(Islam in The British Media From 2000-2016) : 6IR999 - Independent Study

[Islam in the
British Media
from 2000-2016]
6IR999 – Independent Study
[Stephanie Cargill] [100354092]

[International Relations and
Diplomacy]
[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 1

Table of Contents
I. Abstract ................................................................... 3
II. List of Acknowledgements ....................................... 4
III. Chapter One ............................................................ 5
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 5
Rationale ............................................................................................................... 6
Aims and Objectives .......................................................................................... 8
IV. Chapter Two ............................................................ 9

Methodology ........................................................................................................ 9
Context ............................................................................................................... 12
Literature Review .............................................................................................. 13
Theoretical Framework .................................................................................... 19
V. Chapter Three ......................................................... 21

Primary Data Analysis ...................................................................................... 21
Language Analysis ............................................................................................. 23
Results Overview .............................................................................................. 25
VI. Chapter Four ......................................................... 26

Causality .............................................................................................................. 26
Recommendations and Conclusions ............................................................. 26
VII. Appendices ............................................................ 28

VIII. References ............................................................. 40
IX. Bibliography .......................................................... 44

Abstract
This study is dedicated to the current discussion in the UK around Islam. The conversation and general
discourse indicates that Islam is bad and something to be feared. Mainstream media has tapped into this, and
at times use it to sensationalize and sell stories to their readership. The perpetuation of certain stereotypes
proves increasingly dangerous particularly in our interconnected. globalized environment.. The way in which
stories are framed and agendas are set can influence public mood and opinion. This can also have further
implications on our understanding of social, economic and political climates. Opinion is morphing into fact
and accountability is becoming increasingly absent.
Given that 5% of the British population are Muslim, and it is the only religion that has shown an increase
between the 2001 and 2011 census’ (+2%) (Stokes and ONS, 2013); this unhelpful, harmful and potentially
life threatening discourse will continue to affect more people year upon year. There is an obvious absence of
Muslim identities in public spaces, in business, politics and the arts; absence that increases fear and anxiety
around mysterious Muslim identities (Richardson, n.d.).
This study uses both primary and secondary resources and a mix of qualitative and quantitative data to
explore the representations and coverage of Islam in the British Media. This study also contributes original
results with an analysis of 198 headlines from Britain’s 6 most popular newspapers from 2000-2016.

List of Acknowledgements
A huge amount of gratitude and appreciation goes to Dr Francis Jegede, who has not only helped me through
this piece of independent study, but for the entirety of my academic career at the University of Derby. Thank
you for your extremely kind and wise words.
I would also like to thank Jon for putting up with my tears and stress this last year; Mollie and Paige for
keeping me calm and encouraging me at every stage of this paper; and my parents for providing me with kick
up the rear I need at times.
Most importantly I would like to thank Umar, who’s comment of ‘it’s nice to see a white person care for once’
opened my eyes to how far we must go in this country until all people feel accepted, appreciated, equal and
safe.

Chapter One
1.1 Introduction
This paper looks to investigate the way in which the UK Media represents Islam and the presence of
Islamophobia within the media. This paper recognises the multifaceted nature of Islamophobia and in order
to create a concise study has opted to direct the majority of its focus at one. In this context, the reference to
the growth of islamophobia is not just the increase of hate crimes, which shall be reviewed in passing, but the
increase in the ways in which Media perpetuates certain stereotypes around Islamic and Arab culture, and the
salient nature of this process.
This study has reviewed several data sets from previous studies on the subject (See; Petley and Richardson,
2011; McEnery, Gabrielatos and Baker, 2013; Poole and Richardson, 2006) and will add its own data utilizing
the UKNewsstand Database to pull together a comprehensive picture of the current relationship between
Islam and the UK press. This study will also use data and case studies published by the #stopfundinghate
campaign, Hope Not Hate and Tell MAMA.
To continue this study with a clear view, definitions for words and phrases crucial to this study are as follows;
Islamophobia - The study will use Petley and Richardson's (2011) definition of Islamophobia. Due to the
fluidity of the subject, they themselves admit it to being a 'working definition';
“[…] a shorthand term referring to a multifaceted mix of discourse, behaviour and structures which
express and perpetuate feelings of anxiety, fear, hostility and rejection towards Muslims, particularly but
not only in countries where people of Muslims Heritage live as minorities.”
Petley and Richardson (2011)
UK Media – the study recognizes that media covers several outlets including print, broadcast and social media
outlets. However, for the purposes and limitations of this study, any references to UK media refers to print
media sources.
The following definitions for ‘tabloid’ and ‘broadsheet’ are specific to this study and the relative studies used
to illustrate evidence. These definitions should not be regarded as all-encompassing and concluded, but as
working definitions. – Using McEnery, Gabrielatos and Baker’s (2013) definition for both.
Tabloid – “[…] generally smaller in size, have short articles, use puns in headlines, tend to focus more on national stories, […]
and employ a more populist and informal writing style.” It is also worth noting that tabloids hold a world view

