease wire dia, density and specific heat or by increasing the value of
h, therefore a thin wire should be used in thermocouples
= [−ℎ / ] ∗
=− has time units and called time constant
∴ Rise or fall of temp takes place exponentially
τ/τ* = 1
−ρVc/hA has a dimensions of time so is called thermal time constant. It indicates the rate of response
of a system to sudden change in temperature =e = 0.368
=− / ⇒ = /ℎ = (1/ℎ ) ( )
Ti – Ta = 0.368 (Ti – Ta)
= thermal resistance x thermal capacitance
τ* = 1/Bi.Fo if Bi Fo increases ‘τ’ decreases.
Also ρVCτ/hA = (hl/K) x (∝τ/l ) = Biot number x Fourier number
∴ The lower the value of τ*, the better the response of thermocouple
Biot Number (Bi): It gives an indication of internal conduction resistance to the external convection
resistance. A small value of Bi indicates the system has a small conduction resistance, so when the
∴ In practical conditions temp of thermocouple is to be recorded after 4τ*
conduction resistance is small, almost uniform temp exists within the system or solid body. The
convection resistance predominates and convection heat exchange controls the transient phenomenon.
THC in solids with finite and
So the requirement for lumped heat parameter is
Bi < 0.1 This needs graphs correlating (T – Ta) / (To – Ta) and l/Bi for different values of x/L or r/R etc
That is for plates or cylinders or spheres if Bi < 0.1, the body temperatures differs only by 5% at any T−T
time. = exp(−Bi Fo)
T −T
Fourier Number (FO): F0 = If temp distribution is given, Bi is found from graph and then we can calculate Fo, from Fo ⟶ τ can
be calculated and vice versa
It signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect through solid. For example if α/l is
small, a large time τ is required to obtain a significant change of temp. T.H.C in infinite thick solids (Bi ⟶ α) (infinite in all directions)
∴ The lumped parameter solution for T.H.C is The equation of THC
dt/dx = (1/∝) dt/dτ Part 8.2: Convection

On solving and substituting boundary conditions 8.2.1 Convection
Instantaneous heat flow At the surface (x = 0) is Convection is the mode of heat transfer between a surface and a fluid moving over it.
( )
= ¾ The energy transfer in convection is mainly due to bulk motion of fluid particles.
√ ∝
¾ If this motion is mainly due to density variations then it is called free or natural convection.
Total H.T. rate at the surface will be obtained by integrating τ = 0 to τ = τ ¾ If this motion is produced by some super imposed velocity field then it is called forced
convection.
Q = −1.13 KA (T − T ) τ/∝
8.2.2 Heat transfer coefficient
The temperature distribution at any time τ on a plane wall at distance x from surface is Let us take an arbitrary shape of area A at temp Ts, over which a fluid flows at a velocity V and at
temp T the local heat flux according to Newton’s law of cooling is
= erf[ x/2 ∝ τ]
q = h (T − T )
For using infinite solution to body of finite thickness subjected to one dimensional is
But for total heat transfer
/2√∝ τ ≥ 0.5
= =( − ) ℎ = ℎ. ( − ), ℎ = 1/ ℎ
Under similar conditions the temp at the center of cylinder or sphere of radius “R” is
Where h = avg. h. t. c. = (1/L) ∫ h dx
= erf[∝ τ/R ]
Also “h” depends on
erf – error function – taken from table
¾ Surface condition (roughness and cleanliness)
¾ Geometry and orientation of the surface
¾ Thermo-physical properties of fluid
¾ Nature of fluid flow
¾ Boundary layer configuration
¾ Prevailing thermal conditions
Bulk and mean film temp:
The physical properties (μ,K,ρ,Cp) of a fluid are temp dependent. But there is no definite rule to take
properties at a particular temp. the accuracy will dependent upon the temp at which properties are
taken.
∴ Bulk temp = Tb = (Ti + To) / 2
Mean film temp = Tf = (Ts + Tα) / 2
T T are inlet and exit temp of a heat exchanger
T T are surface and fluid temp before touching surface
Reynolds Number (Re): It is the ratio of Inertia force to the viscous force. It is indicative of the
relative importance of inertial and viscous effects in a fluid motion. At low Reynolds number, the
viscous effects dominate and so the fluid motion is laminar. At high Reynolds number, the inertial
effects lead to turbulent flow and the associated turbulence level dominates the momentum and energy δ <<<<< δ . . . . . . . . . oils
flux.
δ ≈ δ . . . . . . . . gases
. .
=
δ >>>>> δ . . . . . . liquid metals
Grashof number (Gr): Indicates the relative strength of the buoyant to viscous force. Nusselt number (Nu): Establishes the relation between convective film coefficient h, thermal
. . . .∆
conductivity K, and characteristic length l of the physical system
= = ( . . . .∆ ) = ( . . . .∆ )( )
Nu = hl/K = conduction resistance / convection resistance = (l/K) / (l / hl)
= Byoyant force x ( ) Stanton Number (St): It is the ratio of heat transfer coefficient to the flow of heat per unit
temperature rise due to the velocity of the fluid.
= x Re
ℎ
= = =
l = characteristic length ( / )( / ) ×
β = fluid coefficient of thermal expansion If “n” shields are placed between two bodies
g = acceleration due to gravity Then the ratio of H.T with one shield to without shield is ½ (half)
∆t = temp difference (t − t ) If n radiation shields are inserted between two planes then
ρ = density ¾ There will be two surface resistances for each radiation shield and one for each radiating
plane, if all “ε” are equal, all surface resistances are equal. If n shields are used then no. of
μ = fluid viscosity surface resistances is equal to (2n + 2), and the no. of space resistances are equal to (n + 1)
Grashof number has a role in free convection similar to that played by Reynolds number in forced Presence of n – shields reduces the radiant heat transfer by a factor of (n + 1) i.e if configuration factor
convection. is equal to “zero”
Prandtl number (Pr): It is indicative of the relative ability of the fluid to diffuse momentum and
internal energy by molecular mechanisms.
Pr = μ Cp/K = ργCp/K = γ/(K/ρCp) = γ/α
= kinematic viscosity / thermal diffusivity
The kinematic viscosity indicates the momentum transport by molecular friction and thermal
diffusivity represents the heat energy transport through conduction. So ‘Pr’ provides a measure of
relative effectiveness of momentum and energy transport by diffusion.
‘Pr’ is a connecting link between velocity and thermal boundary layers respectively.
δ/δ = (Pr )
where δ = thickness of velocity boundary layer
δ = thickness of thermal boundary layer
n = positive index
Part 8.3: Radiation Note: A small hole leading into a cavity thus acts very nearly as a black body because all the radiant
energy entering through it gets absorbed.
8.3.1 Salient Features of Radiation
8.3.2 Total Emissive Power
The salient features of Radiation are
Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law: The total emissive power “E” of a surface is defined as the total radiant
¾ Electromagnetic waves are emitted as a result of vibrational movements of the molecular, energy emitted by the surface in all directions over the entire wavelength range per unit surface area
atomic or sub – atomic particles comprising the matter. The emission occurs when the body is per unit time
excited by an oscillating electrical signal, electronic or neutronic bombardment, chemical
reactions etc. According to Stephen – Boltzmann law the amount of radiant energy emitted per unit time from unit
¾ Two radiations are distinguished by area of black surface is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temp.
C (speed of light) = λ (wavelength) x f (frequency)
∴ if λ is less, f is high and vice versa E =σ T
Energy emitted by a photon = e = mc = h.f
⇒ m = hf/c Where σ = radiation coefficient or Stephen Boltzmann constant
∴ momentum = mc = h.f/c
where h = planck’s constant = 6.625 x 10 J/s = 5.67 × 10 /
¾ Thermal radiation has properties similar to the light
¾ At high temperature bodies emit more radiation energy than at low temp. let a surface 1 at T1 is completely enclosed in black body at T2 then
The total radiant energy (Qo) comprising upon a body would be partially or totally absorbed by it = −
(Qa), reflected from its surface (Qr), or emitted through it (Qt) according to the characteristics of the
body. But by the conservation of energy principle the total sum must be equal to the incident radiation. = − … … for gray bodies with emissivity ε
∴ Qa + Qr + Qt = Qo = − … … for black body with shape factor F
+ + = ⇒ + + =1 = − … … for gray bodies, F = shape factor
where Kirchoff’s Law: It can be stated as “the emissivity ε and absorptivity α of a real surface are equal for
radiation with identical temps and wave lengths. Therefore it states that a perfect absorber is also a
α = absorptivity perfect radiator.
ρ = reflectivity Gray Body: When the emissivity of non-black surface is constant at all temps and throughout the
entire range of wavelength, the surface is called a gray body.
τ = transmissivity
For many materials the emissivity is different for the various wavelengths of the emitted energy. The
1. α, ρ, τ are always positive and lies between 0 and 1 radiating bodies exhibiting this behaviors are called the selective emitters.
2. for non reflectivity surfaces ρ = 0, α + τ = 1 and perfect reflecting surfaces ρ = 1, α + τ = 0
3. for black body α = 1, ρ + τ = 0 Emissivities of real bodies: Emissivity of a surface indicates its ability to emit radiation energy in
4. for opaque bodies τ = 0, ρ + α = 1 comparision with a black surface of the same temp level.
5. for transparent or diathermanous bodies τ = 1, ρ + α = 0
(i) Monochromatic emissivity: It is the ratio of the monochromatic emissive power of a surface
A body that reflects all the incident thermal radiations is called specular body. Specular reflection to the monochromatic emissive power of a black surface at the same wavelength and temp.
implies that angle between the reflected beam and normal equals to the angle made by incident For a gray body the monochromatic emissivity is independent of the wavelength of the
radiation with normal ex:- highly polished surfaces emitted radiation.
(ii) Total emissivity: Ratio of the total emissive power of a surface to the total emissive power of
In diffused reflection, the incident beam is reflected in all the directions that is directional black surface at the same temp
independence of reflected beam. (iii) Normal total emissivity: Ratio of normal component of the total emissive power of a surface
to the normal component of the total emissive power of a black body at the same temp.
8.3.3 Shape Factor (C) Small gray bodies: The size of the bodies is very small when compared to distance between them.
That is the energy emitted by body 1 would be partly absorbed by body 2 and remaining is lost in
It is defined as “the fraction of radiative energy that is diffused from one surface element and strikes space and no reflections. Therefore the energy exchange between two bodies is
the other surface directly with no intervening reflections. It is also called geometrical factor,
configuration factor or view factor, it is represented by F means the shape factor form a surface A to = − = ( − )
another surface A . Therefore F is =f A F T −T
where F12 = 1 2 called equivalent emissivity or interchange factor
F = (D) Small body in a large enclosure:
= ( − )
The properties of shape factor are = f A σ (T − T )
where f =
(i) The value of shape factor depends only on the geometry and orientation of surfaces with
respect to each other. 8.3.5 Electrical network approach for radiation exchange
(ii) Net heat exchange between surfaces A1, A2 is
Q12 = A1 F12 σ1 T − A2 F21 σ2 T The radiation problems can be easily obtained by reducing the actual system to an equivalent electrical
If both are black surfaces and are maintained at same temp i.e. network and then solving that network. Some of the terms in this technique are
σ1 = σ2 = σb and T1 = T2 = T
1/
Q12 = 0 = A1 F12 σ1 T − A2 F21 σ2 T
So A1 F12 σ1 T = A2 F21 σ2 T (A) Radiant energy exchange between two black surfaces
A1 F12 = A2 F21 . . . . . . . . . called Reciprocity Theorem
(iii) The shape factor of convex surface 1 with respect to enclosure surface 2 i.e. F12 is unity.
Therefore Eb Eb
A1 F12 = A2 F21
∴ Shape factor of convex surface with respect to itself is “0” i.e. F11 = 0
(iv) The shape factor for concave surface with respect to itself is not zero ( )
= = ( − )
∴ F11 ≠ 0
(v) If the transmitting surface is subdivided the shape factor for that surface with respect to the (B) Radiant energy exchange between two infinite parallel gray planes
receiving surface is not equal to the sum of the individual shape factors.
1 −∈ /∈ 1/ 1 −∈ /∈
A1 F12 = A3 F32 + A4 F42
A1 ≠ A3 ≠ A4 and F12 ≠ F32 + F42
But if it is reverse A2 F21 = A2 F23 + A2 F24 that if the receiving surface is F21 = F23 + F24 Eb
divided, then the sum is equal Eb J J
(vi) Shape factor is the fraction of total radiation leaving the radiating surface and falling upon a
particular receiving surface. ( )
∴ F11 +F12 + F13 + F14 + . . . . . . . . . . . . . + F1n = 1 Q = =
F21 + F22 + F23 + F24 + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + F2n = 1 (C) Radiation heat exchange between large concentric cylinders or sphere is
............................................ A ≠A
Fn1 + Fn2 + Fn3 + Fn4 + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + Fnn = 1
(D) The radiation exchange between a small body in a large enclosure
8.3.4 Heat exchange between non-black bodies F A ,< < < < A , ≈0
(E) Heat exchange between two black surfaces enclosed by an insulated (adiabatic) surface
(A) Infinitely long parallel plate:. Eb − Eb
( ) Q =
Net heat exchange between two bodies is = = / /
(B) Infinite long concentric cylinders:
Consider two large concentric cylinders of area A1 and A2 emissivities ε1 and ε2 and surfaces are
maintained at temp T1 and T2
( )
Net heat exchange between two bodies is = =
/ ( / )( / )
3 Part 8.4: Heat Exchanger

Heat exchanger is a process equipment designed for the effective transfer of heat energy between two
/ / fluids (hot and cold fluid). Examples are
(i) Boilers (evaporators), super heaters and condensers of power plant

(ii) Automobile Radiators
(iii) Evaporator of an ice plant
(iv) Water and air heaters and coolers
1 2
/
The heat ‘transferred in the heat exchanger may be in the form of latent heat (ex: boilers and
condensers) or sensible heat (ex: heaters and coolers)
(F) Heat exchange between two gray surfaces enclosed by an insulated surface
When third body is black 8.4.1 Heat Exchanger Classification
Eb = J , =0
(G) Radiation H – E between 3 gray surfaces. The figure is same as above but Eb3 ≠ T3 and Q12 Heat exchangers are classified according to
equation is same as above
A) Nature of heat exchange process:
Radiation shields: It is a thin shield placed between two planes that would neither remove nor ¾ Direct contact or open heat exchanger: this is done by complete physical mixing (simultaneous
add any heat to the system but used to reduce heat transfer rate. heat and mass transfer takes place) ex: water cooling towers and jet condensers in steam power
plants.
¾ Regenerator: here hot and cold fluids flows alternately when hot fluid passes, the heat is
transferred to the solid matrix and then the flow of hot fluid, is stopped next cold fluid is passed
on to the matrix which takes heat from solid matrix ex:- open hearth and blast furnaces.
¾ Recuperator: the fluids flow simultaneously on either side of a separating wall. Examples are
super heaters, condensers, economizers and air pre-heaters in steam power plants, automobile
radiators
B) Relative direction of motion of fluids : According to flow of fluids, the H.E are classified into 3
categories
¾ Parallel flow (co-current)
¾ Counter flow (counter current)
¾ Cross flow
C) Mechanical design of H.E. surface
¾ Concentric tubes
¾ Shell and tube
¾ Multiple shell and tube passes
D) Physical state of heat exchanging (condensation and evaporation)

¾ Condenser
¾ Evaporator
8.4.2 Performance Analysis
Let m = mass flow rate (kg/s)

Cp = Sp. Heat
t = fluid temp
∆t = temp drop or rise of a fluid across the H.E
C = Heat capacity = mc
th th th
Subscripts c, h indicates cold and hot fluids ¾ The K.E and P.E changes are negligible
¾ The flow conditions are steady
Heat lost by hot fluid = Q = (∆ )
Heat gain by cold fluid = Q = C (∆t ) So by using LMTD heat transfer is given by
For the HE to be in equilibrium condition always heat lost by hot fluid is equal to heat gained by cold
Q=UAθ
fluid, so Q = Q = Q
( )
∴ Heat transferred from hot to cold fluid is = U.A. θ Where θ = called logarithmic mean temp difference
where U = overall heat transfer coefficient
A = surface area Note: If heat capacities of both the liquids are same then θ1 = θ2
θ = mean temp difference Then θ = 0/log 1 = 0/0 indeterminate
As we know that
Applying L – Hospital’s rule and solving, it becomes θ1 = θ2 = θ
− ∆ /∑
∑ = ⇒ 1/∑ In general θ > θ and for same HT rate (As) counter < (As) parallel
= 1/ ∑ − If the variation in temp of the fluids are relatively small then the temp variation curves are
( / / / )
approximately straight lines and the accurate results can be obtained through arithmetic mean temp
this is without fouling factor difference (AMTD)
/ / /
AMTD = (θ1 + θ2)/2 = ( + )/2 − ( + )/2
During operation the tube surfaces get covered by deposits of ash, soot, dirt and scale etc causes rust
formation and deposition of fluid impurities is called fouling Note:
Note:- x LMTD will generally be used when θ1/θ2 > 1.7
x H.T. rate is same in bath parallel and counter flow types when one of the fluid temp remains
(i) The “U” depends upon flow rate and properties of fluid, material thickness, surface condition of
constant
tubes and the geometrical configuration of the H.E. ( )
(ii) When fluids with low values of K and h will give low value of U when flowing in one side x When overall h.t.c is varying linearly as U = a + b θ, HT is given by = ( / )
(iii) When highly conductive fluids passes on both sides will give high value of U
(iv) For efficient and effective design there should be no thermal resistance in the heat flow path The counter flow H.E. preferred than parallel flow because
Fouling factor = 1/ℎ = − ¾ The exchange of heat may rise the temp of the cold fluid to more nearly the temp of the hot
fluid
Where h = scale h.t.c ¾ LMTD is higher and accordingly more heat can be transferred
For cylindrical type we can calculate U based on outer and inner area ¾ The unknown exit temp of the cooling water may be found from an energy balance on two
fluids
When thickness is small r = r and ‘δ/KA’ is neglected
∴ = = (ℎ ℎ )/(ℎ + ℎ ) For multi tube and multi-pass H.E. we should use a correction factor “F” which can be found out
through graphs which are plotted between P and Z
8.4.3 LMTD (Log Mean Temp Difference)
Where = , =
Assumptions made in LMTD are
And F should be less than 1.0
¾ The U is constant throughout the H.E.
¾ C and m are constant
¾ The H.E is perfectly insulated
¾ The C.S of stream is uniform
¾ No conduction of heat along the tubes of H.E.
Quick Refresher Guide Heat Transfer Quick Refresher Guide Manufacturing Engg
8.4.4 Effectiveness and NTU
The concept of LMTD will not work when outlet temp of both the fluids are not known. Normally in
Part – 9: Manufacturing Engineering
many mechanical applications we do not know exit temps of both the fluids. At this situations we use
NTU approach which is based on the concept of capacity ratio, effectiveness and number of transfer
Part 9.1: Engineering Materials
units.
The properties of a material are intimately connected to its basic molecular structure. Some
¾ Capacity ratio is the ratio of minimum to maximum capacity rate (m C or m C ) knowledge of this structure is therefore essential for understanding the various macroscopic
Capacity ratio = C = m C /m C when m C < m C properties exhibited by material.
= m C /m C when m C > m C
So a fluid with smaller value of capacity rate experiences the greater change in temp. In 9.1.1 Crystal Structure
counter flow when m C < m C Tc2 tends to Th1
The properties of a material are significantly dependent on the arrangement of atoms. In all
¾ Effectiveness of H.E (ε): is the ratio of actual heat transfer to the maximum possible heat
transfer metals and in many non-metallic solids, the atoms are arranged in a well –ordered pattern. Such
( ) ( ) solids are commonly called crystalline solids. In a crystal, we can identify the unit cell, the
= =
(
=
) ( ) repetition of which forms the whole crystal. The structure of a crystal is identified and described
¾ NTU: It is a measure of the size of H.E. It provides some indication of the size of the H.E by this unit cell.
NTU = UA / Cmin
The three commonly observed crystal structures in metals are Body centered cubic (BCC), Face
centered cubic (FCC) and Closed pack hexagonal (CPH). The FCC and CPH have the most dense
Effectiveness for the parallel flow HE: packing.
( ( ))
Effectiveness = = ( )
Effectiveness for the counter flow HE:

( ( ))
Effectiveness = = . ( ( ))
Limiting values of capacity Ratio
1. For boiling and condensation for one fluid change of temp is zero that means capacity rate (a)Body-centered cubic (bcc) (b)Face-centered cubic (fcc) (c)Close-packed hexagonal (cph)
Cmax → ∝ Therefore C = Cmin / Cmax = 0
= 1 − exp (− NTU) for both parallel and counter flow Fig. 9.1.1 Some common unit cells.
2. In gas turbine, exhaust gases after expansion in the turbine are used to heat the compressed air
so both the fluids have same capacity rate When a liquid metal solidifies by cooling, the atoms arrange themselves in regular space lattices,
C = Cmin / Cmax = 1 form a crystal. The crystallization starts simultaneously at various places within the liquid mass.
For parallel flow HE ε = [1 – exp (−2NTU)]/2 so max value of ‘ε’ is 50%. For counter flow Most metals have only one crystal structure. A few metals, however, can have more than one
HE, C⇒ 1, (1 – C) tends to zero type of crystal structure. Such elements are called allotropic metal. Iron is an example of
On substitution allotropic metal.
= /1+
max value of ε is 100% Crystal Imperfections: Crystals are rarely perfect, i.e, the lattices are not without imperfections.
These imperfections govern most of the mechanical properties of the crystalline solids. The
imperfections in a crystal lattice structure are classified as follows:
Point Defect: If an imperfection is restricted to the neighbourhood of a lattice point, the

imperfection is referred to as a point defect. Point defects are mostly of 3 types, Vacancy,
Interstitial impurity and Substitutional impurity as depicted in below figure.
Quick Refresher Guide Manufacturing Engg Quick Refresher Guide Manufacturing Engg
9.1.2 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Materials
A common means of distinguishing one material from another is by evaluating their physical
properties. These include characteristics such as density, melting point, optical properties etc.
More often however, the properties that describe how a material responds to applied loads
assume dominant position in material selection. These mechanical properties are usually
determined by subjecting prepared specimen to standard laboratory tests.
(a)Vacancy (b)Interstitial impurity (c)Substitutional impurity
Isotropy: It is the faculty of having similar properties in all directions. If the properties are
Fig. 9.1.2 Types of point different in different directions, the material is termed as anisotropic, e.g. wood.
Line Defect: If an imperfection extending along a line has a length much larger than the lattice Homogeneity: If a body has similar properties throughout its volume it is known as
spacing, the imperfections is called as line defect or a dislocation. Dislocations are of two types, homogeneous. Thus homogeneity ensures the uniformity of properties from point to point.
edge dislocations and screw dislocations.
Y’ Continuity: If the material grains in the body are properly bonded to adjacent grains and fill the
total volume, we consider it continuous.
X’ Tensile Test/ Stress-Strain Diagrams: The uni-axial tension test is done to obtain different
X strength related parameters for the engineering materials. The results and discussion of the test
Y are discussed as under:
X f
σ
Y
c
σ g
σ
(b) Screw dislocation σ d e
(a) Edge dislocation
b
σ a
Fig 9.1.3 Edge and screw dislocations
Surface Defect: When an imperfection extends over a surface, the imperfection is known as
surface defect. The most common type of surface defects is twins. Stress 0
Twin planes
0
Strain, ∈
Fig. 9.1.5 Typical stress-strain diagram for a ductile material
Ductile Materials: Fig 9.1.5 shows the stress-strain diagram for a ductile material such as mild
steel. The curve starts from the origin O showing thereby that there is no initial stress or strain
in the test specimen. Upto point ‘a’ Hooke’s law is obeyed and stress is proportional to strain.
Therefore, oa is a straight line and point a is called the limit of proportionality and the stress at
Displaced
d atoms point a is called the proportional limit stress, σ . The portion of the diagram between ab is not a
straight line but upto point b, the material remains elastic, i.e. on removal of the load, no
Fig. 9.1.4 Twinning mechanism permanent set is formed and the path is retraced.
The point b is called the elastic limit point and the stress corresponding to that is called the Elasticity: A material can be called perfectly elastic, if and only if:
elastic limit stress, σ . In actual practice, the point a and b are so close to each other that it
1. While loading or unloading, the deformation and recovery are instantaneous.
becomes difficult to differentiate between them. Beyond the point b, the material goes to the
plastic stage until the upper yield point ‘c’ is reached. At this point there is a cross to a lower 2. The recovery is complete and immediate, i.e. no permanent set is left after unloading.
value to point d, called the lower yield point. Corresponding to point c, the stress is known as 3. The load deformation curve has same shape while loading or unloading
upper yield point stress, σ and corresponding to point d, the stress is known as lower yield
point stress, σ . At point d the specimen elongates by a considerable amount without any Anelasticity: This is often called delayed elasticity. Here the recovery is complete but not
increase in stress and upto point e. The portion de is called the yielding of the material at instantaneous and takes some time.
constant stress. From point e onwards, the strain hardening phenomena becomes predominant
and the strength of the material increases thereby requiring more stress for deformation, until Ductility: The amount of plasticity that a material can exhibit is a significant feature when
point f is reached. Point f is called the ultimate point and the stress corresponding to this point is evaluating its suitability for certain manufacturing process. For metal deformation process, the
called the ultimate stress, σ . It is the maximum stress to which the material can be subjected in more plastic a material is, the more it can be deformed without rupture. The ability of a material
a simple tensile test. At point f the necking of the material begins and the cross-sectional area to change shape without fracture is known as ductility.
starts decreasing at a rapid rate. Due to this local necking, the stress in the material goes on
decreasing inspite of the fact that the actual stress intensity goes on increasing. Toughness: Toughness or modulus of toughness is defined as the work per unit volume required
to fracture a material. The tensile test can provide one means of measuring toughness, since the
Ultimately the specimen breaks at point g, known as the breaking point, and the corresponding total area under stress-strain curve represent the desired value.
stress is called the nominal breaking stress based upon the original area of cross section.
Whereas the true stress at fracture is the ratio of the breaking load to the reduced area of cross- Hardness: Hardness is a very important but hard to define property of materials. It can be
section at the neck. The initial portions of the diagram are shown in Fig. 9.1.6 on exaggerated defined as resistance to permanent deformations under static and dynamic loading.
scale.
9.1.3 Heat Treatment
σ Heat treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals for the purpose of altering their
σ σ properties and can perform without a concurrent change in product shape. Heat treatment can
b alter mechanical properties of steels by changing the size and shape of the grains.
a
b σ Heat treatment are generally employed for the following purposes:
a
Loading 1. To improve machinability
Unloading
Loading
2. To change and refine grain size
Unloading
3. Stress relieving
4. To improve mechanical properties

(b)
5. To improve magnetic and electrical properties
0 ∈ 0 ∈ 0 ∈
0.2% ∈ 6. To increase resistance to wear, heat and corrosion
(a) Residual Strain
(b)
7. To produce hard surface on a ductile interior
Fig. 9.1.6 Loading and Unloading paths Fig. 9.1.7
The brief description of different types of heat treatment process is as under:
Sometimes it is not possible to locate the yield point quite accurately in order to determine the Annealing: Annealing is a heat treatment process in which the iron based alloys are heated above
yield strength of the material. For such materials the yield point stress is defined at some the transformation range, held there for proper time and then cooled slowly (at the rate of 300C -
particular value of the permanent set. It has been observed that if load is removed in the plastic 1500C per hour) in furnace. Annealing can be of various types:
range then the unloading path line is parallel to the straight portion of the stress-strain diagram
as shown in Fig. 9.1.6 (b). The commonly used value of permanent set for determining the value
of yield strength for mild steel is 0.2 per cent of the maximum strain as shown in Fig. 9.1.7.
x Process Annealing: In this process, recrystallization of ferrite is done at sub-critical Part 9.2: Casting
temperature. During this process, hardness of steel is decreased as the ductility is
increased. The steel is heated to about 6500C and cooled freely in air. This process is 9.2.1 Casting
generally used on rolled products such as flats, sheets etc.
x Patenting: This process is similar to sub annealing with only difference is that it is ¾ Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mold
applied to steel wires. where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity.
x Spheroidizing: This is an annealing process in which high carbon steel, tool steels
containing a large amount of free cementite, which makes them brittle, are heated 200C ¾ Temp is also applied to the part that is made by this process
to 400C below lower critical temperature, held there for considerable time and then
cooled very slowly at room temperature at furnace itself. ¾ The sequence of operations involved in casting are –
x Isothermal annealing: This annealing process is used for plain and high carbon steels. In
this a ferrous alloy is austenitised, and then cooled and held at transformation o Pattern making
temperature at which austenite transforms to a relative soft ferrite carbide aggregate.
x Normalizing: Normalizing is defined as the process in which Iron base alloys are heated o Mold and core making
400C to 500C above the transformation range and held there for a specified period and
followed by cooling in still air at room temperature. o Melting and pouring – Furnaces & Solidification
Hardening: Hardening is the heat treatment process in which steel is heated at 20 0C above the o Casting – Shakeout, removal of risers and gates
transformation range, soaking at this temperature for a considerable period to ensure thorough
o Heat treatment
penetration of the temperature inside the component, followed by continuous cooling to room
temperature by quenching in water, oil or brine solution.
o Cleaning and finishing – Fettling
Tempering: Tempering is defined as the reheat process done at sub-critical temperatures. Such
o Inspection – Defects, Pressure tightness, Dimensions
reheating permits the trapped martensite to transform into troostite or sorbite depending upon
the tempering temperature and relieves the internal stress. Casting Terms
Case Hardening: Case hardening is type of heat treatment process which is supported by a tough
x Flask: This holds the sand mould intact. According to position:– Drag – lower moulding
and shock resisting core. Below are some case hardening techniques:
flask; Cope – Upper moulding flask; Cheek – intermediate moulding flask used in the
three piece moulding. Made of metal for long term use
x Carburisation: In this process, the carbonaceous medium is a solid carburiser. The chief
x Pattern: It is a replica of the final object to be made with some modifications.
carburiser for pack carburising is activated charcoal with grain size varying from 3.5 to
10 mm in diameter. x Parting line: It is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the
sand mould.
x Nitriding: It is a process of saturation of surface of steel with Nitrogen by holding it for a
prolonged period (up to 100 hrs) at a temperature ranging from 4800C to 6500C in an x Bottom board: Used when at the start of the mould making process, first the pattern is
atmosphere of Ammonia. kept on the bottom board and sand particles sprinkled on it and then the ramming is
done in the drag.
x Cyaniding: It is a process in which both carbon and nitrogen in the form of cyaniding salt
are added to the surface of low and medium carbon steel to increase its hardness and x Pouring basin: Funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten metal
wear resistance. is poured. Reduces the eroding force of the liquid metal stream coming directly from the
furnace
x Induction Hardening: In process of induction hardening a high frequency current of
about 1000 to 10000 cycles per second is passed through a copper inductor block which x Strainer: A ceramic strainer in the sprue removes dross.
acts as a primary coil of the transformer. In this the heated part is cooled rapidly with x Splash core: A ceramic splash core placed at the end of the sprue also reduces the
sprays of water delivered through the numerous small holes in the inductor block. This eroding force of the liquid metal stream
helps in obtaining hard and wear resistance surface while having soft core. x Skim bob: It is trap placed in a horizontal gate to prevent heavier and lighter impurities
x Flame Hardening: This process is also same as Induction hardening with difference that from entering the mould.
heating of the specimen is carried out by flame instead of induction effect. The heating is x Sprue: A Passage through which the molten metal from the pouring basin reaches the
generally accomplished by oxy-acetylene flame. mould cavity.
x Runner system: It has channels that carry the molten metal from the sprue to the mold
cavity.
x Gate: It is an actual entry point through which molten metal enters mould cavity
x Core: It is used for making hollow cavities or otherwise defines the interior surface of the Pattern color Code: The patterns are normally painted with contrasting colours such that the
castings. mould maker would be able to understand the functions clearly.
x Chaplet: It is used to support cores inside the mould cavity to take care of its own weight
and overcome the metallostatic forces. Colour Code
x Chill: This is a metallic object which is placed in the mould to increase the cooling rate of
castings to provide uniform or desired cooling rate. Red or Orange Unfinished surfaces and cast surfaces
x Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the casting so that hot metal can flow
back into the mould cavity when there is a reduction in volume of metal due to Yellow Surfaces to be machined
solidification.
Black Core prints for unmachined openings
9.2.2 Pattern
Yellow stripes on black Core prints for machined openings
Pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the casting process, with some modifications. The
size of pattern is slightly greater than the casting by an amount called allowances. Green Seats of and for loose pieces & loose core prints
Pattern allowances: Diagonal black stripes with clear To strengthen the weak patterns
varnish
x Shrinkage allowance
x Machining allowance or finishing allowance
x Draft or Taper allowances
x Distortion allowance 9.2.3 Moulding Materials
x Shake or Rapping allowance
Variety of moulding materials:
Classifications of Patterns: Various types of patterns depending upon the complexity of the job
x Moulding sand
the number of castings required and the moulding procedure adopted
x System sand
x Single piece pattern
x Split pattern or two piece pattern
x Rebounded sand
x Gated Pattern
x Cope and drag pattern x Facing sand
x Match plate pattern
x Loose piece pattern x Parting sand
x Follow board pattern
x Sweep pattern x core sand
x Skeleton pattern
Required processing properties of moulding material:
Pattern materials: The selection of pattern material is based on the following factors.
Refractoriness: It is the ability of the moulding material to withstand the high temperatures of
x Production Quantity the molten metal so that it does not cause fusion.
x Dimensional accuracy required Green Strength: The green sand should have enough strength so that the constructed mould
retains its shape. (Where Green refers moisture contained in the sand)
x Molding process
Dry Strength: It should retain the mould cavity and at the same time withstand the metallostatic
x Size and shape of the casting forces when the sand is at dry condition.
Wood, Metals, Plastics and Polyurethane foam are generally used materials Hot Strength: At high temperature, the strength of sand that is required to hold the shape of the
mould cavity.
Permeability: The ability of sand to allow the gas to pass through the mould. It depends on size Saw dust or Wood flour:
and shape of grains, moisture content and degree of compaction.
x It widens the range of water that can be added to get proper green strength.
Adhesiveness: Ability of molding sand to adhere to the surface of molding boxes.
x It reduces the expansion defects while improving the flowability of the moulding sand
Cohesiveness: Ability of sand particles to stick to each other. Increases with increase in clay and
decreases with increase in grain size. Starch and dextrin:
Mold hardness: It is the hardness of mold which is measured similar to Brinell hardness test. x Organic binding materials used with mould and core sands.
Types of molding sands: x Increase resistance to deformation, skin hardness and expansion defects such as scab.
Based on its origin: Natural sand, Synthetic sand & Special sands: Iron oxide:
Based on initial condition: Green sand, Dry sand, Loam sand, Facing sand, and Parting sand. x Improves surface finish, decreases metal penetration, reduces burn-on, increases the chilling
effect of the mould
Moulding sand composition: Main ingredients of moulding sand: Silica grains, clay, water and x It decreases green strength and permeability while improving the hot strength.
additives x It reduces collapsibility and makes the shake-out of the mould difficult.
Silica sand: (Silica grains) Testing sand properties:
x Silica grains forms the major portion of the moulding sand (96%) and rest being the other Moisture content:
oxides such as alumina, sodium (Na2O + K2O) and magnesium oxide (MgO + CaO)
x Impurities (oxides) should be minimum because it affects the fusion point of the silica sands. Method I:
Clay: x To test the moisture of moulding sand a carefully weighed test sample of 50 g is dried at a
temperature of 105oC to 110oC for 2 hours at the time all the moisture in the sand would
x Used as binding agents and this is mixed with the moulding sands to provide the strength, have been evaporated.
because of their low cost and wider utility x Now weigh the sample
x % of moisture – (weight difference in grams) x 2
Types of Clay:
x Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O32SiO22H2O)

x Bentonite (Al2O34SiO2H2OnH2O) Method II: (Moisture Teller)
x Southern bentonite
x Calcium as adsorbed ion x Sand is dried by suspending the sample on a fine metallic screen and allowing hot air to flow
x Low dry strength but higher green strength through the sample.
x Time taken for removal of moisture in a matter of minutes compared to earlier method.
Water:
Method III: (Moisture Teller)
x Develops plasticity and strength
x Amount of water used should be properly controlled. x It utilizes calcium carbide to measure the moisture content.
x Usual percentages of water is from 2 % to 8 %
x Measured amount of calcium carbide in a container along with a separate cap consisting of
Additives: measured quantity of moulding sand is kept in the moisture teller.
Coal dust: x The apparatus is shaken vigorously such that the following reaction takes place.
x Used for providing better surface finish to the castings CaC2 + 2H2O Æ C2H2 + Ca (OH)2
x The amount (pressure) of acetylene generated is proportional to the moisture present in the Green shear strength:
sample.
x Test is carried out on the universal sand strength testing machine with a different adapter
fitted in the universal machine so that the loading now be made for the shearing of the sand
Clay Content:
sample.
x It is determined by dissolving or washing it off the sand.
x Stress required to shear the specimen along the axis is then represented as the green shear
x To determine the clay %, a 50 g sample is dried at 105 to 110oC and the dried sample is
strength.
taken in a one litre glass flask and added with 475 ml of distilled water and 25 ml of a one
percent solution of caustic soda( NaOH 25 g per litre) Dry Strength:
x Sample is thoroughly stirred and washed for many times. And the sand is removed from the
flask and dried by heating. x The standard specimen dried between 105 and 110 for 2 hours which is used for testing.
x Clay % calculated as = (Difference in weight of the dried sand and sample) x 2
Mould Hardness:
Sand grain size:
x A spring loaded steel ball with a mass of 0.9 kg is indented into the standard specimen
x The dried clay – free sand grains are placed on the top sieve of a sieve shaker which contains prepared.
a series of sieves one upon the other with gradually decreasing mesh sizes. x The depth of indentation can be directly measured on the scale which shows units 0 to 100.
x The sieves are shaken continuously for a period of 15 min.
x Grain Fineness Number is a quantitative indication of the grain distribution x When no penetration occurs – reading is 100 which means hardest mould
x Grain fineness Number – amount retained on each sieve is multiplied by the respective x When it sinks completely – reading is 0 which means very soft mould.
weightage factor, summed up, and then divided by the total mass of the sample.
∑M F Sand Preparation:
GFN =
f
The preparation of sand is thorough mixing of its various ingredients. In the mixing process the
Where Mi – multiplying factor for the ith sieve;
clay is uniformly enveloped around the sand grains and moisture is uniformly distributed which
fi – amount of sand retained on the ith sieve; is done by MULLER machine.
Permeability:
Various parameters influencing the sand properties:
x Permeability is expressed in terms of permeability number.
x The standard permeability test is to measure time taken by a 2000 cm3 of air at a pressure Sand grain shape and size
typically of 980 Pa, to pass through a standard sand specimen confined in a specimen tube. Grain Size – Permeability
x The standard specimen size is 50.8 mm in diameter and a length of 50.8 mm.
x Coarse grains would have more void space between the grains which increase the
V uH permeability.
Permeability Number P =
p u AuT x Finer grains would have lower permeability and they provide better surface finish to the
Where V = Volume of air = 2000 cm3, H = Height of the sand specimen = 5.08 cm, p = air casting produced.
pressure, (g/cm2), A = cross – sectional area of sand specimen = 20.268 cm2, T = time in x Distribution of the grain size – widely distributed sand would have higher permeability.
minutes for the complete air to pass through.
Grain shape- permeability, binder amount:
501.28
Permeability Number P = x Angular sand grains require higher amounts of binder.
pu T
x Round grains would have lower permeability compared to angular grains
Green Compression Strength:
Grain size – refractoriness:
x Test is carried out on the universal sand strength testing machine.
x Higher the grain size, higher would be the refractoriness
x It refers to the stress required to rupture the sand specimen under compressive loading.
x The standard specimen put on the strength testing machine and the force required to cause x Purity of sand grains improves the refractoriness.
the compression failure is determined.
x Finer grains & impurities in the sand tend to lower the refractoriness.
Grain size – strength: x Gating and risering