“associated with populist politics or even a politics of fear, suggestive of attempts to create a moral panic” (McEnery,
Gabrielatos and Baker, 2013). The Sun, Daily Mail and The Daily Mirror are used in this study.
Broadsheet – these are "normally larger, contain more text, have more focus on international news and political analysis, and
use a more formal writing style” (McEnery, Gabrielatos and Baker, 2013). The Guardian, Independent and Daily
Telegraph are used in this study.
Orient – The Orient refers to the area of the Middle east and North Africa, or generally any country that was
formerly colonized by a Western European country.
Occident – The Occident is the opposite of the Orient, it is Western Europe and North America, anyone
considered a colonizer.
Orientalism – A theory established by Edward Said and the framework for this study. Orientalism explores
how the West views the ‘Orient’ and their communities as inferior, backward, infantile and dependent (see
theoretical framework for full definition).
Post-Colonialism – refers to the time after colonization of countries and following independence. Refers to
the framing and representation of colonized in colonizer literature.
1.2 Rationale
The rational of this study is dictated by current discussion in the UK around Islam. The conversation and
general discourse indicates that Islam is bad and something to be feared. Mainstream media has tapped into
this, and at times use it to sensationalize and sell stories to their readership. The perpetuation of certain
stereotypes proves increasingly dangerous particularly in our interconnected. globalized environment.. The
way in which stories are framed and agendas are set can influence public mood and opinion. This can also
have further implications on our understanding of social, economic and political climates. Opinion is
morphing into fact and accountability is becoming increasingly absent. Given that 5% of the British
population are Muslim, and it is the only religion that has shown an increase between the 2001 and 2011
census’ (+2%) (Stokes and ONS, 2013); this unhelpful, harmful and potentially life threatening discourse will
continue to affect more people year upon year. There is an obvious absence of Muslim identities in public
spaces, in business, politics and the arts; absence that increases fear and anxiety around mysterious Muslim
identities (Richardson, n.d.).
In terms of discourse and the way in which religion, specifically Islam, is reported, the study would like to
draw attention to the Independent Press Standards Organizations Editors Code; Section 12 – Discrimination

“i) The press must avoid prejudicial or pejorative references to an individual’s race, colour,
religion, sex, gender identity, sexual orientation, physical or mental illness or disability.
ii) Details of an individual’s race, colour, religion, gender identity, sexual orientation, physical or
mental illness or disability must be avoided unless genuinely relevant to the story”
(Editors Code of Practice, IPSO, 2017)
At this point in the study it is also important to outline the definition and conditions of responsibility of
freedom of expression in articles 19 and 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966.
“Article 19. 1) Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference.
2) Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; This right shall include freedom
to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either
orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice.
3) The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special
duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall
only be such as are provided by the law and are necessary:
a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others;
b) For the protection of national security or of public order, or of public health and
morals.
Article 20. 1) Any propaganda for war shall be prohibited by law.
2) any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to

discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law.”
(Un General Assembly, ICCPR, 1966)