x The green compression strength increases with a decrease in the grain size because the fine
grain size provides a large surface area for the binder to act. The following are the major defects which are likely to occur in sand castings:
Clay type and amount of Moisture content Gas defects: These defects are caused to a great extent by the lower gas passing tendency of the
mould which may be due to lower venting, lower permeability of the mould or improper design
Clay & water – green compression strength: of the casting, lower permeability caused by finer grain size of the sand, higher clay, higher
moisture, or by excessive ramming of the moulds.
x Initially the green compression strength increases with increase in water content and then
after reaching the optimum value it starts decreasing. x Blow holes and open blows:
x Additional amount of water increases the plasticity and dry strength but reduces the green Ö Spherical, flattened or elongated cavities present inside the casting (B
Blow holes) or
strength. on the surface (OOpen blows)
Method of preparing sand mould Ö Because of moisture left in mould is converted into steam by heat in the molten
metal, part of which entrapped in the casting ends up as blow hole or ends up as
x The degree of ramming increases the bulk density or the mould hardness. open blow when it reaches the surface.
x Increased ramming increases the strength
Ö Causes – moisture in the mould, lower venting and lower permeability of the mould.
x Permeability of green sand decreases with the degree of ramming.
Ö Remedy – proper venting and adequate permeability
Factors Permeability Strength
x Air inclusions:
Increase of grain fineness number Decreases Increases Ö The atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the molten metal in the furnace, in the
ladle, and during the flow in the mould, when not allowed to escape, would be
Clay content Decreases Increases trapped inside the casting and weaken it.
Reaches a maximum and Reaches a maximum and Ö Reasons
Moisture content
then decreases then decreases
– Higher pouring temperatures
Degree of ramming Decreases Increases
– poor gating design such as straight sprues in unpressurized gating,
Moulding machines: Used for production work involving large batches of the same type of abrupt bends and other turbulence
casting is to be produced. Eliminate arduous labor, offer high quality casting by improving the
application and distribution of forces, and manipulate the mold in a carefully controlled fashion. – low permeability of the mould.
Three methods used for ramming the sand into the moulding flasks Ö Remedy – Choose the appropriate pouring temperature and improve gating practices
x Jolting by reducing the turbulence
x Squeezing
x Sand slinging x Pin hole porosity:
Ö Caused by release of gases (Hydrogen) during pouring, consists of many small gas
9.2.4 Defects in castings cavities (small diameter & long pin hole) formed at or slightly below the surface of
The defects in castings may arise due to the defects in one or more of the following the casting.
x Design of casting and pattern
x Molding sand and design of mold & core Ö Reason – the high pouring temperature which increases the gas pick-up.
x Metal Composition
x Melting and pouring
Shrinkage cavities (Pipe) x Rat tails and buckles
Ö It is a depression in the surface or an internal void in the casting. Ö Under the influence of the heat, the sand expands, thereby moving the mould wall
backwards and in the process when the wall gives away, the casting surface may
Ö Caused by solidification shrinkage that restricts the amount of molten metal have this marked as a small line.
available in the last region to freeze.
Ö Reasons – moulding sand has got poor expansion properties and hot strength or the
Ö Occurs near the top of the casting (pipe) heat in the pouring metal is too high facing sand applied does not provide the
necessary cushioning effect.
Ö Remedy – proper riser design.
Ö Remedy – proper choice of facing sand ingredients and the pouring temperature
Moulding material defects: These defects occur because the moulding materials are not of
requisite properties or due to improper ramming. x Swell
x Cuts and Washes: Ö Under the influence of the metallostatic forces, the mould wall may move back
causing a swell in the dimensions of the casting.
Ö Appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal in casting
Ö Reason – the faulty mould making procedure adopted
Ö Reasons – caused by the erosion of moulding sand by the flowing molten metal at
high velocity. Ö Remedy – proper ramming
Ö Remedies – by the proper choice of moulding sand and using appropriate moulding x Drop
method for preventing the erosion of mould and by altering the gating design to
reduce the turbulence in the metal, by increasing the size of gates or by using Ö Dropping of loose moulding sand or lumps normally from the cope surface into the
multiple ingates. mould cavity
x Metal penetration Ö Reason – improper ramming of the cope flask.
Ö When the molten metal enters the gap between the sand grains – rough casting. x Scabs
Ö Reasons – either the grain size of the sand is too coarse or no mould wash has been Ö Sort of projection on the casting which occur when a portion of the mould face or
applied to the mould cavity, and by higher pouring temperatures. core lifts and the metal flows beneath in a thin layer.
Ö Remedy – choose appropriate grain size, together with a proper mould wash. Ö Appear as rough, irregular projections on the surface containing embedded sand.
x Fusion Pouring Metal defects
Ö Fusion of sand grains with the molten metal, giving a brittle, glassy appearance on x Mis-runs
the casting surface.
Ö When the metal is unable to fill the cavity completely and thus leave unfilled
Ö Reasons – clay in the moulding sand have low refractoriness or high pouring cavities.
temperature.
x Cold shuts:
Ö Remedy – Choice of correct type and amount of bentonite
Ö When two metal streams while meeting in the mould cavity, do not fuse
x Run out together properly – discontinuity or weak spot in the casting.
Ö When the molten metal leaks out of the mould Causes of above two defects:
Ö Reasons – caused either due to faulty mould making or because of the faulty Ö by the lower fluidity of the molten metal or when the section thickness of the
moulding flask. casting is too small.
Ö When the heat removal capacity is increased such as in the case of green sand Ö the heat of fusion to convert it from solid to liquid
moulds.
Ö the heat to raise the molten metal to the desired temperature for pouring
x Remedy =ρ ( − )+ + −
Ö To increase the fluidity of the metal by changing the composition or raising H – total heat required to raise the temperature of the metal to the pouring temperature, J; ρ –
the pouring temperature. density, g/cm3; Cs = weight specific heat for the solid metal, J/g-C; Tm = melting temperature of
the metal, C; To = starting temperature- usually ambient, 0C ; Hf = Heat of fusion, J/g; Cl=weight
Ö Improving the mould design. specific heat of the liquid metal, J/g-C; Tp = pouring temperature, 0C and V= Volume of metal
being heated, cm3
x Slag inclusions: Pouring – Introduction of molten metal into the mold, including its flow through the gating
system and into the cavity, is a critical step in the casting process.
Ö Slag (undesirable oxides and impurities) entering the mould cavity will be
weakening the casting and also spoil the surface of the casting. Factors affecting the pouring operation include: pouring temperature, pouring rate and
turbulence
Ö Remedy – adding flux and proper slag trapping methods.
Pouring Temperature is the temperature of the molten metal as it is introduced into the mold.
Metallurgical defects x the difference between the temperature at pouring and the temperature at which freezing
begins (the melting point for a pure metal or the liquidus temperature for an alloy)((Super
x Hot tears: Heat)
Ö Internal or external ragged discontinuities or cracks on the casting surface, caused by Pouring rate refers to the volumetric rate at which the molten metal is poured into the mold.
hindered contraction occurring immediately after the metal has solidified. x If the rate is too slow – metal will chill and freeze before filling the cavity
Ö Metal has low strength at higher temperatures; any unwanted cooling stress may x If the rate is too high – turbulence will occur in the flow
cause the rupture of the casting. Turbulence in the fluid flow is characterized by erratic variations in the magnitude and direction
of the velocity throughout the fluid.
Ö Reason – when the casting is poorly designed and abrupt sectional changes take
place; no proper fillets and corner radii are provided, and chills are inappropriately Effects of Turbulence:
placed. x Tends to accelerate the formation of metal oxides that can be become entrapped during
solidification
x Hot spots
x Aggravates mold erosion, the gradual wearing away of the mold surfaces due to impact of
Ö Caused by the chilling of the casting the flowing molten metal.
9.2.6 Gating design
Ö Remedy – proper metallurgical control and chilling practices.
The liquid metal that runs through the various channels in the mould obeys the Bernoulli’s
x Shift theorem which states that the total energy head remains constant at any section.
Ö Results in mismatch of the sections of a casting usually at a parting line. P V2

h constant
w 2g
Ö Causes – misalignment of flasks
Where h – potential head, m
Ö Remedy – by ensuring proper alignment. P – Pressure, Pa
V – Liquid Velocity, m/s
9.2.5 Heating and Pouring
w – Specific weight of liquid, N/m3
The heat energy required is the sum of
g – Gravitational constant, m/s2
Ö the heat to raise the temperature to the melting point But as the metal moves through the gating system, a loss of energy occurs because of the friction
between the molten metal and the mould walls.
Law of continuity says that the volume of metal flowing at any section in the mould is constant. Solidification time
Q A1V1 A2V2
- It is the time required for the casting to solidify after pouring.
Where Q – rate of flow, m3/s
x Local solidification time: - actual freezing takes time – during which the metal’s
A – Area of cross section, m2 latent heat of fusion is released into the surrounding mold.
V – Velocity of metal flows, m/s x Total solidification time – time taken between pouring and complete
solidification.
Fluidity:
x The molten metal flow characteristics are often described by the term fluidity, a measure - Dependent on the size and shape of the casting by an empirical relationship
of the capability of a metal to flow into and fill the mold before freezing. Chvorinov’s rule)
(C
x Spiral mold test – standard testing method to measure the fluidity of the molten metal. n
§V ·
x Factors affecting fluidity – Pouring temperature relative to melting point, metal T Cm ¨ ¸
© A¹
composition, viscosity of the liquid metal, and heat transfer to the surroundings.
x Higher pouring temperature relative to the freezing point - increases the fluidity of the T- Total solidification time, min
molten metal – which also causes some casting problems – oxide formation, gas porosity,
and penetration of liquid metal into the interstitial spaces between the grains of sand V- volume of the casting, cm3
forming the mold.
A- Surface area of the casting cm2
x Metal Composition – w.r.t. the metal’s solidification mechanism – best fluidity is obtained
by metals that freeze at a constant temperature (pure metals and eutectic alloys). n-exponent taken to have a value = 2
x The freezing mechanism, metal composition also determines heat of fusion – the amount
of heat required to solidify the metal from the liquid state. Cm – Mold constant (min/cm2)
x Higher heat of fusion tends to increase the measured fluidity in casting. - Rule indicates that a casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio will cool and
solidify more slowly than one with a lower ratio.
Property Factors
- Rule is used for designing the riser in a mold.
With decrease in:
x To perform its function of feeding molten metal to the main cavity, the metal
Viscosity in the riser must remain in the liquid phase longer than the casting, then only
effects of shrinkage are minimized.
Surface tension
Increase of Shrinkage:
Freezing range
Fluidity Shrinkage occurs in three steps:
With increase in:
(1) liquid contraction during cooling prior to solidification
Heat content
(2) contraction during the phase change from liquid to solid – Solidification shrinkage
Permeability
(3) thermal contraction of the solidified casting during cooling to room temperature
9.2.7 Solidification and Cooling
x Solidification shrinkage occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase has a higher
Pure Metals: - solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its freezing point, which is the same density than the liquid phase.
as its melting point.
x Exception in the above category, Cast iron containing high carbon content, whose
solidification is complicated by a period of graphitization during the final stages of
freezing, which causes expansion that tends to counteract the volumetric decrease Open riser – exposed to the outside at the top surface of the cope.-dis adv: allowing more
associated with the phase change. heat to escape, promoting faster solidification.
Directional Solidification: In order to minimize the damaging effects of shrinkage, it is desirable Blind riser – entirely enclosed within the mold
for the regions of the casting most distant from the liquid metal supply to freeze first and for
solidification to progress from these remote regions toward the risers. It is attained by locating Design of riser is such that the time taken for solidification of liquid metal in the riser should
sections of the casting with lower V/A ratios away from the riser, freezing will occur first in be more than the time taken for solidification of liquid metal in the cavity.
these regions and the supply of liquid metal for the rest of the casting will remain open until
these bulkier sections solidify. o (Ts) riser ≥ (Ts) casting
Another way to encourage directional solidification is to use Chills. Riser can be designed by using four methods:
Internal Chills are small metal parts placed inside the cavity before pouring so that the molten x Caine’s Method
metal will solidify first around these parts.
x Modulus method
External Chills are metal inserts in the walls of the mold cavity that can remove heat from the
molten metal more rapidly than the surrounding sand in order to promote solidification. x Navel research method
x Shrinkage volume consideration method
( ) ( )
Figure (a) External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the molten metal in a thin section of the
casting and (b) the likely result if the external chill were not used
Riser Design:
x Riser is used in a sand-casting mold to feed liquid metal to the casting during freezing in
order to compensate for solidification shrinkage.
x To function, the riser must remain molten until after the casting solidifies.
x The riser represents waste metal that will be separated from the cast part and remelted
to make subsequent castings. It is desirable for the volume of metal in the riser to be
minimum. Since the geometry of the riser is normally selected to maximize the V/A ratio,
this tends to reduce the riser volume as much as possible.
Different forms of riser:
Side riser – attached to the side of the casting by means of a small channel
Top riser – connected to the top surface of the casting.
Part 9.3: Forming Process The expressions for the non-dimensional roll pressure in the regions before and after the
( )
Forming can be defined as process in which the desired size and shape are obtained through neutral point we obtain are
plastic deformation of material. The stresses induced during the process are greater than yield
( )
strength but less than fracture strength of the material. = 1− e ,
The forming process can be grouped under two broad categories, namely, cold forming and hot
forming. If the working temperature is higher than the re-crystallization temperature of the = 1− e ,
material, then the process is called hot forming. Otherwise the process is called as cold forming.
During hot working, a large amount of plastic deformation can be imparted without significant
strain hardening. This is important as large amount of strain hardening renders the material λ=2 tan θ
brittle.
9.3.1 Rolling The pressure at the neutral point can be determined from either of the above equations for
pressure. So, the value of λ corresponding to the neutral point (λ ) is obtained by equating the
The basic objectives of the analysis we give here are to determine (i) the roll separating forces,
right-hand sides of these equations. Thus,
(ii) the torque and power required to drive the rolls, and (iii) the power loss in bearings. An
analysis considering all the factors in a real situation is beyond the scope of this text, and
therefore the following simplifying assumptions will be made: λ = ln +λ
(i) The rolls are straight and rigid cylinders.
(ii) The width of the strip is much larger than its thickness and no significant widening For typical values of the parameters in a rolling operation, we find that the roll pressure p
takes place, i.e., the problem is of plane strain type. increases continuously from the point of entry till the neutral point is reached and decreases
(iii) The coefficient of friction is low and constant over the entire roll job interface. continuously thereafter.
(iv) The yield stress of the material remains constant for the entire operation, its value
being the average of the values at the start and at the end of rolling. Typical distributions of pressure p are shown in Fig. 9.3.2. The peak pressure at the neutral point
Determination of Rolling Pressure: Figure 9.3.1(a) shows a typical rolling operation for a strip is normally called the friction hill. This peak pressure increases with increasing coefficient of
with an initial thickness t which is being rolled down to a final thickness t . Both the rolls are of friction.
equal radius R and rotate with the same circumferential velocity V. The origin of the coordinate
system xy is taken at the midpoint of the line joining the centres O and O . (The operation is
two-dimensional, and so the position of O along the axis mutually perpendicular to Ox and Oy is Exit Entry
of no significance. In our analysis, we shall assume that the width of the strip is unity.) The entry
Neutral
and exit velocities of the strip are V and V , respectively. In actual practice, V > V > V .
Therefore, at a particular point in the working zone, the velocity of the strip will be equal to V, points σ =σ =0
and this point will hereafter be referred to as the neutral point. σ =σ =σ
p/(2k)
+ σ =σ
= σ" > σ
+ O θ θ
Fig. 9.3.2 Pressure distribution in rolling
(a) Details of rolling (b) Stresses on Determination of Roll Separating Force
Assuming that the width of the strip is unity, the total force F trying to separate the rolls can be
Fig. 9.3.1 Forces and stresses during rolling
obtained by integrating the vertical component of the force acting at the roll-strip interface.
Since the angle θ is normally very small, the contribution of the roll-strip interface friction force 9.3.2 Forging
is negligible in the vertical direction. Thus,
In this section, our analysis is mainly devoted to determining the maximum force required for
F = ∫ pR cos θ dθ forging a strip and a disc between two parallel dies. Obviously, it is a case of open die forging.
Forging of strip:
≈∫ pR dθ (since θ is small),
Figure 9.3.4(a) shows a typical open die forging of a flat strip. To simplify our analysis, we shall
i.e., F = ∫ p R dθ + ∫ p R dθ make the following assumptions:
The integrations in above equation are normally computed numerically. (i) The forging force F attains its maximum value at the end of the operation.
(ii) The coefficient of friction between the work piece and the dies (platens) is
Driving Torque and Power constant.
(iii) The thickness of the work piece is small as compared with its other dimensions,
The driving torque is required to overcome the torque exerted on the roll by the interfacial and the variation of the stress field along the y-direction is negligible.
friction force. (iv) The length of the strip is much more than the width and the problem is one of
plane strain type.
(v) The entire work piece is in the plastic state during the process.
At the instant shown in Fig. 9.3.4(a), the thickness of the work piece is h and the width is 2l. Let
us consider an element of width dx at a distance x from the origin. [In our analysis, we take the
length of the work piece as
Workpiece
Moving
plate
Fig. 9.3.3 Equilibrium of deformation zone
+
Figure 9.3.3 shows the deformation zone along with the forces acting on it, including an Fixed
equivalent horizontal force F which represents the net frictional interaction between each roll plate
and the strip (the reaction - F of F has to be overcome by the roll driving torque T). F can be
determined by considering the horizontal equilibrium of the system. Thus,
F = σ t − σ t + 2 ∫ pR sin θ dθ (a) Details of forging operation (b) Stresses on element

Fig. 9.3.4 Forces and stresses during forging
≈ σ t −σ t + 2 ∫ pR θ dθ
unity (in the z-direction)]. Figure 9.3.4 b shows the same element with all the stresses acting on
it. Considering the equilibrium of the element in the x-direction, we get
Accordingly,
hdσ + 2τ dx = 0,
T ≈F R = σ t − σ t + ∫ pR θ dθ
where τ is the frictional stress. To make the analysis simpler, −p and σ are considered as the
Once the driving torque T is determined, the driving power per roll P is obtained as principle stresses. The problem being of a plane strain type, Thus,
P = Tω, σ + p = 2K or dσ = −dp , K is the allowable shear stress
where Z is the angular speed of the roll. Substituting dσ , we get
dp = dx 2K exp(2μx /h) = K
Near the free ends, i.e., when x is small (and also at x ≈ 2l; the problem being symmetric about or = ln
the midplane, we are considering only one-half in our analysis, i.e., 0 ≤ x ≤ l), a sliding between
the workpiece and the dies must take place to allow for the required expansion of the workpiece. or x = ln
However, beyond a certain value of x (in the region 0 ≤ x ≤ l), say, x , there is no sliding between
the workpiece and the dies. This is due to the increasing frictional stress which reaches the
maximum value, equal to the shear yield stress, at x = x and remains so in the rest of the zone, Substituting this value of x in equation, we obtain
x ≤ x ≤ l. Hence, for 0 ≤ x ≤ x ,
p = 2K 1 − ln + , x ≤x≤l
τ= p
The total forging force per unit length of the workpiece is given as
and, for x ≤ x ≤ l
F = 2 ∫ p dx + ∫ p dx ,
τ = K.
However, it should be noted that this assumption is incorrect as the shear stresses τ act on the where p and p are the pressures obtained earlier.
planes on which – p is acting (Fig. 9.3.4b).
9.3.3 Drawing
For the sliding (non-sticking) zone, we have
In a drawing operation, in addition to the work load and power required, the maximum possible
∫ = ∫ dx + C (0 ≤ x ≤ x ). reduction without any tearing failure of the workpiece is an important parameter. In the analysis
that we give here, we shall determine these quantities. Since the drawing operation is mostly
performed with rods and wires, we shall assume the workpiece to be cylindrical, as shown in
or ln p = +C Fig. 9.3.5 A typical drawing die consists of four regions, viz.,
Now, at x = 0, σ = 0, i.e., p = 2K (from the yield criterion). So, Die

C = ln 2K
/
or p = 2Ke (0 ≤ x ≤ x )
For the sticking zone, we have
∫ dp = ∫ dx + C (x ≤ x ≤ l)
or p= +C Job
If = p = p at x = x , then C = p − 2Kx /h. Thus,

Fig. 9.3.5 Drawing of cylindrical
p–p = (x − x ). rod
(i) a bell-shaped entrance zone for proper guidance of the workpiece, (ii) a concial working
Also, p = 2K exp(2μx /h) zone, (iii) a straight and short cylindrical zone for adding stability to the operation, and (iv) a
bell-shaped exist zone. The final size of the product is determined by the diameter of the
or p = 2K exp(2μx /h) + (x − x ) stabilizing zone (d ), the other important die dimension being the half-cone angle (α).
Sometimes, a back tension F is provided to keep the input workpiece straight. The work load,
A x = x , τ = p = K Using this along with the expression for p , we get i.e., the drawing force F, is applied on the exit side, as shown in Fig. 9.3.5, A die can handle jobs
having a different initial diameter (d ) which, in turn, determine the length of the job –die
interface. The degree of a drawing operation (D) is normally expressed in terms of the reduction
factor in the cross-sectional area. Thus,
-JJob axis
D= = =1−
when the true strain is +
= ln = ln ,
dθ
A and A being the initial and the final cross-sectional areas of the workpiece.
9.3.4 Deep Drawing
From the point of view of analysis, the process of deep drawing is very complex. In this process, Z
various types of forces operate simultaneously. The annular portion of the sheet metal (a) Stresses acting on element during drawing (b) Radial stress due to blank holding
workpiece (See Fig. 9.3.6) between the blank holder and the die is subjected to a pure radial
Fig. 9.3.7 Analysis of deep drawing operation.
drawing, whereas the portions of the workpiece around the corners of the punch and the die are
subjected to a bending operation. Further, the portion of the job between the punch and the die
walls undergoes a longitudinal drawing. Though in this operation varying amount of thickening To start with, let us consider the portion of the job between the blank holder and the die. Figure
and thinning of the workpiece is unavoidable, we shall not take this into consideration in our 9.3.7(a) shows the stress acting on an element in this region. It should be noted that the
analysis. maximum thickening (due to the decreasing circumference of the job causing a compressive
hoop stress) takes place at the outer periphery, generating a line contact between the holder and
The major objectives of our analysis are (i) to correlate the initial and final dimensions of the job the job. As a result, the entire blank holder force F is assumed to act along the circumference
and (ii) to estimate the drawing force F. Figure 9.3.6 shows the drawing operation with the Fig. 9.3.7(b). Thus, the radial stress due to friction can also be represented by an equivalent
important dimensions. radial stress 2 F /(2πr t) at the outer periphery.
Now, considering the radial equilibrium of the element shown in Fig. 9.3.7(a), we get
F Punch
rdσ + σ dr − σ dr = 0
c F
F
Blank As σ and σ are the principle stresses, the equation we obtain by using Tresca’s yield criterion
r
holder is
(σ − σ ) = 2K
r Job
(We have not used on Mises’ criterion to avoid mathematical complexity.)
−t
r + =0
r
t Die Integrating, we obtain
r
= C − ln r
Fig. 9.3.6 Deep drawing Now, at r = r , σ = μF /(πr t), as already mentioned. Hence,
The radii of the punch, the job, and the die are r , r and r , respectively. Obviously, without C= + ln r
taking the thickening and thinning into account, the clearance between the die and punch
(r − r ) is equal to the job thickness t. The corners of the punch and the die are provided with
radii r and r respectively. A clearance (c) is maintained between the punch and the blank Using this in the expression for σ , we have
holder.
= + ln
So, the radial stress at the beginning of the die corner (i.e., at r = r = r + t) is given by these quantities and also illustrate how the stock size for a given job is computed. Figure 9.3.9
shows a bending operation with characteristic dimensions.
F
= + ln
r=r Punch
J Job
Job axis
σ |r = r
t
rd
O
+ +
Die
Friction
+
Z
Fig. 9.3.8 Effect of friction at corners.
As the job slides along the die corner, the radial stress, increases to σ due to the frictional Fig. 9.3.9 Details in bending
forces, as shown in Fig. 9.3.8 This increment can be roughly estimated by using a belt-pulley
analogy. A radius r is provided at the nose of the punch and, accordingly, the die centre has a radius
(r + t), where t is the job thickness. The portions of the die, in contact with the job during the
/ operation, are also provided with some radius, say r . The angle between the two faces of the
Thus, = e
punch and the die is α. At the instant shown, the angle between the two bend surfaces of the job
is (π – 2θ). As we shall subsequently show, the bending force F is maximum at some
where is the coefficient of friction between the workpiece and the die.
intermediate stage, depending on the frictional characteristics. The degree of a bending
There is a further increase in the stress level around the punch corner due to bending. As a operation is normally specified in terms of the strain in the outer fibre. The width of the job w
result, the drawn cup normally tears around this region. However, to avoid this, an estimate of (in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper) is much larger as compared with t, and
the maximum permissible value of (r /r ) can be obtained with σ equal to the maximum hence a plane strain condition can be assumed. It is obvious that the stock length should be
calculated on the basis of the length of the neutral plane of the job. Since the radius of curvature
allowable stress of material. Since r is the final outside diameter of the product, it is easy to
involved in a bending operation is normally small, the neutral plane shifts towards the centre of
arrive at such an estimate. This estimate is based on the consideration of fracture of the material.
curvature. Usually, a shift of 5-10% of the thickness is assumed for the calculation of strain and
However, to avoid buckling (due to the compressive hoop stress in the flange region), (r − r )
stock length. Thus, the strain in the outer fibre of the bend is given as
should not, for most materials, exceed 4t.
( . )
Normally, the blank holder force is given as ϵ = ln 1 + = ln 1 +
( . ) . ( /) .
F = βπr K, assuming a 5% shift of the neutral plane. Depending on the ductility of the job material, ϵ has
a limiting value beyond which a fracture takes place. The limiting value of ϵ (= ϵ ), we
where β is between 0.02 and 0.08. An estimate of the drawing force F (neglecting the friction can determine the smallest punch radius for a given job thickness.
between the job and the die wall) can easily be obtained,
Determination of Work Load: Since the job undergoes plastic bending, the stress distribution at
F ≈ σ 2πr t the cross section along the centre line (XX) is as shown in Fig. 9.3.10(a). This distribution is
obtained by neglecting all other effects of curvature except the shift of neutral line. It is obvious
9.3.5 Bending that in the zone on either side of the neutral plane the strain level is within the elastic range.
When the strain (both in the tensile and the compressive zones) reaches the yield limit, plastic
In a bending operation, apart from the determination of work load, an estimate of the amount of deformation starts. Assuming the yield stress to be σ (same in both tension and compression)
elastic recovery (spring back) is essential. When the final shape is prescribed, a suitable amount and linear strain
of overbending is required to take care of this spring back. In this section, we shall work out
hardening, the stress distribution will be as shown in the figure. The magnitude of σ and σ is
+ different due to the shift of the neutral plane. For the sake of simplicity, the stress distribution
for large plastic bending is idealized as shown in Fig. 9.3.10(b). When the strain hardening rate
is n, then
- σ = σ + nϵ
Neutral
Plastic compression
line - .
zone
σ =σ + n ln 1 +
.
Ellastic zone
Plastic tension =σ + n ln 1 +
. ( /)
zone
The loading due to this stress distribution can be represented by a bending moment M and a
X force P (per unit width of the job), shown in Fig. 9.3.10(c), Expressed as
(a) Bending stress distribution
M = (0.55t) + + (0.45t) + ,
+
+ 0.45t
P= 0.1σ + 0.55σ − 0.45σ
-
Now, let us consider the right half of the job (of unit width) and the forces and moments acting
on it (see Fig. 9.3.11). Since P arises from the shift of the neutral plane which is very small, it can
+1
be neglected in comparison
-
Neural line
(b) Simplified bending stress

distribution
M Fig. 9.3.11 Free body diagram of half the job
with the other forces. The normal and frictional forces exerted by the die and the punch at their
P contact lines (since r is small as compared with the other dimensions, the finite contact
between the job and the punch can be idealized as a line) are N and N, respectively. As t is
small, the moment due to N is negligible. Hence M = Nl/cos θ. One-half of the bending force per
unit width is given as
(c) Forces and moments in
bending = N cos θ + μN sin θ or F = 2N(cos θ + μ sin θ)
Fig. 9.3.10 Mechanics of bending Substituting N in terms of M, we obtain
F= (cos θ + μ sin θ cos θ)
Now, differentiating F with respect to θ, we get The figure for drawing the similarity between extrusion and drawing is easily discernible. The
only change here is that σ is compressive. Therefore, following the same analysis as in drawing
= (− sin 2θ + μ cos 2θ) equation can be rewritten as
( ) ( )
Since M is independent of θ. It is obvious that F reaches a maximum when = + 1− ,
θ=θ = tan μ where σ = 0 and −F /A is nothing but the compressive stress at the section BB. Thus,
considering the compressive nature here, we have
Thus, the maximum work load per unit width is given as
( )
= −1 ,
F = [1 + cos(tan μ) + μ sin(tan μ)]
9.3.6 Extrusion where ϕ = 1 + (because tan α = tan 45 = 1)
The basic nature of the deformation in extrusion is, to some extent, similar to that in drawing. Let us now consider the stresses acting on the boundaries of the region between the sections AA
Here instead of applying a tensile load at the exit end, a compressive load is applied at the other and BB. The frictional stress at the container wall is assumed as the shear yield stress K, i.e., p=
end. However, a number of complexities arise as the die is commonly flat-face (i.e., the K. At the section BB, the value of p is given by p = −σ + +σ (considering von Mises’ yield
equivalent half-cone angle is very large unlike in the drawing die). Consequently, with the same BB
assumptions as in drawing, the results become highly inaccurate. In our analysis here, we shall criterion). Hence [taking K = σ /√3 ]
determine the work load and the frictional power loss for a simple forward extrusion with a flat-
/√
face die. For doing this, we shall use two approaches; of these, one is in line with that used for = =
drawing, whereas the other is based on the energy consideration. Since both involve rather
drastic assumptions, we shall compare the results obtained from the two approaches.
It should be noted that equation was derived assuming that the half-cone angle α is small,
Determination of work Load from Stress Analysis whereas here we have taken α = 45 . This introduces some inaccuracy in the analysis but the
With a flat-face die and high friction between the material and the container wall, a dead zone, solution becomes unwieldy without this assumption.
shown in Fig. 9.3.12(a), develops where no flow of material takes place. We assume that the
dead zone can be approximated by a half-cone angle of 45 . The material undergoing
deformation can be divided into two regions, namely, (i) section AA to BB, where the flow of
material is considered as a rigid body motion and (ii) section BB to CC, where the flow is
analogous to that in a drawing operation (of course, with a compressive load). Figure 3.15(b)
shows an element in the region BB-CC along with the stresses acting on it. Comparing Fig.
9.3.12(b) with | |
Die P
μP
Ram
A B
45 45
l l Product
C O σ + dσ
2r
Fig. 9.3.13 Frictional load during extrusion
d, = 2r,
x x σ
d(r, = 2r)
dx
C
which can be solved to obtain the value of . Considering the axial equilibrium of the region
d )
2(r, =
45 (Fig. 9.3.13), we get
A B Dead zone
P
μP σ AA d = σ BB d + πd lK
(a)Details of extrusion process (b)Stresses on element
Fig. 9.3.12 Analysis of extrusion process Finally, we get the work load F as
F = d σ BB + d lσ removed in block by using a die and a punch. The shape and size of the portion removed are
√
determined by the geometry of the die and the punch. If the final product happens to be the
Frictional Power Loss removed portion, then the operation is termed as blanking. On the other hand, if the pierced
sheet metal is the final product, then the operation is called punching. Since the basic mechanics
The total frictional power loss can be found by summing up the frictional power losses in the of material removal is the same in both the operations, we shall discuss these under a single
conical and the cylindrical regions of the work material. The contribution from the second region heading, namely punching.
can be expressed as Punch
P = πd lKV = σ dV l Job holder

√
To determine the loss in the first region, we can use either of the two approaches followed in
computing the work load. According to the first of these approaches, the frictional power loss in
the conical region is given as
Job
P = ∫ √2πdμp √2 V dr
Die
d
where V = V Clearance c
The yield criterion can be written as p = σ + σ , where σ is expressed, with ϕ=1+ , as

Fig. 9.3.14 Details of punching process.
σ =σ −1 Figure 9.3.14 shows a simple punching operation. As in deep drawing, so here too the job is held
by job holders to prevent any distortion and to provide a support. It should be noted that the
Making use of the foregoing relations in the expression for P , we get punch and die corners are not provided with any radius (unlike in the deep drawing operation)
as the objective in this process is to cause a rupture of the material. A clearance c is provided
between the punch and the die. Hence, the die diameter d = d + 2c, where d is the diameter
P = ∫ 2π V d μ 1+ − 1 dr
of the punch.
= 2π σ V d ∫ − dr 9.3.8 Powder Metallurgy
Powder metallurgy is the name given to the process by which fine powdered materials are
Finally, P = πσ V d − 1 − ln blended, pressed into desired shape (compacted) and then heated (sintered) in a control
atmosphere to bond the contacting surfaces of the particles and establish desired properties.
This method is used for mass production of small, intricate parts of high precision, often
So, the total power loss in friction is
eliminating need of additional machining.
P = P +P The powder metallurgy has four basic steps:
So, the total power loss is x Powder manufacture

x Mixing or Blending
P =P + σ d V ln x Compacting
√
x Sintering
= σ d V 1 + d ln
√
Powder Manufacture: The properties of powder metallurgy are highly dependent on the
9.3.7 Punching and Blanking characteristics of metal or material powders that are used. Some important properties or
characteristics include chemistry and purity, particle size, size distribution, particle shape and
As we have already noted, the punching and blanking processes cannot, strictly speaking, be the surface texture of the particle. The commercial powder is produced by some form of melt
grouped under the forming operations. In these processes, a finite volume from a sheet metal is atomization where a liquid is fragmented into molten droplets which then solidify into particles.
Powder Mixing and Blending: It is rare that a single powder will posses all of the characteristics Part 9.4: Joining Process
desired in a given process and product. Most likely, the starting material will be a mixture of
Unlike the manufacturing process employed to produce a single component, the joining process
various grades and sizes of powder, with additions of lubricants or binders.
are used to assemble different members to yield the desired complex configuration. Such a
The final product chemistry is often obtained by combining pure metal or non metal powders complex geometry is either too difficult to obtain or impossible to obtain by using only the
rather than using prealloyed material. Sufficient diffusion must occur during the sintering manufacturing processes.
operation to produce a uniform chemisty and structure in the final product. 9.4.1 Principles of Solid phase welding
Blending or mixing operations can be done either dry or wet, where water or other solvent is The solid state welding processes may be carried out both at the room temperature and at an
used to improve mixing, reduce dusting and lessen explosion hazards. elevated temperature without, of course, melting any part of the joining surfaces. For a better
understanding of the quality of a solid phase joint, it is worthwhile to recapitulate the strength
Compacting: It is one of the most important process of powder metallurgy. Loose powder is and cohesion of metals. A defect-free crystal fails by a cleavage along a crystallographic plane
compressed and densified into a shape known as a green compact, usually at room temperature. where the interatomic force is the weakest. As a result, two new surfaces are produced, and the
High product density and the uniformity of that density throughout the compact are generally surface energy γ is defined as the work done in order to create these surfaces. The strength of a
desired characteristics. In addition the compact should posses sufficient green strength for in- single crystal (σ ) is found to be
process handling and transport to the sintering furnace. /
σ =
Sintering: In the sintering operation, the pressed powder compacts are heated in a controlled
atmosphere to a temperature below the melting point but high enough to permit sold state where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material and d is the lattice spacing in the cleavage
diffusion, and held for sufficient time to permit bonding of particles. Most metals are sintered at plane. However, in a brittle solid, the failure takes place by the extension of the cracks already
temperatures of 70%-80% of melting temperature. present, and the bulk strength is much reduced from that given by above equation. In this case,
the bulk strength (σ ) is expressed as
When product is composed of more than one material, the sintering temperature may even be /
above the melting temperature of one or more components. σ = ,
where l (≫d) is the length of the crack.

In the solid phase welding processes, the four important factors are (i) surface deformation (ii)
surface films, (iii) recrystallization, and (iv) diffusion.
The surface deformation that takes place during welding is difficult to measure. As such, in
pressure welding, the bulk deformation is used as an index of the surface deformation and is
expressed as
× 100% (for a sheet of original and final thickness t and t , respectively),
× 100% (for a circular specimen of original and final diameters d and d ,

respectively).
The strength of a welded junction increases with increasing bulk deformation. Moreover, no
weldment takes place below a certain critical deformation. The amount of deformation
necessary for obtaining a specific strength decreases with increasing temperature. A strong weld
may be made with only 10% deformation if the working temperature is quite close to the
melting point of the material. The ratio of the oxide hardness and the parent metal hardness also
effectively governs the amount of necessary deformation.
The greatest hurdle in solid phase welding is posed by the surface oxide layers and oil films. The
liquid films can be removed by heating in hot welding, and by means of scratch brushing in cold
welding. The oxide films can also be reduced to a certain extent by scratch brushing. Moreover,
these oxide layers (being hard and brittle) fracture when the pressure is applied. A lateral
movement is very useful (as in ultrasonic welding) since this tends to roll together the
fragmented oxide layer into a relatively thick agglomerate. This results in a more metal-to-metal
contact area. An excessive oxide contamination is always harmful, resulting in a poor joint Finally, the current density rises to such a high value that the bridges start boiling. Under such
efficiency. conditions, the electrons come out of both the surfaces by a process known as thermionic
emission. Obviously, the electrons (having the negative charge) coming out of the anode are
A solid phase welding done at the room temperature does not allow recrystallization and gain
pulled back, whereas those coming out of the cathode are also attracted towards the anode.
growth at the interface. This reduces the ductility of the joint to some extent. An increase in
working temperature not only increases the ductility but also eliminates some other defects. The
The rate at which the electrons are emitted from a hot surface is given by
phenomenon of diffusion, though it has not been studied extensively, has an important bearing
on the performance of a solid phase weld. The shape and the size of the voids at the interface are I = Cθ exp(−β/θ),
modified considerably depending on the amount of diffusion.
9.4.2 Principles of Fusion welding
where I is in amp/cm , θ, is the absolute temperature, C is a constant, and β is given by
In a fusion welding process, the material around the joint is melted in both the parts to be joined.
If necessary, a molten filler material is also added. Thus, a fusion welding process may be either β = ϕe/(kθ)
autogeneous or homogeneous. Metallurgically, there are three distinct zones in a welded part,
namely, (i) the fusion zone, (ii) the heat affected unmelted zone around the fusion zone, and (iii) Where e = charge of an electron, k = Boltzmann’s constant, and ϕ (when measured in electron
the unaffected original part. The most important factors governing a fusion welding process are volts) as the thermionic work function. ϕ, in fact represents the kinetic energy necessary to ‘boil’
(i) the characteristics of the heat source, out an electron. The values of ϕ for some common metals are shown in Table 9.4.1
(ii) the nature of deposition of the filler material in the fusion zone, known as the weld pool,
(iii) the heat flow characteristics in the joint, Table 9.4.1 Ionization potential and thermionic work function of some common metals
(iv)the gas metal or slag metal reactions in the fusion zone, and
Metal Ionization potential (V) Φ(eV)
(v) the cooling of the fusion zone with the associated contraction, residual stresses, and
metallurgical changes.
Aluminium 6.0 4.1
Heat Source: A heat source, suitable for welding, should release the heat in a sharply defined,
isolated zone. Moreover, the heat should be produced at a high temperature and at a high rate. Copper 7.9 4.4
The most common sources of heat include (i) the electric arc (as in various arc weldings), (ii)
the chemical flame (as in gas welding), (iii) an exothermic chemical reaction (as in thermit Iron 7.83 4.4
welding), and (iv) an electric resistance heating (as in electroslag and other resistance welding
Tungsten 8.1 4.5
processes). The general characteristics of these heat sources are now discussed.
Emission and Ionization of Electric Arc: First of all, let us see how an electric arc is created and Sodium 5.1 2.3
maintained between two electrodes of opposite polarity. Figure 9.4.1 schematically shows an
electric circuit used for arc welding where the work is the positive electrode (called the anode) Potassium 4.3 2.2
and the electrode rod is the negative electrode (called the cathode). Initially, a good contact is
made between the electrode and the work. Thereafter, the electrode is withdrawn. As a result, Nickel 7.61 5.0
the metallic bridges start breaking, thus increasing the current density per bridge. Arc structure, characteristics, and power: Structurally, we can distinguish five different zones in
an electric arc. These are as follows.
Electrode (i) Cathode spot: This is a relatively very small area on the cathode surface, emitting the
electrons.
(ii) Cathode Space: It is a gaseous region adjacent to the cathode and has a thickness of the order
− of 10 cm. This region has the positive space charge, so a voltage drop is necessary as the
electrons are to be pulled across this region.
Electric source Arc (iii) Arc Column: This is the visible portion of the arc consisting of plasma (hot ionized gas)
where the voltage drop is not sharp.
Work
(iv)Anode Space: This, again, is a gaseous region (thickness ≈10 cm) and is adjacent to the
+ anode surface where a sharp drop in the voltage takes place. This is because the electrons
have to penetrate the anode surface after overcoming the repulsion of the therminically-
Fig. 9.4.1 Arc welding scheme emitted electrons from the anode surface.
(v) Anode Spot: This is the area on the anode surface where the electrons are absorbed. This
area is larger than the cathode spot.
The potential drop across an arc is schematically shown in Fig. 9.4.2. The voltage drop shown in where A is the electrode drop and Bl represents the column drop.
this figure is for given spacing, current, and electrode materials. A change in the materials alters
The voltage-current relationship of an arc (Fig. 9.4.3) determines the required characteristics of
all the values. However, a change in the spacing and the current essentially changes only then
the power source.
drop in the arc column.
Heat flow characteristics: A study of heat flow characteristics can provide an estimate of the
minimum heat input rate required to form a weld of a given width. Moreover, a recognition of
Anode the major variables controlling the thermal cycle (i.e., the heating and the cooling rate of the heat
Anode space
Cathode affected zone) is essential for a successful fusion welding. In the fusion welding processes, the
heat source is moving, except in spot welding where the source is stationary. Once the steady
state is reached, even with a moving heat source, the temperature distribution relative to the
source becomes stationary. The most convenient way of analyzing such a problem with a moving
Arc column
source is to assume the source as stationary and the workpiece to move with the same velocity
in the opposite direction. This speed is called the welding speed. Two different types of heat
sources can be considered. In most cases, the heat is liberated in a small zone which is idealized
as a point source, and the heat flow from the source is three-dimensional. In a few cases, e.g., in
Cathode space butt welding of relatively thin plates, the heat is liberated along a line and heat source is
Cathode
idealized as a line source. In such situations, the heat flow is two-dimensional The available
Potential results include those of infinite, semi-infinite, and finite medium, each with point and line
Fig. 9.4.2 Potential across arc space sources. Of these results, the most useful is the one which gives the minimum heat input rate
necessary for maintaining a given width of the weld. For a three dimensional heat source, this is
It has been experimentally found that, for given spacing (and, of course, electrode materials), the given as
voltage reduces up to a current value of 50 amp (against the ohmic law of constant resistance)
and increases thereafter, as shown in Fig. 9.4.3. This can be explained as follows. Up to 50 amp of Q = πwkθ + ,
current, the shape of the arc is almost cylindrical and the surface to volume ratio of a cylinder
decreases with increasing radius. Thus, a thick, high current arc loses less heat and essentially where Q = rate of heat input (W),
burns hotter. This result in a higher conductivity (and consequently lower resistance) as
compared with a thin, low current, arc. However, beyond 50 amp of current, the arc bulges out w = width of the weld (m),
and the current path becomes more than the arc gap which again increases the resistance of the
arc. Due to these two opposite effects, i.e., higher temperature and longer current path, the k = thermal conductivity of the work material (W/m-℃),
voltage drop remains constant over a wide range of the current values.
θ = melting point of the work material above the initial temperature (℃),
v = speed of welding (m/sec),
Voltage α = thermal diffusivity of the work material (m /sec)
= (ρ = density, c = specific heat).
For a two-dimensional heat source, the corresponding equation is given by