1.3 Aims and Objectives
This study seeks to analyze these issues and explain how Islam has been widely misrepresented and
misunderstood within the 6 biggest newspapers in the UK.
Aims:
1. Analyse and evaluate the language used in UK Media when covering stories involving Islam/
Muslims. Is it positive, negative or neutral?
2. Investigate the connection between what the media presents and how this translates into public life.
3. Evaluate both current (present - IS hand in date) and past media sources (print).
4. Identify which, and what type of publications are more likely to produce content about Muslims and
Islam.
Objectives:
1. Create a concise reference point for findings of research. Bringing together information from well-
known and accounted for sources and using it to create a strong argument for findings.
2. Focus mainly on print media, but also increasing online media platforms, including (but not limited
to); social media, video, podcast/ voice recording and online subscription papers.
3. Track and explain the growth of negative representation of Muslims in the UK media.

Chapter Two
2.1 Methodology
This study is being undertaken by desk based research. The study was originally to be conducted solely
through secondary research. However, due to differences in methodology of several of the studies used, the
use of primary research assumed a more prominent role for the collection of media related data. The study
comprises of both qualitative and quantitative data.
Main sources of information include;
 for the main sources of Print Media, please refer to pages 5 and 6, which also carry the relevant
definitions of Broadsheets and Tabloids;
 other information includes government publications, information from Human Rights Watch, as well
as #stopfundinghate, Tell MAMA, Hope Not Hate, INSTEAD, IPSOS Mori, and the Office for
National Statistics. These sources provide essential information for the research. Data shall also come
from previous academic studies (see literature review).
The main point of analysis focusses on British newspapers, the analysis of print media has been chosen for
several reasons;
1. Through the UKNewsstand Database, articles can be accessed and recorded much quicker and easier
than that of TV and radio transcripts. As this data can easily be collated it also provides the
possibility of further discourse analysis using SketchEngine.
2. British newspapers have long been regarded as a reflection of public opinion within the UK.
Richardson (2009) recognised this in his article titled ‘Get shot of the lot of them’: Election Reporting of
Muslims in British Newspapers, the idea that ‘[…] the ideas and arguments in the journalistic media provides us
with insights into social ideas and attitudes, specifically into the understandings of who ‘we’ are and who ‘they’ are’
(Richardson, 2009). Newspaper stories are becoming far more saturated in public life through their
social media platforms, where headline stories can now be ‘shared’. The ‘us’ vs ‘them’ narrative
Richardson is presenting here also ties in with the theory of Orientalism, of which this study will be
undertaken.
3. The claim also stands that the “media depend on presenting their audience with a steady supply of problems and
crisis […] the media have considerable agenda-setting power” (Cameron, 2012). The media leads the
conversation on phenomena and can also create it. As an institution it exerts phenomenal social,
economic and political influence. The media can indeed profit from the creation of folk devils and the
promotion of any moral panics.

4. The left/ right leaning ideals of papers is easily identifiable and gives position for well lead
assumptions to be made about readership. Extensive research around readership demographic in the
British Media is readily available (See: Altikriti and Al-Muhadin, 2015; Rooney, 2000; Sointu, 2005)
Information from the UKNewsstand, has been used to create a more up to date comparison of news stories
than those provided by the comparative literature available; this data will also be used to support their
hypothesis. The methodology for primary data collection has been influenced by Richardson (2009) and
McEnery, Gabrielatos and Baker (2013).
The following parameters were set in the UK Newsstand database when collecting data from news articles;
 Dates range from 01/01/2000 – 31/12/2016. This time frame has been selected to show the ‘9/11
effect’ (McEnery, Gabrielatos and Baker, 2013; Poole and Richardson, 2006). The 9/11 effect refers
to the way in which the reporting of Arab and Islamic stereotypes has become obsessive after the
attack in 2001. Amin-Khan (2012) refers to this as the pivotal point in which the Western state and
its media coverage of Muslims became “securitized” (Amin-Khan, 2012). The decision to end the
timeframe on the 31st of December 2016 is to create an easily comparative sample.
 The words ‘Muslim’ or ‘Islam’ had to be present within either the headline or the main body of the
text – separate results were gathered for both options. This was done to create a comparison on the
passive discourse of Muslims and the obvious (headline) coverage. Whilst the study recognises the
occurrence of articles about ‘Islam’ and ‘Muslims’ in which the markers are inferred and not explicitly
stated (See; Altikriti, A. and S. Al-Mahadin, 2015); this method was chosen to ensure that all stories
categorised were explicitly stated to be about Islam or Muslims.
 The following papers were selected as they are the most popular in the UK and represent an equal
proportion of both Broadsheet (B) and Tabloid (T) papers, they also represent an equal spectrum for
Left (L) or Right (R) leaning political views. The papers reviewed were; The Guardian (B)(L), The
Daily Mail (T)(R), The Daily Telegraph (B)(R), The Independent (B)(L), The Sun (T)(R) and The
Daily Mirror (T)(L).
 This result yields 106,682 articles for the main body of text and 10,126 for the Headline.
 Datasets and visual graphs were garnered from these results.