0 50 100 500
Current (amp) Q = 8kθ h + ,
Fig. 9.4.3 Current--voltage characteristic of arc
where h = plate thickness.
As a first approximation, we can assume the conductivity of the arc column to be independent of
In arc welding with short circuit metal transfer, the heat input rate is easily seen to be
the arc length l. The electrode drops are also independent of the arc length. Hence, we can write
the voltage drop across the entire arc as Q = CVI,
V = A + Bl,
where Part 9.5: Theory of Metal Cutting
V = arc voltage (V), The material removal processes are family of shaping operations in which excess material is
removed from a starting work part so that what remains is the desired final geometry.
I = arc current (A),
9.5.1 Machining
C = fraction of total time during which the arc is on.
Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut away material
Cooling of fusion weld to leave the desired part shape. The predominant cutting action in machining involves shear
deformation of the work material to form a chip; as chip is removed, a new surface is exposed.
The three important effects intimately connected with the cooling of a fusion weld are (i)
contraction, (ii) residual stress, and (iii) metallurgical phase transformation. All these effects Advantages of Machining:
significantly control the quality of a weld.
x Variety of work materials
(i) Contraction: During the freezing of the weld pool, a decrease in the volume takes place. x Variety of part shapes and geometric features
Moreover, the direction of freezing, and thus the effect of contraction, depends on the type of x Dimensional accuracy
joint.
x Good surface finishes.
(ii) Residual Stress: During the fusion welding of plates, as the weld pool contracts on cooling,
this contraction is resisted by the rest of the plates (which have not melted). As such, a Limitations
tensile stress is generated in the weld, and this is balanced by the compressive stress in the
parent metal. This residual stress may result in the cracking of a brittle material and is not x Wasteful of material
important as far as a ductile material is concerned. x Time consuming
(iii) Metallurgical Changes: These changes are due to the heating and subsequent cooling of The process of removing metal can be done by using two types of cutting tools.
the weld and the heat affected zones of the parent materials. Such changes significantly
affect the quality of the weld. The wide variety of changes that may take place depend on x Single point cutting tools
various factors, e.g.,
a) the nature of material, i.e., single-phase, two-phase, o Ground type
b) the nature of the prior heat treatment, if any, and
c) the nature of the prior cold working. o Tipped type
9.4.3 Principles of Solid/Liquid State Joining x Multipoint cutting tools
Three different processes, namely, brazing, soldering and adhesive bonding are grouped under o Drill bit
solid/liquid state welding. The physical phenomena associated with each of these processes are
essentially the same, and differ mainly in the metallurgical aspects. In these processes, the bulk o Milling cutter
material is not melted. Also, a molten filler material is used to provide the joint.
o Grinding wheel etc.
Soldering and Brazing
x MRR obtained from multipoint cutting tool is more than that from single point cutting tool
The soldering and brazing processes are carried out by allowing a molten filler material to flow
in the gap between the parent bodies. Obviously, the filler material has to have a melting point x The life of multipoint cutting tool is more than single point cutting tool.
much lower than that of the parent bodies. When the filler material is a copper alloy (e.g.,
copper-zinc and copper-silver), the process is called brazing. A similar process with a lead-tin x Single point cutting tools are fed axially at a uniform feed per revolution. But multipoint
alloy as the filler material is called soldering. The most common heat source for these processes cutting tools are fed perpendicularly to the cutter axis of rotation.
is electrical resistance heating.
Method of machining
x Orthogonal cutting or 2D cutting

x Oblique cutting or 3D cutting
9.5.2 Mechanics of basic Machining Operation Types of Chips:
vchip Rake angle ∝ x Continuous chip

x Continuous with built-up edge
Chip
Rake surface x Discontinuous chip
thickness
Uncut x Non-homogeneous chip
thickness
Tool Favorable factors to get continuous chip
Clearance
angle x Ductile work material
v x Small uncut chip thickness, fine feed
Work Flank x High cutting speed
surface x Large rake angle
x Suitable cutting fluid
Mechanism of chip formation:
x Using sharp cutting edge
When the zone under the cutting action is carefully examined, primary shear zone and secondary
Favorable factors to get Continuous chip with built-up edge:
shear zone are formed.
x Ductile work material
x Primary shear zone: the uncut layer deforms into a chip after it goes through a severe plastic
x Low cutting speeds
deformation in the primary shear zone.
x Low rake angle and high feed
x Secondary shear zone: after the chip formation, the chip flows over the rake surface of the
x Heavy depth of cut
tool and the strong adhesion between the tool and the newly-formed chip surface results in
x Absence of cutting fluid
some sticking. Due to that, it undergoes a further plastic deformation at the interface
between tool and chip. x Stronger adhesion between chips and tool face
Chip formation influenced by the following factors: Favorable factors to get Discontinuous chip:
Major Factors x Brittle work material

x Small rake angle
x Work material properties. x Large uncut chip thickness
x Very low or very high cutting speed
x Cutting speed x Lack of an effective cutting fluid
x Low stiffness of the machine tool
x Feed rate
According to ASA system, the single point cutting tool can be designated as
x Depth of cut Notation Name of the angles Order of Reading
αb Back rake angle
x Effective rake angle of the tool
αs Side rake angle
x Type of cutting fluid
θe End relief angle
Minor factors θs Side relief angle
x Surface finish of tool φe End cutting edge angle

φs Side cutting edge angle
Downward direction
x Coefficient of friction between tool and chip

r Nose radius
x Temperature of cutting region
Z ,V π x Controls the directions of the resultant force on the tool and chip flows.
π π x Rake angle influences the cutting forces, power and surface finish:
∝ Effect on performance:
X
θs Y Strength of tool: Tool with large rake angle is weak and the tool point may break off readily and
on the contrary tools with negative rake angle are stronger.
π
ϕ
π Y cutting force - back
X Z + back rake compression
rake
θ
ϕ π
π
shear
π ∝
Back rake angle (αb)): It is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel to the base of
the tool and measured in a plane (perpendicular) through the side cutting edge.
Heat conduction: Tool with large rake angle do not conduct heat readily whereas tools with
Side rake angle (αs)): It is the angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of the tool negative rake angles have better heat conductivity.
and measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and the side cutting edge.
rakee
End relief angle (θe)): It is the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the
end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and measured at right angle to rakee
the end flank.
Side relief angle (θs)): It is the angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the
side cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and measured at right angle to
Heat Heat
the side flank.
Dissipation Dissipation
End cutting edge angle (φe)): It is the angle between the end cutting edge and a line normal to the
tool shank. Cutting force: With decrease in rake angle the shear plane angle (φ) decreases and for the same
depth of cut, the extent of the shear plane increase and thereby the cutting force increases (μ at
Side cutting edge angle (φs)) or Lead angle: It is the angle between the side cutting edge and the the tool-chip interface assumed to be constant) +ve
side of the tool shank.
Nose radius (r): Radius curvature of the tool tip. It provides strengthening of the tool nose and
better surface finish.
Importance of various angles:

For same
Back rake angle (αb): depth of cut
Purpose: l1>l2
x To control the direction of chip flow
x To give protection to the tool point
Power consumption: With large rake angle the cutting forces are less thereby the power required Side rake angles (αs)
for making the cut is also reduced.
Purpose: By providing a shearing action for chip removal, this angle enables the tool to cut more
The back rake angle controls the point of initial contact between the tool and the freely.
workpiece and there by exercises a control over strength of tool point.
Effect on performance:
ve rake angle
Power consumption:
¾ As the side rake angle increases, the amount of chip that bends decreases, and hence the
power required to part and bend the chip decrease as the side rake angle increases
subjected to impact
Work
Piece ( +ve side rake
angle )
Positive Back Rake angle Negative Back Rake angle

Promote chip formation giving the Chip is highly distorted that forces Heat Generation:
tool more wedge shape but weakens increased causes tool vibration,
the tool section causing heat chatter, poor finish, machining ¾ A fairly large part of the power required to part and bend the chip is transformed into
concentration near the chip and accuracy and machine power. heat.
reduces tool life.
¾ As the side rake angle decreases, the heat generation also increases (because power
Less rough surface More rough surface consumption increases ) but the temperature at the tool point decreases because the
Less curling and more open chips More curling of chips area of heat dissipation increases with decrease in side rake angle.
More continuous chips The chips break in short intervals
When machining low strength ferrous Machining high strength alloys
and non-ferrous materials and work-
hardening materials
Using low power machines
( +ve side rak
ke )
The setup lacks strength and rigidity For rigid set ups and when cutting
and cutting at low speeds at high speeds
When machining long shafts of small When there are heavy impacts
diameters loads such as interrupted
machining
Feed/rev: Side cutting edge angle(φs)
¾ The thickness of the chip is largely determined by the amount of feed/rev. x The angle distributes the cutting stresses favourably at the start and at the end of a cut.
x With γs the tool first contacts the workpiece some distance away from the tip and hence
The feed/rev increase, the chip thickness increases and consequently the power
expended to part the chip also increases resulting in higher amount of heat generated.
¾ For a high feed/rev, the side rake angle should be decreased in order to increase the area
of heat dissipation.
Surface finish:
¾ The side rake angle increases, the size of built up edge that adheres to the top face near
to the cutting edge becomes smaller and therefore, the resulting surface finish is smooth.
Depth of cut
¾ Side rake angle has a greater effect on the chips breakage than does the back rake angle Edge
Edge Entering
Leaving
Positive side Rake angle Negative side Rake angle Gradually
Gradually
Discontinuous and more broken Continuous chips
chips
More rough surface Less rough surface(ie) there is an the starting load is better withstood and also γs allows the tool to enter and leave the workpiece
improvement in surface finish, a gradually, so there is no extra load comes into play and therefore tool life increases.
reduction in cutting forces and also
an increase in tool life. x Chip produced will be thinner and wider which will distribute the cutting and heat produced
over more of the cutting edge.
End cutting edge angle(φe) x A gentle back pressure is created against the tool by the introduction of side cutting edge
angle and thereby the chatter and vibration are reduced in the machine tool.
Purpose: x The back pressure keeps the cross slide tight against the lead screw which prevents any
backlash.
x To avoid rubbing between the edge of the tool and the workpiece.
x If a large part of the end cutting edge is in contact with work which increases the radial force L → ength of the cutting
and this may lead to chatter and vibration.
action of the tool
x Main function of end cutting edge angle is to prevent chatter and vibration
x Too greater an angle leaves the tool pointy, which results in a tool which is not able to
conduct away the heat fast enough.
x No relation with the power consumption but it affects the tool life.
x On finishing tool, a small flat is ground on the front portion of the edge next to the nose L
radius. Depth of
L
x Tools like, cut off tools and necking tools often have no end cutting edge angle. cut (d)
Direection Side Pressure

Less Positive angle More Positive angle Feed
of Feed Pressure
pressure Direection
feed.
Less roughness, however it should be Increase in the height of feed of Back pressure
maintained such that it does not rub marks. feed.
with the workpiece
More rough surface and reduction

in tool strength.
x It has a significant influence on the life of the tool under normal conditions. Because by Effect of rake and relief angle at different settings:
producing a wider chip it distributes the cutting force and heat produced over larger cutting
edge. During turning cylindrical jobs the tool tip must coincide with centre line of job, if not the
x No influence on the power consumed or on the total force necessary to cut the metal for a effects are:
given cut of feed.
x Size of this angle influences chatter (ie) greater angles cause chatter - If tool tip is above centre line, the tool will destroyed due to friction
x Helps to avoid the formation of a built up edge on the tool.
- If tool tip is below centre line, the tool tip will dull rapidly
x No side cutting edge angle is desirable when machining castings and forgings with hard and
scaly skins, because the least amount of tool edge should be exposed to the destructive
To reduce the above two effects the tool is filled at slightly inclined position, due to this the
action of the skin.
back rake and end relief angles will get changed. The effective rake and relief angles can be
calculated as follows:
Less Positive angle More Positive angle
Let Of = Off set distance; r = radius of work; θ = Angular change; Sin θ = Of/r
Thicker discontinuous chips Thinner continuous chips
The considerations are
More rough surface Less rough surface
i) off set is taken as positive if the tip is above centre line and negative if the tip is below
Slight increase in tool life. Could centre line
cause chatter in a non-rigid setup.
ii) Always subtract θ from relief angle algebraically
Side relief angles (θs)
iii) Always add θ to back rake angle algebraically
x Allows the tool cutting edge to penetrate into the metal and promotes free cutting by
preventing the side flank f the tool from rubbing against the work.
x If the side relief is too small then,
o Side cutting edge cannot dig into the work properly.
o Tool becomes dull quickly.
o Tool will rub against the work which promotes the formation of wear land and finish
on the work will be spoiled.
x If it is too large the cutting edge will be very weak and obviously the tool life will be lowered.
Higher values Lower values
Used for tougher tool materials For brittle tool materials
Used to machine the softer materials Used to machine the harder

Nose radius (r)
materials
x The increase in nose radius avoids high heat concentration at a sharp point, improvement in
End relief angle (θe)
tool life and an improvement in surface finish is obtained.
x To prevent the end of the tool from rubbing on the work.
x Slight reduction in cutting forces is usually obtained.
x Interrupted cutting requires additional tool strength due to impact loading; therefore lower
flank angles are used.
x Chatter will result if nose radius is too large; because a large nose radius thins the chip and
x It has marginal effect on the cutting forces, power and surface finish increases radial pressure.
Cost and method of manufacture: Cost should be low and method of manufacture should be easy
Chip has uniform Chip thickness
decreases at point of
thickness w/p Tool materials:
w/p tool.
Carbon steels (High carbon steels):

Depth of Composition C = 0.8 to 1.3%; Si = 0.1 to 0.4%; Mn = 0.1 to 0.4%
Depth of
cut
cut
High speed steel (HSS)
Composition of General HSS:
18% - Tungsten – used to increase hot hardness and stability

x Feed marks are closer together when feed rate is reduced; a feed rate equal to the nose
radius gives a poor finish. 4 % - Chromium – used to increase strength
x If nose radius is increased the feed marks tend to be wiped out. 1 % - Vanadium – used to maintain keenness of cutting edge.
Cast nonferrous tools (Stellite):
Cemented Carbides: It is produced by powder metallurgy technique with sintering at 1500oC.

The two basic groups of carbides used for machining operations are tungsten carbide and
titanium carbide.
Ceramics and sintered oxides: There are two principle families of ceramic cutting tool materials –
Alumina base ceramic and silicon-nitride (SiN) base ceramic
Nose radius equal to
feed Cermets:
Diamond: Single crystal diamond & Poly-crystalline diamond (compacts)

9.5.3 Cutting tool materials Cubic boron nitride (CBN)
A cutting tool must have certain characteristics in order of produce good-quality and economical UCON: It is developed by union carbide in USA. It is consists of
parts.
Columbium – 50 % ; Titanium – 30 %; Tungsten – 20%
Hot Hardness: The tool should be able to retain its hardness and strength even at elevated
temperatures encountered in cutting operations. Cutting fluids: Cutting fluids are sometimes called cutting oil or coolant or lubricant.
Wear resistance: The tool should give an acceptable tool life which is obtained before the tool is Purposes of cutting fluid:
resharpened or replaced.
x Reduce friction and wear, thus improving tool life and surface finish.
Toughness: The tool should not fracture or fail due to the sudden impact load on tool which is x Reduce forces and energy consumption
created in interrupted cutting operations. x Cool the cutting zone, thus reducing workpiece temperature and distortion.
x Wash away the chips.
Chemical stability or inertness: It should have less affinity towards the workpiece material, so
x Protect the newly machined surfaces from environmental corrosion.
that any adverse reactions contributing to tool wear are avoided.
Types of cutting fluid:
Friction coefficient: The friction coefficient should be low to enable the easy flow of chip during
the machining.
x Water
x Oils
oSoluble Oil: It contains 80% water, soap and mineral oil. Soap helps as an emulsifying logV1 logV2
agent. n = slope of the curve n = tanθ =
logT2 logT1
o Straight Oil: It contains mineral oils, Kerosene and low viscosity petroleum products.
o Mixed Oil: It is a combination of straight, mineral and fatty oils.
x emulsions, semi-synthetics, and synthetics Values of n and C differ depending on work and tool materials
Cutting speed is the most significant process variable in tool life; however, depth of cut and feed
9.5.4 Tool life
rate are also important. Thus tool life relation can be modified as follows.
Tool failure: The useful life of a cutting tool may end in a variety of ways: y
VT n d x f C
x Fracture
Where d is the depth of cut, f is the feed rate (mm/rev)
x Plastic deformation
Variables affecting tool life:
x Gradual Wear (Tool wear)
Process variables
x Flank wear
Tool material
x Crater Wear
Tool geometry
Workpiece material
Tool life:
Cutting fluid
x It can be defined as the time a newly sharpened tool will cut satisfactorily before it becomes
necessary to remove it and regrind or replace.
x Other criteria are sometimes used to evaluate tool life: Economics of machining: Economics of machining is not but selection of cutting speed for
optimum conditions which can be done based on the following criteria:
o Change of the quality of the machine surfaces
x For minimum production cost
o Change in the magnitude of the cutting force resulting in changes in machine and x For Maximum production rate
workpiece dimensions to change x For maximum profit or maximum efficiency
o Change in the cutting temperature. The maximum production rate consideration will lead to higher tool cost, where as the minimum
cost consideration will lead to reduced production rate.
x The selection of the correct cutting speed has an important bearing on the economics of all
metal-cutting operations. To measure the tool life the Taylor tool life relationship is used For minimum production cost: The total cost of a part can be written in the form
VT n C R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
R – Total cost/piece
Where V = Cutting speed, m/min
R1 – material cost/piece
T = Tool life, minutes (it is time that it takes to develop a certain flank wear land)
R2 – set up and idle time cost /piece
C = a constant equal to the intercept of the curve and the ordinate or the cutting speed.
Actually it is the cutting speed for a tool life of one minute.
R3 – Machining cost/piece
R4 – tool changing cost/piece
R5 – tool regrinding cost/piece. 1

SLD § V · n
= y2 ¨ ¸
y1 – Cost/min of labour and overheads, 1000fV © C ¹
y2 – total cost per grind including depreciation 1 1

SLD SLD § V · n SLD § V · n
Total Cost per piece R = R1 + y1Ts + y1 + y1 ¨ ¸ Tct + y 2 ¨ ¸
L – Length of work (mm) 1000fV 1000fV © C ¹ 1000fV © C ¹
D – Work diameter (mm) dR

To obtain minimum total cost per piece, 0
dV
V – Cutting speed (m/min)
Differentiating the above equation w.r.t. V, (In above equation the first two terms are constant)
T – Tool life, min
n
f – Feed, mm/rev ª ny1 º
Vopt C« »
¬ 1 - ny1Tct y2 ¼
Ts – Setup time and idle time/piece, min
§ 1 ·§ y ·
Tm- machining time/piece, min Corresponding Tool-life T = ¨ 1¸¨¨ Tct 2 ¸¸
© n ¹© y1 ¹
Tct – tool changing time, min
Material cost R1: The material cost does not depend on the cutting conditions and remains as
constant (R1)
Set-up and idle time cost (R2): It is given by the product of the set-up and idle time and the
cost/unit time of labour and overheads. This is also independent of the cutting conditions f and v
R2 = y1Ts
Machining cost (R3): The machining cost/piece is given by the product of the machining
time/piece and the cost/unit time of labour and overheads.
πLD
R3 = y1Tm = y1
1000fV
Tool changing cost (R4):
Tm
Number of times the tool has to be changed =
T
1
Tm SLD § V · n
Tool changing cost/piece = y1 x Tct x = y1 ¨ ¸ Tct
T 1000fV © C ¹
Tool regrinding cost/piece (R5):
R5= y2 x No. of times tool failed
Part 9.6: Metrology and Inspection Examples of unilateral tolerances are:

. . . .
25 . , 25 . , 25 . , 25 . etc.
9.6.1 Limits, Fits and Tolerances Unilateral system is preferred in interchangeable manufacture, especially when precision fits are
required, because:
Every production process involves a combination of three elements viz, men, machine and (i) It is easy and simpler to determine deviations.
materials. Each of these elements has some inherent variations as well as some unnatural (ii) Another advantage of this system is that Go gauge ends can be standardized as the
variations. The natural variations are due to chance causes, which are difficult to trace and holes of different tolerance grades have the same lower limit and all the shafts have
control. The unnatural variations are due to assignable cause which can be easily traced, same upper limit.
controlled and reduced to economic minimum. These variables result in variation of size of (iii) This form of tolerance greatly assists the operator, when machining of mating
components. parts. The operator machines to the upper limit of shaft (lower limit for hole)
knowing fully well that he still has some margin left for machining before the parts
Limits: The limits of size of a dimension of a part are two extreme permissible sizes, between are rejected.
which the actual size of a dimension may lie. They are fixed with reference to the basic size of
that dimension. The high limit (upper limit) for that dimension is the largest size permitted and Bilateral System: In this system, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both the sides of
the low limit is the smallest size permitted for that dimension. the basic size i.e., the limits of tolerance lie on either side of the basic size; but may not be
necessarily equally disposed about it,
Tolerance: The permissible variation in size or dimension is called tolerance. Thus, the word Tolerance
tolerance indicates that a worker is not expected to produce the part to the exact size, but a
definite small size error is permitted. The difference between the upper limit and the lower limit
of a dimension represents the margin for variation in workmanship and is called a “Tolerance Tolerance
zone”.
Basic Size
Tolerance can also be defined as the amount by which the job is allowed to go away from
accuracy and perfectness without causing any function trouble, when assembled with its mating
Fig. 9.6.2 Bi-lateral tolerance
part.
.
Systems of writing tolerances e.g., 25± . , 25 .
In this system it is not possible to retain the same fit when tolerance is varied and the basic size
There are two systems of writing tolerances: of one or both of the mating parts is to be varied. This system is used in mass production where
machine setting is done for the basic size.
(i) Unilateral system
(ii) Bilateral system Relationship between Tolerance and Cost:
The relationship between tolerance and cost of production is shown in Fig. 9.6.3 If the tolerance
Unilateral System: In this system, the dimension of a part is allowed to vary only on one side of are made closer and closer, the cost of production goes on increasing, because to manufacture
basic size i.e., tolerance lies wholly on one side of the basic size either above or below it. the component with closer tolerances, we need:
Tolerance
Cost
Basic Size
Tolerance Work Tolerance
Fig. 9.6.3 Relation between Cost and Tolerance
Fig. 9.6.1Unilateral Tolerance
(i) Precision machines, tools, materials
(ii) Trained and highly skilled operators: IT = es – ei (upper deviation – lower deviation)
(iii) Tight inspection and more precise testing and inspection devices.
(iv) It needs more concentration of the operators, frequent checking and more time i.e., es = ei + IT
which slows down the rate of production.
(v) Close supervision and control is essential. For hole
Fits: Fit may be defined as the degree of tightness or looseness between two mating parts to IT = ES – EI
perform a definite function when they are assembled together.
ES = EI + IT.
Terminology for Limits and Fits:
Fundamental Deviation. Fundamental deviation is that one of the two deviation (either the
Shaft: The term shaft refers not only to the diameter of a circular shaft but also to any external upper or the lower) which is the nearest to the zero line for either hole or a shaft. It fixes the
dimension of a component. position of the ‘Tolerance Zone’ in relation to the zero line as shown in Fig. 9.6.5
Hole: The term hole refers not only to the diameter of circular hole but also to any internal Tolerance
dimension of a component. Zone
When an assembly is made of two parts, one is known as male-surface and the other mating part
as a female (enveloping) surface. The male surface is called as ‘Shaft’ and the female surface as Fundamental Tolerance
‘Hole’. Deviation
(Lower Deviation)
Basic or Nominal Size: It is the standard size of a part with reference to which the limits of Zero line
variation of a size are determined. It is referred to as a matter of convenience. The basic size is
the same for the hole and its shaft. It is the designed size obtained by calculations for strength. Low High Basic
Actual Size: Actual size is the dimension as measured on a manufactured part. limit limit size
size size
Zero line: It is a straight line drawn horizontally to represent the basic size. In the graphical
representation of limits and fits, all the deviations are shown with respect to the zero line
(datum line). The positive deviations are shown above the zero line and negative deviations
below as shown in Fig. 9.6.4
Fig. 9.6.4 Lower deviation as fundamental deviation
Deviation: Deviation is the algebraic difference between the size (actual, maximum etc.) and the
corresponding basic size. The fundamental deviation for the hole is denoted by capital letters A, B, C, …. 2 C and the same
for shaft is denoted by small letters a, b, c, …… zc etc. as explained later.
Upper Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the upper (maximum) limit of size and Fundamental Zero line
the corresponding basic size. It is a positive quantity when the maximum limit of size is greater Deviation Tolerance Zone
than the basic size and a negative quantity when the upper limit of size is less than the basic size (Upper Deviation)
as shown in Fig. 9.6.4 It is denoted by ‘ES’ for hole and ‘es’ for a shaft. Tolerance
Lower Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the lower limit of size and the
corresponding basic size. It is a positive quantity when the lower limit of size is greater than the
basic size and negative quantity when the lower limit of size is less than the basic size. Low High
limit limit
It is denoted by ‘EI’ for hole and ‘ei’ for shaft. size size
The relationship of deviation with tolerance (IT) is given by,
For shaft
Fig. 9.6.5 Upper deviation as fundamental deviation

th th th
From Fig. 9.6.5 it is clear that when the tolerance zone is above the zero line, lower deviation is Clearance Fit: In this type of fit shaft is always smaller then the hole i.e., the largest permissible
the fundamental deviation. While, when the tolerance zone is below the zero line, upper shaft diameter is smaller than the diameter of the smallest hole. So that the shaft can rotate or
deviation is the fundamental deviation. slide through with different degrees of freedom according to the purpose of mating part.
Basic shaft: Basic shaft is the shaft whose upper deviation is zero. Thus the upper limit of the
basic shaft is the same as the basic size. It is denoted by letter ‘h’.
Basic Hole: Basic hole is the hole whose lower deviation is zero i.e., its low limit is the same as minimum clearance
Hole Tolerance
the basic size. It is denoted by a letter ‘H’.
Zero line
Max.
Clearance
Tolerance Zone: It is the zone bounded by two limits of size of a part in the graphical Shaft Tolerance
representation of tolerance. It is defined by its magnitude and by its position in relation to the
zero line as shown in Fig. 9.6.5
Tolerance grade: The tolerance grade is an indication of the degree of accuracy of manufacture
and it is designated by the letters ‘IT’ followed by a number, where ‘IT’ stands for “International
Tolerance grade”. Tolerance grades are IT0, IT0, IT1, up to IT16, the larger the number larger
will be the tolerance. Fig. 9.6.6 Clearance Fit
Standard Tolerance Unit: A unit which is a function of basic size and which is common to the Clearance fit exists when the shaft and the hole are at their maximum metal conditions, The
formula defining the different grades of tolerances. It is denoted by the letter ‘i’ and expressed in tolerance zone of the hole is above that of the shaft as shown in Fig. 9.6.6
terms of microns. It serves as a basis for determining the standard tolerance (IT) of the system.
Maximum Clearance: It is the difference between the minimum size of shaft and maximum size of
Fit: Fit may be defined as a degree of tightness or looseness between two mating parts to
hole.
perform a definite function when they are assembled together.
Minimum Clearance: It is the difference between the maximum size of shaft and minimum size of
It is the relationship between the two mating parts with respect to the amount of loose or
tightness which is present when they are assembled together. hole.
Accordingly, a fit may result either in a movable joint or a fixed joint. For example, a shaft 1. Slide Fit: This type of fit has a very small clearance, the minimum clearance being zero.
running in a bearing can move in relation to it and thus forms a movable joint, whereas, a pulley Sliding fits are employed when the mating parts are required to move slowly in relation to
mounted on the shaft forms a fixed joint. each other e.g., tailstock spindle of lathe, feed movement of the spindle drill in a drilling
Classification of Fits machine, sliding change gears in quick change gear box of a centre lathe etc.
2. Easy Slide Fit: This type of fit provides for a small guaranteed clearance. It serves to ensure
On the basis of positive, zero and negative values of Clearance, there are three basic types of fits:
alignment between the shaft and hole. It is applicable for slow and non-regular motion, for
(1) Clearance Fit example, spindle of lathe and dividing heads, piston and side valves, spigots etc.
(2) Transition Fit and, 3. Running Fit: Running fit is obtained when there is an appreciable clearance between the
(3) Interference Fit.
mating parts. The clearance provides a sufficient space for a lubrication film between mating
These are further classified in the following manner: friction surfaces. It is employed for rotation at moderate speed, e.g., grear box bearings, shaft
Fits pulleys, crank shafts in their main bearings etc.
4. Slack running Fit: It is obtained when there is a considerable clearance between the mating
parts. This type of fit may be required as compensation for mounting errors e.g., arm shaft of
Transition Fit
Clearance Fit Interference Fit I.C. engine, shaft of certifigual pump etc.
(a) Push fit 5. Loose running Fit: Loose running fit is employed for rotation at very high speed, e.g., idle
(a) Slide Fit (a) Force Fit pulley on their shaft such as that used in quick return mechanism of a planar.
(b) Wringing Fit
(b) Easy slide Fit (b) Tight Fit
(c) Running Fit (c) Shrink fit Interference Fit: In this type of fit the minimum permissible diameter of the shaft is larger than
(d) Slack running Fit the maximum allowable diameter of the hole. Thus the shaft and the hole members are intended
(e) Loose running Fit to be attached permanently and used as a solid component.
Interference In this type of fit the tolerance zones of the hole and shaft overlap completely or in part.
1. Wringing Fit: A wringing fit provides either zero interference or a clearance. These are used
where parts can be replaced without difficulty during minor repairs.
2. Push Fit: The fit provides small clearance. It is employed for parts that must be dis-
assembled during operation of a machine for example, change gears, slip bushing etc.
Allowance
Shaft
Allowance is the prescribed difference between the dimensions of two mating parts for any type
of fit.
Holee It is the intentional difference between the lower limit of hole and higher limit of the shaft.
The allowance may be positive or negative. The positive allowance is called clearance and the
Fig. 9.6.7 Interference fit negative allowance is called interference.
Elastic strains developed on the mating surfaces during the process of assembly prevent relative Allowance (−ve)
movement of the mating parts. For example, steel tyres on railway car wheels, gears on Allowance (+)
(Interference)
intermediate shafts of trucks, bearing in the gear of a lathe head stock, drill bush in jig plate,
(clearance)
cylinder liner in block, steel rings on a wooden bullock cart wheels etc.
1. Force Fit: Force fits are employed when the mating parts are not required to be
disassembled during their total service life. In this case the interference is quite appreciable
and, therefore, assembly is obtained only when high pressure is applied. This fit, thus, offers
a permanent type of assembly, e.g., gears on the shaft of a concrete mixture, forging machine
etc.
2. Tight Fit: It provides less interference than force fit. Tight fits are employed for mating parts
that may be replaced while overhauling of the machine, for example, stepped pulleys on the
drive shaft of a conveyor, cylindrical grinding machine etc. Fig. 9.6.9
3. Heavy force and Shrink Fit: It refers to maximum negative allowance. Hence considerable
force is necessary for the assembly. The fitting of the frame on the rim can also be obtained
first by heating the frame and then rapidly cooling it in its position.
Difference between Tolerance and Allowance
Transition Fit: Transition fit lies mid way between clearance and interference fit. In this type the
size limits of mating parts (shaft and hole) are so selected that either clearance or indifference Tolerance Allowance
may occur depending upon the actual sizes of the parts. Push fit and wringing fit are the
examples of this type of fit. 1. It is the permissible variation in It is the prescribed difference between the
dimension of a part (either a hole or a dimensions of two mating parts (hole and
shaft). shaft).
2. It is the difference between higher and It is the intentional difference between the
lower limits of a dimension of a part. lower limit of hole and higher limit of shaft.
3. The tolerance is provided on a Allowance is to be provided on the

dimension of a part as it is not possible dimension of mating parts to obtain desired
to make part to exact specified type of fit.
dimension.
Shaft
4. It has absolute value without sign. Allowance may be positive (clearance) or
Hole negative (interference).
Fig. 9.6.8 Transition fit
Systems of Obtaining Different Types of Fits producing holes and their sizes are not adjustable. On the other hand size of shaft produced by
turning, grinding etc. can be very easily varied.
A limit and fit system is the system of series of standard allowances to suit specific range of basic
size. If these standard allowances are selected properly and assigned to mating parts ensures Shaft basis system is used when the ground bars or drawn bars are readily available. These bars
specific classes of fit. do not require further machining and fits are obtained by varying the sizes of hole.
There are two systems of fit for obtaining clearance, interference or transition fit. These are: Difference between ‘Hole Basis’ and ‘Shaft Basis’ Systems
(1) Hole basis system. Hole Basis System Shaft Basis System
(2) Shaft basis system.
1. Size of hole whose lower deviation is zero (H- Size of shaft whose upper deviation is zero (h-
Hole basis System. In the hole basis system the hole is kept constant and the shaft sizes are hole) is assumed as the basic size. shaft) is assumed as assumed as basic size.
varied to give the various types of fits.
2. Limits on the hole are kept constant and those Limits on the shaft are kept constant and those on
In this system lower deviation of the hole is zero i.e., the low limit of hole is the same as basic of shaft are varied to obtain desired type of fit. the hole are varied to have necessary fit.
size. The high limit of hole and the two limits of size for the shaft are then varied to give the
3. Hole basis system is preferred in mass This system is not suitable for mass production
desired type of fit, as shown in Fig. 9.6.10 production, because it is convenient and less because it is inconvenient, time consuming and
costly to make a hole of correct size due to costly to make a shaft of correct size.
Hole tolerance availability of standard drills and reamers.
4. It is much more easy to vary the shaft sizes It is rather difficult to vary the hole size according
according to the fit required. to the fit required.
Zero line 5. It requires less amount of capital and storage It needs large amounts of capital and storage
space for tools needed to produce shafts of space for large number of tools required to
different sizes. produce holes of different sizes.
Shaft tolerance
6. Gauging of shafts can be easily and Being internal measurement, gauging of holes
(a) Clearance Fit (b) Transition Fit (c) Interference Fit
conveniently done with adjustable gap cannot be easily and conveniently done.
gauges.
Fig. 9.6.10 Hole Basis System (fundamental deviation of hole is zero)
9.6.2 Gauges and Gauge Design
Shaft basis System: In the shaft basis system the shaft is kept constant and the sizes of the hole
are varied to give various types of fits.
Gauges are scaleless inspection tools at rigid design, which are used to check the dimensions of
manufactured parts. They also check the form and relative positions of the surfaces of parts.
In this system the upper deviation (fundamental deviation) of shaft is zero i.e., the high limit of
They do not determine (measure) the actual size or dimensions of part. They are only used to
shaft is the same as basic size and the various fits are obtained by varying the low limit of shaft
determine whether the inspected part has been made within the specified limits. These gauges
and both the limits of hole.
consist of two sizes corresponding to their maximum and minimum limits. For gauging hole
Hole Tolerance limits plug gauges and for gauging shafts snap gauges are used.
Gauges are easy to employ and can be used in many cases by unskilled operators. For checking
Zero line
the component with a gauge it is not necessary to make any calculations or to determine the
actual dimension of the part, the time involved for checking/inspection is thus considerably
Shaft tolerance reduced. For these reasons they find wide application in engineering particularly for mass
production.
(a) Clearance Fit (b) Transition Fit (c) Interference Fit
Fig. 9.6.11 Shaft Basis System (Upper deviation of shaft is zero) Gauges differ from measuring instruments in the following respects :
The hole basis system is most commonly used because it is more convenient to make correct (i) No adjustment is required in their use
holes of fixed sizes, since the standard drills, taps, reamors and broaches etc. are available for (ii) They are not general purpose instruments but are specially made for some particular
component, which is to be produced in sufficiently large quantities.
(iii) They give quick results about the conformance or non-conformance of the part
with the specified tolerances. Tolerance
Tolerance
Plain Gauges: Plain gauges are used for checking plain, that is, unthreaded holes and shafts. They
are classified in the following ways. GO
(1) According to their type: NOT

(a) Standard gauges √
HL
NO GO
LL
HL
LL
(b) Limit gauges

(2) According to purposes: GO
(a) Workshop gauge √
(b) Inspection gauge HOLE
(c) Reference or master gauge.
(3) According to the form of the tested surface:
(a) Plug gauge (a) For Hole (b) For Shaft
(b) Snap, Gap or Ring gauge.
(4) According to their design: Fig. 9.6.12 Limit Gauges
(a) Single limit and double limit gauges
(b) Single-ended and double-ended gauges Material for Gauges
(c) Fixed and adjustable gauges.
The material used for manufacturing the gauges must fulfil the following requirements, either by
Standard Gauges: If a gauge is made as an exact copy of the mating part of the component to be virtue of its own properties, or by a heat treatment process.
checked, it is called as standard gauge. For example, if a bushing is to be made which is to mate
with a shaft. Shaft is the mating part. Then, the bushing is checked by a gauge which is a copy of
(a) Hardness to resist wear.
the mating part in form of its surface and size. A standard gauge cannot be used to check an
interference fit. It has limited applications. (b) Stability to ensure that its size and shape will not change over a period of time.
(c) Corrosion resistance,
Limit Gauges: Limit gauges are very widely used in industries. As there are two permissible (d) Machinability to enable it to be machined easily into the required shaft and to the
limits of the dimension of a part, high and low, two gauges are needed to check each dimension required degree of accuracy.
of the part, one corresponding the low limit of size and other to the high limit of size of that (e) Low coefficient of linear expansion to avoid effect of temperature.
dimension. These are known as GO and NO-GO gauges.
(f) The parts of the gauge which are to be held in the hand should have low thermal
The difference between the sizes of these two gauges is equal to the tolerance on the workpiece. conductivity.
GO gauges check the Maximum Metal Limit (MML) and NO-GO gauge checks the Minimum Metal A good quality high carbon steel is usually used for gauge manufacture. Suitable heat treatment
Limit (LML). In the case of a hole, maximum metal limit is when the hole is as small as possible, can produce a high degree of hardness coupled with stability. High carbon steel is relatively
that is, it is the low limit of size. In case of hole, therefore, GO gauge corresponds to the low limit
inexpensive, it can be readily machined and brought to a high degree of accuracy and surface
of size, while NO-GO gauge corresponds to high limit of size. For a shaft, the maximum metal
limit is when the shaft is on the high limit of size. Thus, in case of a shaft GO gauge corresponds finish.
to the high limit of size and NO-GO gauge corresponds to the low limit size. Gauges can also be made from steel, special wear resisting material, like hard chrome plated
surfaces and tungsten carbide, Invar etc. Glass gauges were used during World War. Chromium
While checking, each of these two gauges is offered in turn to the work. A part is considered to
be good, if the GO gauge passes through or over the work and NO-GO gauge fails to pass under plating makes the gauge corrosion and wear resistant. Also, the size of worn gauging surface can
the action of its own weight. This indicates that the actual dimension of the part is within the be increased by this method. The gauge surfaces can also be plated to provide hardness,
specified tolerance. If both the gauges fail to pass, it indicates that hole is under size or shaft is toughness and stainless properties.
over size. If both the gauges pass, it means that the hole is over size or the shaft is under size.
Taylor’s Principle of Gauge Design
It states that
(1) GO gauges should be designed to check the maximum material limit, while the NO-GO gauges
should be designed to check the minimum material limit.
Now, the plug gauges are used to check the hole, therefore the size of the GO plug gauge should
correspond to the low limit of hole, while that of NO-GO plug gauge should corresponds to the
high limit of hole. Bush
Max. Limit
Tolerance
Zone Tolerance
Max.
Zone
Limit
NO GO GO
GO NO GO
GO Plug Gauge
Mini. Fig. 9.6.14 Checking a bush with curved axis
Limit
Hole
Fig. 9.6.13
Similarly, the ‘GO Snap gauge’ on the other hand corresponds to the high limit of shaft, while
‘NO-GO Snap’ gauge corresponds to the low limit of shaft.
The difference in size between the GO and NO GO plug gauges, as well as the difference in size
between GO and NO-GO Snap gauges is approximately equal to the tolerance of the tested hole or
shaft in case of standard gauges. NO-GO Plug Gauge
(2) ‘GO’ gauges should check all the related dimensions (roundness, size, location etc).
Simultaneously whereas ‘NO-GO’ gauge should check only one element of the dimension at a Fig. 9.6.15 Checking an oval shape
time.
Now suppose the hole to be checked has an oval shape. While checking it with the cylindrical
According to this rule, GO plug gauge should have a full circular section and be of full length of
‘NO-GO’ gauge the hole under inspection will overlap (hatched portion) the plug and thus will
the hole it has to check. This ensures that any lack of straightness, or roundness of the hole will not enter the hole. This will again lead to wrong conclusion that the part is within the prescribed
prevent the entry of full length GO plug gauge. If this condition is not full filled, the inspection of limits. It will be therefore more appropriate to make the ‘NO-GO’ gauge in the form of a pin as
the part with the gauge may give wrong results. shown in Fig. 9.6.15
For example, suppose the bush to be inspected has a curved axis and a short ‘GO’ plug gauge is Wear Allowance
used to check it. The short plug gauge will pass through all the curves of the bent busing. This
will lead to a wrong result that the workpiece (hole) is within the prescribed limits. Actually, The measuring surfaces of GO gauges rub constantly against the surfaces of the work pieces
such a busing with a curved hole will not mate properly with its mating part and thus defective. during checking. This results in wearing of the measuring surfaces of gauges. The GO gauge thus
A GO plug gauge with adequate length will not pass through a curved busing and the error will looses its initial size. The size of the GO plug gauge is reduced due to wear and that of ring or
snap gauge is increased. Hence a wear allowance is provided to the gauges in the direction
be detected. A long plug gauge will thus check the cylindrical surface not in one direction, but in
opposite to that of the wear. In case of GO plug gauge wear allowance is added, while in ring or
a number of sections simultaneously. The length of the ‘GO’ plug gauge should not be less than snap gauge it is subtracted. For ‘NO-GO’ gauges wear allowance is not provided as they are not
1.5 times the diameter of the hole to be checked. subjected to much wear as GO gauges. Wear allowance is usually taken as 50% of work
tolerance. Wear allowance is applied to a normal GO gauge diameter before gauge tolerance is
applied.
9.6.3 Linear Measurement