To further analyse the results the following categorisations took place;
 Results from articles are then assigned into categories by year, then by month of that year, as well as
by publication to gain easily comparable statistics.
 Percentage values of a sample pool of 2000 stories has been selected using the representative
percentage of total stories for ‘main body’ articles and 200 stories for ‘headline’ articles.
 Total number of stories per year has then been divided by the percentage value of the sample pool to
create a selection process of every 1 story in x number of stories. This is representative of frequency
of one paper over the other and eliminates any unconscious bias.
 These stories are then assessed to present a positive, negative or neutral view of Muslims and this
data is inputted into excel and SketchEngine for analysis.
Secondary data was collected through several channels; the Library Plus database, publications available to
study from the University of Derby, academic journals and literature personally collected and purchased.
Much of the data is an amalgamation of several works co-authored by Robin Richardson and Elizabeth Poole,
who have contributed a momentous amount of work to this field of study.
Limitations of this methodology include;
 Time and resource constraints leading to a smaller sample pool of the total stories of 1.87% (main
body) and 1.97% (headlines), therefore the study must remain cautious in making finalised and
ultimate generalisations.
 It was not possible to review the data for ‘main body’ articles for SketchEngine input as the UK
Newsstand database only allows 4000 articles to be viewed at one time. Due to this error, the
selection of a representative sample was not possible.
 In some cases, for ‘headline’ data, articles that did not contain ‘Islam’ or ‘Muslim’ in the headline (or
any variant thereof) were collected within the results. These articles remained in the results as they
were still explicitly about Islam.
 There is no online data available for The Daily Mirror from 2000-2001.
 Results contained letter and opinion pieces, the decision to let these remain in the results and/or use
them within the selection pool is that for the paper to publish them reveals what ideals are in line
with the publisher. It creates an environment where a paper can present a point of view that they
agree with, that may also be potentially insulting, derogatory or go against code of conduct guidelines;
without having to claim complete ownership and the option of scapegoating any backlash towards
‘public opinion’.
 An error occurred in the main body data for 2003 and the results. When broken down to each
month, all the results read as ‘355’ articles. This was discovered fairly late on in the process of writing