Linear measurement applies to measurement of lengths, diameters, heights and thicknesses
including external and internal measurements. The line measuring instruments have series of
accurately spaced lines marked on them, e.g. scale. The dimension to be measured is aligned
with the graduations of the scale. Linear measuring instruments are designed either for line Callipers can be classified as:
measurements or end measurements. In end measuring instruments, the measurement is taken
between two end surfaces as in micrometers, slip gauges etc. (i) Firm joint (Fixed joint) callipers
(ii) Spring type callipers.
The instruments used for linear measurements can be classified as:
Surface plate
(i) Direct measuring instruments
(ii) Indirect measuring instruments Surface plate forms the basis of measurement. They are extensively used in workshops and
metrological laboratories where inspection is carried out. They are used as:
The direct measuring instruments are of two types:
(i) A reference or datum surface for testing flatness of surfaces.
(i) Graduated (ii) Reference surfaces for all other measuring instruments having flat bases e.g., for
(ii) Non-graduated. mounting V-blocks, angle plates, sine bars, height gauges, dial gauges, comparators
etc.
The graduated instruments include rules, vernier callipers, vernier height gauges, vernier depth
gauges, micrometers, dial indicator etc. The non-graduated instruments include callipers, Surface plates are massive and highly rigid in design. They have truly flat level planes. They are
trammels, telescopic gauges, surface gauges, straight edges, wire gauges, screw pitch gauges, generally made up of C.I. free from blow holes, inclusions and other surface defects and are heat
radius gauges, thickness gauges, slip gauges etc. They can also be classified as : treated to relieve internal stresses.
(i) Non-precision instruments such as steel rule, calliper etc. Precision Linear Measurements
(ii) Precision measuring instruments, such as vernier instruments, micrometers, dial gauges
etc. The mass production which is a characteristic of modern engineering manufacture makes it
necessary to manufacture component part with close dimensional tolerance to make them inter
Steel Rule changeable. Interchangeability can be achieved only by precision dimensional control of the
parts being manufactured. Thus, to measure the dimensions of the part with close accuracy
Steel rule is a line measuring instrument. It is a part replica of the international prototype meter. precision instruments play an important role.
It compares an unknown length to be measured with the previously calibrated length. It is made
of hardened steel or stainless steel having series of equally spaced line engraved on it. Vernier Callipers
Steel rule is most commonly used in workshop for measuring components of limited accuracy. The vernier callipers consists of two scale: one is fixed and the other is movable. The fixed scale,
The marks on a good class rule vary from 0.12 mm to 0.18 mm wide, so that we cannot expect to called main scale is calibrated on L-shaped frame and carries a fixed jaw. The movable scale,
obtain a degree of accuracy much closer than within 0.012 mm. The quickness and ease with called vernier scale slides over the main scale and carries a movable jaw. The movable jaw as
which it can be used and its low cost, makes it a popular and widely used measuring device. well as the fixed jaw carries measuring tip. When the two jaws are closed the zero of the venier
scale coincides with the zero of the main scale. For precise setting of the movable jaw an
Callipers
adjustment screw is provided. Also, an arrangement is provided to lock the sliding scale on the
fixed main scale.
To measure the diameter of a circular part it is essential that the measurement is made along the
largest distance or true diameter. The steel rule alone is not a convenient method of measuring
Least Count: Vernier instruments have two scales, main scale and the vernier scale. The main
directly the size of the circular part. A calliper is used to transfer the distance between the faces scale is fixed and the vernier scale slides over the main scale. When zero on the main scale
of a component to a scale or micrometer. It thus converts an end measurement situation to the
coincides with the zero on the vernier scale, the vernier scale has one more division than that of
line system of the rule.
the main scale with which it coincides. So, the value of a division on vernier scale is slightly
smaller than the value of a division on the main scale. This difference is the least count.
The accurate use of callipers depends upon the sense of feel that can only be acquired by
practice. While using callipers the following rules should be followed: Least count (L.C.) is the difference between the value of main scale division and vernier scale
division. Thus least count of a vernier instrument = Value of the smallest division on the main
(i) Hold the calliper gently and near the joint
scale – The value of the smallest division on the vernier scale.
(ii) Hold it square to the work
(iii) Apply only light gauging pressure
Micrometer
(iv) Handle it gently to avoid disturbing the setting for accurate measurement. The accuracy of the vernier calliper is 0.02 mm ; most engineering precision work has to be
measured to a much greater accuracy than this, especially to achieve interchangeability of
component parts. To achieve this greater precision, measuring equipment of a greater accuracy obtain these fine accuracies for high precision work, use is made of sine bar, angle gauges, and
and sensitivity must be used. Micrometer is one of the most common and most popular forms of optical instruments. The spirit level and the dividing head are also employed.
measuring instrument for precise measurement with 0.01 mm accuracy. Micrometers with
0.001 mm accuracy are also available. Micrometers can be classified as : The following instruments are generally are generally used for angular measurements
(a) Outside Micrometer – Vernier bevel protractor

(b) Inside Micrometer – Optical bevel protractor
(c) Screw Thread Micrometer and, – Universal bevel protractor
(d) Depth gauge Micrometer. – Sine bar
– Angle gauges
Principle of Micrometer – Clinometer
– Angle dekkor
Micrometers work on the principle of screw and nut. We know that when a screw is turned – Auto collimator, etc.
through nut through one revolution, it advances by one pitch distance i.e., one rotation of screw
corresponds to a linear movement of a distance equal to pitch of the thread. If the circumference
of the screw is divided into number of equal parts say ‘n’, its rotation through one division will
cause the screw to advance through length. Thus, the minimum length that can be
measured by such arrangement will be . By reducing the pitch of the screw thread or by
increasing the number of divisions on the circumference of screw, the length value of one
circumferential division can be reduced and accuracy of measurement can be increased
considerably.
Least Count of Micrometer
Least count is the minimum distance which can be measured accurately by the instrument. The
micrometer has a screw of 0.5 mm pitch, with a spindle graduated in 50 divisions to provide a
.
direct reading of = = 0.01 mm.
Least count of a micrometer is thus, the value of one division on a spindle, which is connected to
the screw.
Pitch of the spindle screw

L. C. of micrometer =
Number of divisions on the spindle
9.6.4 Angular Measurement

Angular measurements are frequently necessary for the manufacture of interchangeable parts.
The ships and aeroplanes can navigate confidently without the help of the sight of the land, only
because of precise angular measurement. Precise angular measuring devices can be used in
astronomy to determine the relation of the stars and their approximate distances.
Instruments for Angular Measurements
There are many instruments which can be used for measuring the angles. The selection of an
instrument to be used for angular measurement depends upon the component and the accuracy
of measurement required. For example, the ordinary bevel protractor with Vernier scale can
read to 2 minutes accuracy and optical protractor is accurate to 2 minutes. These are usually
not adequate for metrological work and for high precision work to within a few seconds. To
Part 9.7: Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) NC part programming, tool fabrication, assembly, jig and fixture design, quality control and
testing.
9.7.1 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
Application Areas of CAD/CAM
Computer Integrated Manufacturing comprises a combination of software and hardware for
product design, production planning, production control, and production equipment and Design and Design Analysis: CAD system would be best suited for office drawings where frequent
production process. It is an attempt to integrate the many diverse elements of discrete parts modifications are required on drawing and several parts to be repeated. Once a drawing is
manufacturing into one continuous process like stream. entered in CAD system, later modifications can be done quickly, and detailed drawings can be
prepared quickly from a general arrangement, NC tapes can be produced. Also, it is very
Manufacturing by CIM technique could be separated into four blocks: convenient to calculate properties like weight, volume, centre of gravity, moment of inertia etc
because 3D models can be easily produced.
Product Design
Manufacture: With CAD/CAM system the complete NC part programming process can be carried
Product design for which interactive computer aided design (CAD) system allows the drawing out interactively. Source programs in languages such as APT can be produced.
and analysis tasks to be performed. These computer graphics systems are very useful to get data
out of designer’s mind into a presentable form and enable analysis in fraction of time required
otherwise and with greater accuracy. Design process is speeded up considerably.
Manufacturing Planning
Computer aided process planning helps to establish optimum manufacture routines and
processing steps, sequences and schedules so that the process is optimum.
Manufacturing
Computer aided manufacturing (CAM) helps indentify manufacturing problems and

opportunities. Distributed intelligence in the form of microprocessors could be used to control
machines and material handling and collect the data on current shop conditions.
Computer Aided Inspection and Reporting
Computer aided inspection and reporting provides a feedback loop.
Advantages of Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
x Remarkable flexibility for manufacturing diverse components in the same setup by easy and
quick manipulation of software.
x High rates of production with consistent high quality
x Uninterrupted production with negligible supervision.
x Economical production even where product demand is only moderate in volume
x Drastic reduction of lead times where drastic changes in design are called for.
x Integrating and fine tuning of all factory functions
9.7.2 CAD/CAM Technology
CAD/CAM (Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacturing) technology was initiated in

aerospace engineering but is now applicable in most of the fields. It can be defined as the use of
computers to translate a product’s specific requirements into final physical product. With this
system, a product is designed, produced and inspected in one automatic process. CAD/CAM
plays a key role in areas such as design, analysis, production, planning, detailing, documentation,
Quick Refresher Guide Industrial Engineering Quick Refresher Guide Industrial Engineering
Extrapolation is one of the easiest ways to forecast. In this method, based on the past few
Part – 10: Industrial Engineering values of production capacity, next value may be extrapolated on a graph paper.
Part 10.1: Production, Planning and Control

2. Simple moving average
10.1.1 Forecasting
In this method, mean of only a specified number of consecutive data which are most recent
The main purpose of forecasting is to estimate the occurrence, timing, or magnitude of future
values in series.
events. Once, the reliable forecast for the demand is available, a good planning of activities is
needed to meet the future demand. Forecasting thus provides the input to the planning and
Forecast for (t+1)th period is given by:
scheduling process.
Types of Forecasting: 1
F = D
n
¾ Long range forecast
where:
Long range forecast consists of time period of more than 5 years. The long range forecasting
is useful in following areas: Di = Actual demand for ith period
o Capital planning n= Number of periods included in each average
o Plant location
3. Weighted moving average
o Plant layout or expansion
o New product planning In this method, more weightage is given to the relatively newer data. The forecast is the
weighted average of data.
¾ Medium range forecast
Medium range forecast is generally from 1 to 5 years. The medium range forecasting is F = WD
useful in following areas:
o Sales planning Where:
o Production planning
Wi= Relative weight of data for ith period
o Capital and cash planning
o Inventory planning and
¾ Short range forecast W =1
Short range forecast is generally for less than 1 year:

o Purchasing It may be noted that when more weight is given to the recent values, the forecast is nearer to
likely trend. Weighted moving average is advantageous as compared to simple moving
o Overtime decision average as it is able to give more importance to recent data.
o Job scheduling
4. Exponential smoothing
o Machine maintenance
o Inventory planning In exponential smoothing method of forecasting, the weightage of data diminishes
exponentially as the data become older. In this method all past data is considered. The
Quantitative Methods of Forecasting: weightage of every previous data decreases by (1-α), where α is called as exponential
smoothing constant.
1. Extrapolation
Ft = α Dt-1 + α(1- α) Dt-2+ α(1- α)2 Dt-3+ α(1- α)3 Dt-3………..
Where: Accuracy of Forecast:
Di= One period ahead forecast made at time t Many factors affect the trend in data therefore it is impossible to obtain an exact right forecast.
Below are the tools that are used to determine the error in the forecasted value.
Dt= Actual demand for Ith period
1. Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD)
α= Smoothing constant (0≤α ≤1)
This is calculated as the average of absolute value of difference between actual and
Comments regarding Smoothing constant α: forecasted value.
x Smaller is the value of α, more is the smoothing effect in forecast. ∑ |D − F |

MAD =
n
x Higher value of α gives more robust forecast and response more quickly to changes.
Where:
x Higher value of α gives more weightage to past data as compared to smaller value.
Ft= Actual demand for period t
Statistical Forecasting:
Dt= Forecasted demand for period t
Statistical forecasting is based on the past data. We evaluate the expected error for the statistical
technique of forecasting. Some common regression functions are as follows: n= number of periods considered for calculating the error
Let: 2. Mean Sum of Square Error (MSE)
Ft= Forecast for time period t The average of square of all errors in the forecast is termed as MSE. Its interpretation is
same as MAD.
dt= Forecasted demand for time period t
∑ (D − F )
t= time period MSE =
n
1. Linear Forecaster 3. BIAS
Ft= a+bt BIAS is measure of the average of all errors in the forecast. Its intern. A positive bias
indicates underestimation while a negative BIAS indicates over-estimation
Where a and b are parameters
∑ (D − F )
2. Cyclic Forecaster BIAS =
n
Ft= a+ uCos (2∏/N)t + vSin (2∏/N)t 10.1.2 Production Planning and Control
Where a, u and v are parameters and N is periodicity Production planning and control is one of the most important areas of industrial management.
This aims at achieving the efficient utilization of resources in any organization through planning,
3. Cyclic Forecaster with Growth coordination and control of production activities.
Ft= a+ bt+ uCos (2∏/N)t + vSin (2∏/N)t Phases of PPC:
Where a, b, u and v are parameters and N is periodicity ¾ Preplanning
4. Quadratic Forecaster o Product development and design
Ft=a +bt+ct2 o Process design
Where a, b and c are parameters o Work station design
o Factory layout and location 3. Dispatching
¾ Planning Different Resources Dispatching is the selection and sequencing of available jobs to be run at the individual
workstations and assignments of those jobs to workers. Functions of dispatching are as
o Material under.
o Method o Collecting and issuing work centre
o Machine o Ensuring right material, tools, parts, jigs and fixtures are available.
o Men o Issues authorization to start work at the pre-determined date and time.
¾ Control o Distribute machine loading and schedule charts
o Inspection 4. Expediting
o Expedition This is the final stage of production planning and control. It is used for ensuring that the
work is carried out as per plans and due dates are met. The main objective is to arrest
o Evaluation deviations from the plan. Another objective is to integrate different production activities to
meet the production target. The following activities are done ine expediting phase:
o Dispatching
o Watching progress of production process.
Production Planning and Control Steps o Identification of delays, disruptions or discrepancies.
1. Routing o Physical control of work-in-progress through checking
Routing is the process of deciding sequence of operations (route) to be performed during o Expediting corrective measures.
production process. The main objective of routing is the selection of best and cheapest way
to perform a job. Procedure for routing is as follows: o Co-ordinating with other departments.
o Conduct an analysis of the product to determine the part/ component/ sub- o Report any production related problems.
assemblies required to be produced.
10.1.3 Scheduling
o Conduct the analysis to determine the material needed for the product.
Scheduling is used to allocate resources over time to accomplish specific tasks. It should take
o Determine the required manufacturing operations and their sequence. account of technical requirement of task, available capacity and forecasted demand. The output
plan should be translated into operations, timing and schedule on the shop floor. Detailed
o Determine the lot size. scheduling encompasses the formation of starting and finishing time of all jobs at each
operational facility.
o Determine the scrap
Scheduling Methods:
o Estimate product cost.
¾ Gantt Chart
o Prepare different forms of production control.
Gantt chart is a graphical tool for representing a production schedule. Normally, Gantt chart
2. Scheduling consists of two axis. On X-axis, time is represented and on Y-axis various activities or tasks,
machine centres and facilities are represented.
Scheduling involves fixing the priorities for different jobs and deciding the starting and
finishing time of each job. Main purpose of scheduling is to prepare a time-table indicating
the time and rate of production, as indicated by starting and finishing time of each activity.
Scheduling will be discussed in detail in next section.
Part 10.2: Inventory Control C = Ordering, set – up or procurement cost per order
R = Reorder point
10.2.1 Inventory TC = Total annual costs
T = Lead time
Inventory may be defined as any resource that has certain value and which can be used at a later C = Cost of shortages due to non-availability of inventory
time, when the demand of item will arise. Below are some functions of Inventory:
10.2.3 Inventory Models:
1. Inventory is required to meet anticipated demand.
Model 1: Uniform Demand Rate, Infinite Production
2. Inventory guards against stock out situations.
This is one of the oldest developments in material management. Ford Harris developed it in
3. Inventory ensures smooth flow of production process. 1915 and later R.H. Wilson in 1943, popularized it among researchers and practitioners.
Inventory Costs: Assumptions of the Model I
In inventory models various cost elements are considered. Generally, these costs are dependent 1. Demand for the inventory is deterministic, i.e., it is known with certainty.
upon the timing and quantity to order. The different types of costs relevant to inventory models 2. Demand rate is constant and known beforehand.
are explained under: 3. All orders are placed in single lot.
4. No stock-out shortages or back orders are allowed.
¾ Unit cost of inventory 5. No quantity discount is allowed. Thus, purchase cost per unit is fixed.
6. Lead time is constant and it is independent of demand.
Unit cost of inventory is the price which is paid to the supplier for procuring one unit of the 7. Inventory is controlled from one point of the system, i.e., in a stockroom or in a
inventory. For parts manufactured in house, cost of inventory is the direct manufacturing warehouse.
cost.
Let us further assume that lead time is zero; which means that the inventory is delivered
¾ Ordering cost/ Setup cost instantaneously after the order is placed.
Total cost during the year is the sum of the inventory carrying cost during year and total
Ordering cost is the cost associated with the placement of an order for the acquisition of ordering cost.
inventories. The expenses incurred in the purchase department are its main constituents. Thus,
Setup cost is used when inventory is made within the organization. TC = (Ordering Cost) (Number or Orders placed in a year)
+ (Carrying cost per unit) (Average inventory level during year) ….. (i)
¾ Holding cost / Carrying cost
Demand in a year D
Holding costs are incurred due to maintaining an inventory level in the organization. It is due Number of orders to be placed in a year = =
to the interest on the held up capital in inventory, insurance cost, rent, obsolescence, Quantity ordered each time Q
Q + 0 Q
deterioration etc. Average inventory carried during the year = =
2 2
¾ Shortage cost / Stock out cost
This is because the inventory level is uniformly decreasing from Q to zero (Fig. 10.2.1).
Shortage cost is the cost incurred due to a stock out situation. There may be lost in sales due Hence, from (i):
to customer dropping/ postponing the idea of purchase or customer may go to some other TC = C + C …..(ii)
producer.
What level of inventory should be ordered (i.e., Q∗ ), so that total cost will be minimum? To
10.2.2 Variables in Inventory Models: answer this, equation (ii) is differentiated with respect to Q and equated to zero. Second
differential should be positive for cost minimization:
In the sections to follow, we will discuss some of the commonly used inventory models. For
these models, following notations are used : ( ) ( / )
Q = Quantity ordered each time = C D + =O …..(iii)
Q∗ = Optimum quantity of inventory ordered for minimum total cost
D = Annual demand of parts (in unit) For total cost minimization;
C = Cost of inventory per unit item or, DC − + =0
C = Carrying cost per unit of individual item, expressed as a percentage of unit cost
or, =
2
or, Q=
1.5
(TC) = C D − = (a positive quantity) 1.25
For total inventory cost minimization, we have defined Q as Q∗ and we will call it as economic 1
order quantity (EOQ).
( )∗
Q∗ =
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

∗
Inventory Ordered (Q) ( / )
Q Fig.10.2.3 Sensitivity of EOQ model
Average ∗
Minimum Total Cost, (TC) will be obtained by putting Q∗ as Q in equation (ii).
Quantity Inventory Thus,
(Q) Level(Q/2)
(TC)∗ = C D +
Q/2
= +
= + = = 2C C D . . . (iv)
t t t t
Operating Policy of Inventory Control
Fig. 10.2.1 EOQ model with uniform demand Delivery is instantaneous. Therefore, reordering should be done just at the time inventory stock
is zero. This policy has a pre-assumption that lead time is zero. If in case, lead time is known and
Total Cost constant, the order should be placed exactly ahead of lead time so that the instantaneous supply
(TC) of Q∗ arrives when the stock depletes to zero.
Sensitivity of EOQ model

It is important to note that the total cost curve is quite flat near the EOQ zone (Fig. 2.2). Slight
Lowest Carrying
change in the value of Q is near the EOQ point (i.e., when Q ~ Q∗ ), the change in total cost is
Total Cost Cost ( ) insignificant.
Mathematically, dividing (ii) by (iv):
Cost ( )
( )∗
= + = +
Ordering
Cost ( )
= + Q
∗
= + ∗
0 ∗ If we increase or decrease the EOQ by twice, the increase in total cost is only 25% (Fig.10.2.3).
(EOQ)
Thus, total cost is not very sensitive in the vicinity of EOQ. The physical significance of this
Quantity (Q) observation is quite important. If there is a slight error in deciding the EOQ, the total inventory
Fig. 10.2.2 Economic Order Quantity cost is insignificantly affected.
Now, let us summarize the concept of EOQ. Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) is that size of order
which is able to minimize the total cost of carrying inventory and cost of ordering for a given
period under the assumption of known and certain demand.
Other Observations of Basic EOQ Model Part 10.3: Operations Research
High Cost Item Inventory Operations research, is a branch of industrial engineering that uses advanced analytical methods
such as mathematical modeling, statistical analysis, and mathematical optimization to arrive at
As, Q∗ =
optimal or near-optimal solutions to complex decision-making problems. It is often concerned
∗ with determining the maximum (of profit, performance, or yield) or minimum (of loss, risk, or
or, Average Inventory, = =
cost) of some real-world objective.
or, Average Inventory is proportional to
The operations research has many fields. Some of the important field will be covered in the
Therefore, for high cost items (i.e., high value of C ), the average inventory level should be low. coming sections.
Optimum Ordering Interval ( ∗) 10.3.1 Linear Programming:

Since, EOQ = demand rate × Optimum ordering interval
or, Q∗ = Dt ∗ Linear programming is a technique based on mathematical theory for specifying ways to use the
∗
limited resources or constraint of a system to obtain a particular objective such as highest profit,
or, t ∗ = = =
least cost and least time. The linear programming problem can be solved using Graphical
× method (max 2 variables) and Simplex method (any number of variables)
= ×
Below mentioned definitions are important for the linear programming problem.
Optimum Number of Orders ( ∗ )
The optimum number of orders per year is obtained by dividing annual demand by economic ¾ Decision Variable
order quantity.
The decision variable means the variable whose quantitative values are required to be found
or, N ∗ = ∗ =D = to maximize or minimize the objective function.
¾ Objective Function
Optimum Number of Days Supply ( ∗ )
The optimum number of days for which an order is to be made is sometimes required. Since
The function that is to be maximized or minimized is called as objective function.
annual demand (D) is for 365 days, therefore for each optimal order, the supply is for ∗ days.
Therefore, ¾ Constraint
d∗ = 365 days The restrictions that are expressed in form of an equation or inequality are termed as
constraints.
¾ Feasible Solution
A set of values of decision variables, which satisfies the constraint sets. There may be many
feasible solutions to the linear programming problem.
¾ Optimal Solution
The optimal solution of linear programming problem is that set of feasible solution, which
satifies the objective of the problem (Maximizing or minimizing).
¾ Formulation of Linear Programming Problem
Problem:
A LPP may be expressed as:
Optimize (i.e., minimize or maximize) objective function:
Z=∑ Cx 5x + 3x ≥ 24
Subject to the constraints: and, 5x + 3x ≤ 24
∑ a x (‘≤’ or ‘=’ or ‘≥’) b : for all i; i = 1, 2, . . . . m The linear programming problem may be solved by two methods:
x ≥ 0; j = 1, 2, . . . n (non negativity constraints) 1. Graphical Method

2. Simplex Method
Here,
The graphical method to solve LPP is useful when there are only two decision variables. This
x = jth decision variable about which the decision maker is interested. is because more than two coordinates are difficult to be represented on a graph paper.
Simplex technique can handle any number of variables.
C = Unit contribution to the jth decision variable in the objective function.
Assignment Problem
a = Exchange coefficient of jth variable in the ith constraint set.
Assignment problem pertains to problem of assigning n jobs on n machines. This problem can be
b = Requirement or availability of ith constraints. effectively used for any other problem in which n items (or persons) are to be assigned to other
i = Constraint number; i = 1, 2, . . . m. n items, so that each one of the first group is assigned to one distinct item from the second
group.
j = decision variable number; j = 1, 2, . . . n.
¾ Formulation of Assignment Problem
(‘≤’ or ‘=’ or ‘≥’) means that either of the three notations is required.
Let there be n jobs which are to be assigned to n operators so that one job is assigned to
≤ is called as less than or equal to only one operator.
≥ is called as greater than or equal to i = Index for job, i = 1, 2, . . . n
= is called as equal to j = Index for operators, j = 1, 2, . . . n
¾ Conversion of a maximization problem into minimization problem C = Unit cost for assigning job ‘i’ to operator ‘j’
The maximization objective function is equivalent to a minimization objective function 1 If job i is assigned to operator j
except with changed sign. X =
0 Otherwise
Thus, The objective is to minimize the total cost of assignment. If job 1 is assigned to operator 1,
Maximize Z = ∑ Cx the cost is (C X ). Similarly, for job 1, operator 2 the cost is (C X ). The objective
function is:
is equivalent to
Minimize Z = ∑ ∑ C X . . . . (1)
Minimize Z = ∑ −C x
Since one job (i) can be assigned to any one of the operators, we have following constraint
Similarly, a minimization problem may be transformed into a maximization problem by set:
changing the sign of the decision coefficients.
∑ X = 1; for all j; j = 1, 2, . . . n . . . . (2)
Thus,
Similarly for each operator, there may be only one assignment of job. For this, the
Maximize Z = ∑ Cx constraint set is:
is equivalent to ∑ X = 1; for all i; i = 1, 2, . . . n . . . . (3)
Minimize Z = ∑ −C x The non – negativity constraint is:
¾ How to deal with equal to sign X ≥0 . . . . (4)
The equal to (=) sign in a constraint may be handled by adopting two constraint sets with ≥
and ≤ signs.
For Example:
5x + 3x = 24
Its equivalent is:
The important aspect of the queuing problem is the arrival pattern. The arrival pattern is
Minimize =∑ ∑ generally governed by probabilistic distribution. The organizations have to come to a
compromise between a good service and less cost in running the service points.
Subject to ∑ = 1; for all ; = 1, 2, . . . n ¾ Characteristics of queuing model
x Arrival Characteristics
∑ = 1; for all ; = 1, 2, . . . n
o Size of input source: The size of the input source can be considered as limited or
infinite.
Fig. 10.3.32 Mathematical Formulation of Assignment Problem
o Arrival Pattern at the system: The number of arrivals per unit time (rate of arrival) is
¾ Solution of Assignment Problem
estimated by Poisson’s distribution. The probability distribution of inter-arrival
The assignment problem is solved in the following manner: times, which is the time between two consecutive arrivals, may also be governed by a
probability distribution.
For a given arrival rate(λ), a discrete Poisson distribution is given by:

Start
P(x) = For x = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . . .
!
where:
Formulate the Assignment Matrix
P(x) : Probability of x arrival.
x : Number of arrivals per unit time.

Generate Opportunity Cost Matrix
λ : Average arrival time.
1/λ : Mean time between arrivals or inter-arrival time.

Is the It can be shown mathematically that the probability distribution of inter-arrival time is
Yes Find
solution governed by the exponential distribution when the probability distribution of number of
optimal? x Assignment of row arrivals is Poisson distribution. The corresponding exponential distribution for inter-
with column of arrival time is given by:
matrix
No P(t) = λe
Revise the solution
x Queue
o Number of waiting lines
Fig. 10.3.33 Solution method of Assignment Problem o Size: The queue may be considered to be limited when its length cannot exceed a
certain number. It may be limited or infinite
10.3.2 Queuing Models:
o Queue discipline: Queue discipline is the rule by which customers waiting in queue
Waiting lines are one of the important phenomenon in daily life. It affects people who need would receive service. Some examples are FIFO (First-In-First-Out), LIFO (Last-In-
service at different places. Some examples of waiting lines are railway reservation counters, First-Out) or SIRO (Service-In-Random-Order)
telephone booth, doctor’s clinic, Aircraft landing at airports etc.
x Service Facility
The most important issue in the waiting line problem is to decide the best level of service that an
organization should provide. o Single Channel Single Phase
o Single Channel Multi Phase Relevance of This Model
o Multi Channel Single Phase Despite being simple, this model provides the basis for many other complicated situations. It
provides insight and helps in planning process. Waiting line for ticket window for a movie, line
¾ Kendall Notations near the tool crib for checking out tools, railway reservation window, etc., are some direct
applications of this model.
Kendall (1951) proposed a set of notations for queuing models. This is widely used in
literature. The common pattern of notations of a queuing model is given by: Operating Characteristics
(a/b/c) : (d/e) It is the measure of performance of a waiting line application. How well the model performs,
may be known by evaluating the operating characteristics of the queue. We analyze the steady
Where: state of the queue, when the queue has stabilized after initial transient stage. Similarly, we do
not consider the last or shutting down stage of the service.
a: Probability distribution of the inter-arrival time
There are two major parameters in waiting line: arrival rate (λ) and service rate (μ). They follow
b: Probability distribution of the service time Poisson and exponential probability distribution, respectively. When arrival rate (λ) is less than
service rate (μ), i.e., traffic density ρ = is less than one, we may have a real waiting line
c: Number of servers in the queuing model
situation, because otherwise there would be an infinitely long queue and steady state would
d: Maximum allowed customers in the system never be achieved.
e: Queue discipline Following are the lists of parameters:
In a queuing model notation, M is traditionally indicative of exponential distribution. Therefore, λ = Mean arrival rate in units per period
(M/M/1): (∞/ FIFO) indicates a queuing model when the inter-arrival time and service time are
distributed exponential with distribution (equivalent to this: M stands for Poisson arrivals and μ = Mean service rate in units per period
departures). There is 1 server, the permissible number of customers in the system are infinite
and the service discipline is first-in-first-out (FIFO). ρ = = Traffic intensity
¾ Single-Line-Single-Server Model
n = Number of units in the system
Queuing models may be formulated on the basis of some fundamental assumptions related
w = Random variate for time spent in the system.
to following five features:
Following are the lists of operating characteristics, which may be derived for steady state
¾ Arrival process
situation and for ρ < 1:
¾ Queue configuration
¾ Queue discipline Queue Related Operating Characteristics
¾ Service discipline, and
¾ Service facility. 1. Average line length or expected number of units in queue,
Let us understand the M/M/1 model first. Following set of assumptions is needed: L = = . . . (10.3.1)
( ) ( )
1. Arrival Process: The arrival is through infinite population with no control or restriction. 2. Average waiting time or expected time in queue,
Arrivals are random, independent and follow Poisson distribution. The arrival process is
W = = . . . (10.3.2)
stationary and in single unit (rather than batches).
2. Queue Configuration: The queue length is unrestricted and there is a single queue. System Related Operating Characteristics
3. Queue Discipline: Customers are patient.
4. Service Discipline: First-Come-First-Serve (FCFS) 3. Average line length or expected number of units in the system,
5. Service Facility: There is one server, whose service times are distributed as per L = L + units being served
exponential distribution. Service is continuously provided without any prejudice or = + = . . . (10.3.3)
( )
breakdown, and all service parameters are state independent.
o The precedence relationship in between activities is known.

4. Average waiting time or expected time in the system
o CPM can be represented as directed graph in which time (or cost) estimates are
W = = . . . (10.3.4) deterministic.
o The longest path of the network is the indicator of project duration
5. Utilization of service facility,
U= =ρ . . . (10.3.5)
¾ Methodology of CPM
6. Expected number of units in queue for busy system, Critical path is the path on the network of project activities which takes longest time form
L = . . . (10.3.6) start to finish. The way by which we construct and analyze CPM or PERT network, the
analysis is called as critical path analysis (CPA). A general methodology for CPA is as follows:
7. Expected time in queue for busy system, Step 1: Break the project in terms of specific activities and/or events. Find the time of each
W = . . . (10.3.7) activity. In CPM, it is a deterministic estimate, while in PERT it is a probabilistic, three time
estimate.
Probabilities Related Operating Characteristics Step 2: Establish the interdependence and sequence of specific activities (also called as
precedence relationship).
8. Probability of no unit in the system (i.e., system is idle),
Step 3: Prepare the network of activities and/or events.
P =1−ρ . . . (10.3.8)
Step 4: Assign time-estimates and/or cost-estimates to all the activities of the network.
9. Probability of system being occupied or busy, Step 5: Identify longest path (time-wise) on the network. It is the critical path of the network.
P(n > 0) = 1 − P = ρ . . . (10.3.9) The project completion takes time equal to critical path time.
10. Probability of n units in the system, Step 6: Determine slack (or float) for each activity, not contained on the critical path.
P =P ρ (Geometric distribution) . . . (10.3.10) Step 7: Use regular monitoring, evaluation and control of the progress of the project by
replanning, rescheduling and relocation of resources (Such as money, manpower, etc.).
11. Probability density function for time spent in the system,
f(w) = (μ − λ)e ( ) w≥0 . . . (10.3.11) We have seen in step 5 that the critical path determines the project completion time. It the
project time needs to be compressed, we have to focus on activities on critical path.
12. Variance of number of units in the system, Similarly, if any activity of the critical path gets delayed by t time, then the total project will
be delayed by t time. Same is not true for activities, not lying on critical path. This is due to
V = . . . (10.3.12)
( ) slack (or float) associated with them. This offers flexibility in scheduling the resources. From
the to time, some resources from non-critical activities may be diverted to the critical
13. Variance of time in the system, activity.
¾ Terminology used in CPM/PERT
V =( )
. . . (10.3.13)
1. Activity: Distinct part of a project, involving some work, whose completion requires
some amount of time. Examples of activity are: drilling a hole, starting a bus, issuing the
10.3.3 CPM and PERT
work order, floating a tender, etc.
A project is a collection of some linked activities that are performed in an organized manner 2. Activity Duration: It is the physical time required to complete an activity. In CPM, it is the
with well known start and finish points, to achieve some specific results that fulfil the needs of best estimate of the time to complete an activity. In PERT, it is the expected time or
an organization. Project management is the domain that deals with planning, organizing, average time to complete an activity.
staffing, controlling and directing a project for its effective execution. Critical Path Method 3. Critical Activity: This activity has no room for schedule deviation. In case of deviation or
(CPM) and Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) are two tools for the project slips, the entire project completion will slip. An activity with zero slack is also same.
management. 4. Critical Path: The sequence or chain of critical activities for the project constitutes critical
path. It is the longest duration path through the network.
¾ Assumptions of CPM 5. CPM: Project management technique that is used when activity times are deterministic
(Critical Path Method).
o All time estimates are assumed to be deterministic. 6. Crashing: The process of reducing an activity time by adding fresh resources and hence
usually increasing cost. Crashing is needed for finishing the task before estimated time.
7. Crash Cost: Cost associated with an activity when it is completed in the possible time PERT incorporates probabilistic time estimates for each activity. It employs a beta-
(Crash time), which is lesser than the expected or normal time. distribution for the time estimates. The procedure for making the network and determining
8. Dummy Activity: An activity that consumes no time but shows precedence among the critical path is same as CPM. However, there is a specific calculation approach for finding
activities. It is useful for proper representation in the network. the most expected time for every activity and for finding the measure of certainity in
9. Earliest Finish (EF) Time: The earliest time that an activity can finish, from the beginning meeting this estimate.
of the project. ¾ Time estimate in PERT
10. Earliest Start (ES) Time: The earliest time that an activity can start, from the beginning of
the project. PERT allows uncertainty in the estimates for time of each activity. there are three time
11. Event: It is the beginning, completion point, or milestone accomplishment within the estimates in PERT. These are.
project. An activity begins and ends with events. An event triggers an activity of the x Optimistic time (t )
project. x Pessimistic time (t )
12. Expected Activity Time: The average activity time that is used in the project scheduling. x Most likely time (t )
13. Free Slack (float): The length of time upto which an activity can be delayed for
channeling resources or re-adjustments, without affecting the starts of the succeeding
Optimistic time for an activity is that estimate for the completion of the activity which
activities.
happens when every best thing happens to facilitate the execution. Thus, when everything
14. Immediate Predecessor: An activity, which should immediately precede the activity
goes well, the estimate is optimistic time. On the other extreme, when every thing goes
under consideration.
worst, the duration of time-estimate is the pessimistic time. Most likely time is in between
15. Latest Finish (LF) Time: It is the latest time that an activity can finish, from the beginning
the optimistic and pessimistic times. Under normal circumstances, this is the probable time
of the project, without causing a delay in the completion of the project.
in which an activity is completed.
16. Latest Start (LS) Time: It is the latest time that an activity can start, from the beginning of
the project, without causing a delay in the completion of the project. In PERT, it is assumed that the three time estimates are random variables, distributed as
17. Most Likely Time ( ): It is the time for completing an activity that is the best estimate; Beta-distribution. The probability of most likely time is four times that of either of the
under the given conditions (used in PERT). remaining two. Mathematically, the expected time (t ) for an activity is related with the
18. Normal Cost: Cost associated with an activity when it is completed in normal time. three time estimates as follows.
19. Optimistic Time ( ): It is the time for completing an activity if everything in the project
goes well (used in PERT). t =
20. Pessimistic Time ( ): It is the time for completing an activity if everything in the project
goes wrong (used in PERT). Once, expected time (t ) is known from the three time estimates, the algorithm for network
21. Predecessor Activity: An activity that must occur before another activity in the project calculations is similar to CPM approach.
which is decided on precedence relationship. The variance (V ) and standard deviation (σ ) for the activity are:
22. Project: Set of activities which are interrelated with each other and are to be organized
for a common goal or objective during a specified time-frame. v =
23. Project Network: A visual representation of the interdependence between different
activities of a project which are normally associated with a time-wise sequencing.
24. PERT: It is the project management technique used when activity times are probabilistic. σ =
(Program Evaluation and Review Technique).
25. Resource Allocation Methods: Allocation of resources to the activities so that project
completion time is as small as possible and resources are well utilized. Table: Differences between PERT and CPM
26. Slack: It is the amount of time that an activity or a group of activities can delay in getting
completed without causing a delay in the completion of the project. An activity having S.N. PERT CPM
slack cannot be critical activity.
27. Successor Activity: It is the activity that must occur after another activity (which is 1. Time estimates are probabilistic Time estimates are deterministic
predecessor).
28. Total Slack (Float): The time upto which an activity can be delayed without affecting the 2. Event oriented Activity oriented
start of the succeeding activities.
29. Updating: It involves some revision of the project schedule after partial completion with 3. Focussed on time Focussed on time-cost trade-off
revised information.
30. Variance: It is the measure of the deviation of the time distribution for an activity. 4. More suitable for new projects More suitable for repetitive
¾ Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) projects
Quick Refresher Guide Reference Books Quick Refresher Guide Reference Books
Reference Books Heat Transfer:
Mathematics: x Heat Transfer – J. P. Holman

x Heat transfer – D.S. Kumar
x Higher Engineering Mathematics – Dr. BS Grewal x Heat Transfer – Arora & Domkundwar
x Advance Engineering Mathematics – Erwin Kreyszig
x Advance Engineering Mathematics – Dr. HK Dass Manufacturing Engineering:
Engineering Mechanics: x Production Engineering – R. K. Jain

x Manufacturing Science – A.K. Ghosh
x Engineering Mechanics Vol. I & Vol. II – Meriam & Kraige x Tolerance system – Mahajan
x Engineering Mechanics – I. H. Shames
x Engineering Mechanics – Beer & Johnson Industrial Engineering:
x Engineering Mechanics – CBS Publishers
x Industrial Engineering – Banga & Sharma
Strength of Material:
x An Introduction to the Mechanics of Solids – Stephen H Crandall

x Strength of Materials – Pytel & Singer
x Strength of Materials – Timoshenko and Young
Theory of Machine:
x Theory of Machine – Norton

x Theory of Machine – S. S. Rattan
x Theory of machine – R. S. Khurmi
Machine Design:
x Mechanical Design – Shigley
x Machine Design – Sharma & Agarwal
Thermodynamics & its Applications:

x Engineering Thermodynamics – P. K. Nag
x Power Plant Engineering – Arora & Domkundwar
x Referigeration & Airconditioning – Arora & Domkundwar
x I.C. Engines – V. Ganesan
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines:

x Fluid Mechanics – K. Z. Schaffer
x Fluid Mechanics – Schaum’s series
x Fluid Mechanics – A. K. Jain
x Fluid Mechanics – R.K. Bansal

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QUICK REFRESHER GUIDE

CONTENTS 4.5 Psychrometrics 123 – 134

#7. Fluid Mechanics 220

#9. Manufacturing Engineering 29

1.1.1.2 Row and Column Matrices

1.1.1.3 Square Matrix

x Same number of rows and columns.

1.1.1.4 Rectangular Matrix

Number of rows ≠ Number of columns

1.1.1.5 Diagonal Matrix

1.1.1.19 Minors & Co-Factors: 9. AC = AD , doesn’t imply C = D [even when A ≠ 0].

6. If A is a non-singular matrix, then all the row/column vectors are independent. b a

1.1.1.24 Solution of linear System of Equations: x = and x =

Linear Dependence of Vectors P(A)+ P(A’)=1

Suppose the vectors are x x x x Addition Law of Probability:

If P(A∩B)= P(A) P(B) ↔ Independent events A & B

P(A∩B)= P(A). P(B/A), [ P(A)≠0]

Hence P(A∩B) = P(A) P(B) CDF has the following properties:

If P(B ) and P(A/B ) are given then, Properties of Expectation

3. Var(Cx±D) = C Var(x) -Variance is translational invariant [C & D are constants] ∑

If independent ⟹ covariance=0, E(xy) = E(x) . E(y) (n + n )σ = n σ +n σ +n D +n D

Properties of Covariance (∑n )σ =∑(n σ )+∑(n D )

5. Rayleigh distribution function : f(x) = e , x≥0

1.3.1 Solution of Algebraic and Transcendental Equation / Root Finding :

2. Newton Raphson Method (or Successive Substitution Method or Tangent Method)

9 Convergence is not guaranteed.

4. Regula Falsi Method or (Method of False Position)

9 Regula falsi method always converges.

9 It is superior to Bisection method. Step 2: Eliminate y from 1st and 3rd

Error = Exact - approximate

The error in approximating an integral using Trapezoidal rule is bounded by

Simpson’s One Third Rule (Simpson’s Rule):

The error in approximating an integral using Simpson’s one third rule is

Simpson’s Three Eighth Rule:

3h ( first term + last term) + 2 (all multiple of 3 terms)

The error in approximating an integral using Simpson’s 3/8 rule is

1.3.4 Solving Differential Equations

Some Standard Expansions L – Hospital’s Rule

Cosh x = 1+ + + ......... (iii) f(a) = f(b)

Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem Homogenous Function

( ) ( ) f(x,y) = a0xn + a1xn-1y + a2xn-2y2 + …………+ an yn

If u be a homogenous function of order n in x and y then,

x x + 2xy +y = n(n − 1)u

1.4.3 Total Derivative

Let f1 and f2 be two functions: Monotonicity of a Function f(x)

If = 0, proceed further and find at x = α. 1.4.4 Standard Integral Results

39. ∫ e [f(x) + f (x)]dx = e f(x) 1.4.7 Vector Calculus:

Inverse circular ∅(P)= ∅(x,y,z)

Improper Integral Where N⃗ is a unit vector in a particular direction.

div.F= ∇. f = î + ĵ + k .( f î + ∅ĵ + Ψk) Also note:

1.4.10 Curl: 1.4.15 Vector product

∫ F dv = î∫ ∫ ∫ fdxdydz + ĵ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∅dxdydz +k ∫ ∫ ∫ Ψdxdydz

1.4.18 Stoke’s theorem 1.5: Differential Equations

If F be continuously differentiable vector function in R, then ∮ F. dr = ∫ ∇ × F .N ds

∫ F .N.ds =∫ div F dv 1.5.3 Differential Equations of First Order First Degree:

1. Variable separable : f(x)dx + g(y)dy = 0

∫ f(x)dx + ∫ g(y)dy = c is the solution

x Separate the variable V and x and integrate.

Equations Reducible to Homogenous Equation:

The differential equation: =

→ This is a non - homogeneous but can be converted to homogeneous equation

Substitute x = X + h y=Y+k (h and K are constants)

Solve for h and k

ye∫ = ∫ Q. (I. F)dx + C ⇒ y(I. F. ) = ∫ Q. (I. F)dx + C 4. =-d( )

¦F z 0 : V1 (2t 'x) p(2r'x) 0

nF EIy ³³ Mxdx ------- (8)