the study, at which point, access to the UK Newsstand database was no longer available to rectify
this misprint. Any comparative data still includes 2003 as the results for article per paper, and for the
year remained unchanged.
In terms of analysis, critical discourse analysis and content analysis have been used to explain the main thread
of conversation around Islam in the British Media. This is presented through the use of SketchEngine and the
ability to asses and categorise ‘Negative, Positive and Neutral’ representation in articles and headlines.
2.2 Context
This study adds to an ever-growing area of discussion that includes; public policy, international relations,
media studies, communications and culture, and the place of religion in society. It is a time where the ‘war on
terror’ has problematically, long been mistaken for the war on Islam. The events of September the 11th 2001
were pivotal for the media representations of Muslims, not only in the US and the UK, but throughout
Western Europe. Within the timeframe investigated in this study (01/01/2000 – 31/12/2016) there have
been numerous ‘high profile’ attacks in the UK and Western Europe. 9/11, 7/7, the murder of Lee Rigby,
and the Paris and Belgium attacks are all still fresh wounds, close to home. As a result, Britain faces several
veins of contention from communities struggling to be accepted and heard. There is a culture of
condemnation; rather than it being common knowledge that Muslims condemn the actions of any terror
suspect who has attempted and/ or succeeded in a terrorist attack – the action must be publicly condemned
and therefore, responsibility is forcibly accepted.
After the vote to leave the European Union and the election of Donald Trump, the atmosphere surrounding
Islam, immigrants and refugees has soured, and negative discourse has been deemed social acceptable. The
identities of the demonized few have amalgamated into one. Therefore, any negative action performed by one
of these identifiers is labelled as ‘Islamic’ or ‘Muslim’ which contributes to the climate of misdirected suspicion
and fear. So, with a larger focus on social cohesion after the EU referendum, under a new Prime Minister; the
issues that are separating communities are being brought to the forefront of British news media and the
nations conversation at large. The ways in which these issues are being framed and communicated is what
needs to be reviewed and documented.

2.3 Literature Review
The decided definition for this piece of study for the word Islamophobia has already been defined however,
the word itself has come into contention with Petley and Richardson (2011) furthering their discussion into
the definition. Their research discovered that the international community are using several different terms
and phrases, including but not limited to; “anti-Muslim racism, intolerance against Muslims, anti-Muslim prejudice,
hated of Muslims, anti-Islamism, anti-Muslimism, Muslimophobia, demonization of Islam and Demonization of Muslims.”
(Petley and Richardson, 2011). Petley and Richardson also recognised the different manifestations of
islamophobia; violence, hate crimes and workplace discrimination to name a few. To avoid confusion the
'area' of islamophobia this study is focusing on is the one found in the media, created through using
accusatory, emotive and defamatory language.
Due to the extensive research that has already taken place reviewing not only British media, but American
and even some aspects of global media, there is an established framework in which the ways Muslims are
represented; as the devious and threatening other. Poole and Richardson (2006) listed these 4 main themes
as;
 “That Muslims are a threat to security in the UK due to their involvement in deviant activities.
 That Muslims are a threat to British ‘mainstream’ values and thus provoke integrative concerns.
 That there are inherent cultural differences between Muslims and the host community which create
tensions in interpersonal relations.
 Muslims are increasingly making their presence felt in the public sphere (demonstrated through the
topics of politics, education and discrimination).”
(Poole, 2002; Poole and Richardson, 2006)
Previous research performed by Petley and Richardson (2011), Lewis, Mason and Moore (2011), Knott, Poole
and Taira (2013), and Poole and Richardson (2006) has been instrumental in shaping this study. Their work
has already revealed a pattern of misrepresentation of minority groups within British media, in both tabloid
and broadsheet press. The overarching theme of all being that the print media greatly misrepresents Muslims;
the worse perpetrators being tabloid newspapers, due to the way they sensationalize news and the diminished
urgency for reliable sourcing of information. There is a lack of accountability for cases of misrepresentation,
and once a story, ‘fact’ or opinion is released to the public it has the potential to become common knowledge
without accurate reference and vetting. This process is ‘legitimized’ through the use of abstract or passive
identities such as ‘neighbours’ or ‘commentators’ (Altikriti and Al-Mahadin, 2015). In terms of apologies and
retractions, these are often relegated to the back pages, in much smaller print than the obvious and eye
catching headlines broadcast onto front pages. It is unusual that a retraction will get similar attention than a
story.

The complaints and reporting process is itself problematic. The involvement of the media elite sitting on
review panels does not allow for completely unbiased process and conclusion. Michelle Stanistreet, (quoted in
an interview in Jones, 2015), a former Daily Express journalist and now the Secretary General of the National
Union of Journalists, describes a situation in which a complaint was taken to the Press Complaints
Commission (PCC);
“We complained about the paper to the PCC. Our own editor sat on the PCC at the time, so we just got
this ridiculous note back from [former PCC chairman] Christopher Meyer saying he didn’t believe there
was a problem”
(Stanistreet, quoted in Jones, 2015)
The power of the press is not something that should be dismissed. Indeed, the salient nature of the media’s
role in developing “attitudes, perceptions and ‘received wisdom’ is increasingly evident in today’s society […] [T]he media
occupy a more prominent position in our social and cultural landscapes” (Ahmed, 2006). With an increased presence in
every aspect of life through 24-hour news reels and social media, news is received and digested without full
attention or critical analysis. This presentation of passively receiving wisdom is problematic as the public rely
on newspapers to deliver the absolute truth in journalism. Therefore, to not recognize the increased
involvement of an elite few through big business and connection to government position that influence in
both public and private spheres would be a mistake. Jones (2015) claims that the “British media is an integral
part of the British establishment”. Due to the complex relationships between the political and media elite in
the UK, there is plausibility for the argument that the “priorities of the media elite become the priorities of the
government itself” (Jones, 2015).
Even with the decrease in sales of physical newspapers, due to the increased online and social media presence,
national newspapers still have an imposing stance in the UK, and are reaching a larger and more engaged
readership in doing so. Conboy (2010) explored the way in which newspapers (and their online formats)
utilize different variants within language for different social groups and the way in which language is used to
create association. He presented the works of “linguistics and strategies of augmentation” (Conboy, 2010) and states
the ways in which linguistics tools such as alliteration allow for a “abbreviated augmented strategy” (Conboy, 2010),
making headlines and story taglines easy to recall. He thought it important to recognise the role played by
collocation in the narratives of exclusion; collocation refers to the patterns within language that cause association
and expectancy when accompanied by other words and phrases. In relevance to this study, it presents a way
in which the word ‘Muslim’ presents negative connotations and associations such as ‘jihadist’ and ‘terrorist’.
The need for labelling is something that Moscovici (2000) explored in his theory of Social Representation. He
claims that the labelling makes abstract concepts more familiar and easier to digest. This is done through the
process of anchoring a subject. For example, creating the cognitive recognition between Islam and terrorism,

a definition for what is normal and abnormal can be reached and a material from for an abstract notion has
been created. Arguably Greer and Jewkes (2005) spectrum of deviance and the way groups of people are
classified within the spectrum reflects social representation theory. The spectrum represents how we see the
stigmatised other and the absolute other, the increase in deviance on the scale equates to the threat a person
will pose as an enemy from within. However, Altikriti and Al-Mahadin (2015) argue that the spectrum needs to
be modified for those who can potentially occupy several points on the spectrum. The spectrum acts as a
reference to judge the British Self compared to the Other. Jones (2015) argues that this is an intentional act
performed by the media as part of the establishment to deflect “popular anger directed at them at the bottom of
society.” (Jones, 2015).
Awan, Hoskins and O’Loughlin (2015) identified the different courses of language in the media that can
present and promote an idea or (potential) phenomenon without explicitly talking about it. This was explored
in their study of radicalization and the media; nevertheless, it is easily applied to the stigma and discourse
surrounding Muslims and Islam in the UK. The courses of language used are as follows;
 Clustering of terms – creates a lexical connection between certain words and phrases through reputation
of usage and clustering.
 Uncertainty – by creating an air of mystery and uncertainty around Muslim identity (in particular their
absence from public space). Uncertainty of implementation of future public policy and the need for it
can lead to complacency of a general public.
 Vulnerability – presenting an idea of a vulnerable UK attempts to warrant feelings of suspicion and
hostility towards the other.
 Mediality – a way in which the media and the public ‘communicate’. This is palpable in the popularity
of opinion pieces and published readers’ comments and letters.
 Speculative premediation – negative speculation around individual and/or community identity and what
this concludes can lead to an assumed guilt.
In terms of the way in which papers utilize different variants of language for different social groups, this is
further reflected in the demographics of readership; particularly political affiliation. An individual that
identifies with right leaning politics will therefore identify with a newspaper that reflects these views, using
language they are familiar and comfortable with. Van Dijk (1991) provides commentary on the way in which
this impacts the process of opinion formation offering the idea that “right-wing readers of a right-wing newspaper
have an ideological framework that facilitates the development of right-wing opinions whatever the opinion of their newspaper (the
same could be said to be true for left-wing readers of left-wing papers)” (Van Dijk, 1991). It is a reality that “[T]he political
views of the media owners set the tone for their newspapers” (Jones, 2015); these similarities in press and reader
opinions facilitates an environment of reinforcement and assurance of said opinions (Van Dijk, 1991).

Conboy (2010) also comments on the way in which “[n]ewspapers have always created readers, not news, as their
primary function”. Evidently the online paradigm shift to accommodate the fall in readership is an example of
this; alongside the increased use of popular culture references, the need to go ‘viral’ and the use of emoji’s;
and this fluid adaption is not something new for print media. Conboy’s view reflects Sparks (1999) who also
noted that ‘[newspapers] do not exist to report the news […] They exist to make money.’. This claim of
course call into question codes of conduct and ethics in the sphere of journalism; news needs to sell, it has
become a product and a commodity - a highly valuable and influential one at that. However, Brogan (quoted
in Jones, 2015) argues that “Newspapers [sic] are not public services […] They [sic] are private combines, they are
commercial operations […] there in the hope of making some money” (Brogan; quoted in Jones, 2015). There is a
consensus in some parts of the industry that commercial gain is the main function of newspapers, but as they
are not publicly owned, there is not a requirement to act in the public interest, as opposed to financier, for
example.
In his book The Establishment: and how they get away with it, Jones quotes an interview with a former tabloid
journalist Richard Peppiat in which he recalls that he would “come into the newsroom and be asked to write about
Muslims doing X, Y and Z.” (Peppiat, quoted in Jones, 2015). This presents itself as problematic on several
levels, especially when it is considered that a study by Allen (2012) revealed that 64% of the British public
attribute their knowledge about Muslims and Islamic culture as being “acquired through the media” (Allen,
2012). Williams also sees issue with these falsified accounts and claims that Islam and Muslims have been
delegitimized as a group by “only appearing in the media when they present a problem” (Williams, 2003); echoing
Conboy’s (2010) suggestion of the use of collocation in the UK press. This disproportionate reporting that
has the “strong tendency to homogenise Islam” (Brown and Richards, 2016) brings about a stereotype for whole
communities and countries (Kennedy, 2000). When this is paired with the failure of the press to “consistently
differentiate between violent Islamism and mainstream Islam” (Brown and Richards, 2016) a seemingly justified,
negative expectation of Muslims is generated. This process of homogenization and the way in which
“[M]uslims are identified simply as Muslims rather than as individuals” (Lewis, Mason and Moore, 2011) eliminates
any form of enquiry as to what “individual Muslims actually say or do”, dismissing and reducing “a complex
social, economic and political history” (Kundnani, 2015).
The productions of Moral Panics by the press is something that Cohen (1972; 2002) has contributed greatly
to, exploring the theme in relation to mods and rockers; however, much like Awan, Hoskins and
O’Loughlin’s (2015) work on radicalization, the results are applicable to this study. Cohen (1972; 2002)
describes the process in which “a person or group of persons emerges to become defined as a threat to societal values and
interests”, this subject then becomes the focus of the anticipated Moral Panic. The media will then work to
create a stereotype that can be packaged and inputted into various content in a way which encourages editor’s,
politicians, religious figures and ‘experts’ alike to man the moral barricades (Cohen, 1972; 2002). This in turn

creates public concern which is garnered by media to report on this new “fragment of the moral constitution of
society” (Cohen, 1972; 2002)
The role of media within moral panics is important as they are often the instigators; because once a certain
panic, or agenda, has been set the media can investigate the ‘issue’ as a response to ‘public concern’. Cameron
(2012) finds issue with this and claims that “most of the concern is of their own making.” And therefore, questions
the presence of an agenda. Cameron continues the exploration into moral panics and the focus that they are
not something that randomly occur, rather they “cluster around the obvious points of social conflict: […] of race, class,
gender, generation, sexual practice and political dissent” (Cameron, 2012). As the ‘problem’ has then been identified,
in this case Islam and Muslims, it allows for this social group and any individuals identified by it to become
the scapegoat. Kundnani (2003) views this as problematic as he claims that race hate and frequency of it “falls
to the extent to which people’s prejudices are inflamed and made respectable by politicians and newspapers” (Kundnani, 2003).
Petley and Richardson (2011) argues that Islam and Muslims, much like Cohen’s mods and rockers, are the
latest 'folk devil'. Petley and Richardson (2011) have referred to this as the 'green peril'. Similarly, to the
labelling of immigrants, asylum seekers and refugees, the moral panic surrounding Islam and Muslims has
some of the following features, if not all;
 The 'folk devil' (in this case, a Muslim) is negative, deviant and evil.
 Officials (government, civil service, churches, voluntary sector and academics) criticised for not
recognising the apparent 'threat' posed to society.
 Linking different threats and events to create the idea of single cause or operator.
 Increased Us vs Them mentality.
 Strengthened sense of superiority and self-righteousness in the majority of the population.
 Media exaggeration, sensationalism and distortion.
 A ubiquitous sense of crisis and collective nightmare, no control over culture and social change.
 Results in increased support for greater restrictive and punitive laws, and curtailments of civil liberties
Herman and Chomsky also present the media propaganda model which deems whether subjects are worthy,
or indeed unworthy, of extensive media coverage. In this model Islam, as a subject, has been deemed ‘worthy’
due to its profitability and the way in which it generates discussion and emotion. In this sense, Huntington
(2004) describes that Islam as the “ideal enemy”; just ‘other’ enough to perpetuate ambiguous stereotypes; to “cast
Muslims out of the community” (Todd, 2015) without much opposition. When these stigmatized communities
face withdrawal from public space (Awan, Hoskins and O’Loughlin, 2012) as a reaction to this, the risk of
increasing anxiety of the ‘mysterious’ stereotype increases. Petrof (2015) explored the way in which once news
has been deemed ‘worthy’, the way in which it is framed. He refers to Nossek’s (2004) “indigenous bifocals” that
journalists and editors ‘wear’; these define the way in which a story is framed. Petrof (2015) claims that

depending on the context of the event as either ‘ours’ or ‘theirs’ will condition either a ‘professional’ or a
‘national patriotic’ frame.
The existence of a perpetuated stereotype is presented by Lewis, Mason and Moore (2011) who’s study into
the way the British Media portray Muslims found that the most common noun used in conjunction with the
words British Muslim’ were extremist (18%) and terrorist (22%). As a result, Poole (2002) argues that the
repetitive use of negative and harmful stereotypes towards Muslims fuel “the common misunderstandings about the
religion itself” (Poole, 2002). Following this line of enquiry, a study by Knott, Poole and Taira (2013) into the
way the media presents Islam concluded that there is ceaseless othering and demonization, with key
discourses focused on an “over-association with extremism, fundamentalism and terrorism.” (Knott, Poole and Taira,
2013). This problem is recognized by independent research by the home office shows that ‘since the events of
September the 11th, 2001, violence and discrimination (towards Muslims) has increased palpably’ (Allen and
Neilson, 2002; Fekete, 2006; Weller et al, 2001).
Tonybee (2004) argues that the way in which Islamophobia has become embedded in mainstream media and
become normal practice; “professing one’s own Islamophobia without fear of recrimination is fashionable” (Tonybee,
2004); the normative nature in which islamophobia occurs, legitimizes problematic actions. The suppression
of Muslim voices within the media is one of the reasons why Islamophobia narratives can be published
without arraignment. Omar (2006) explored the lack of equal representation in all aspects of the media; from
print media to broadcast journalism. He argues that 'without allowing these [Muslim] voices in our politics, on
our streets, in our schools, in our newspapers and on television, we are lost.' Omaar (2006). He proposes that
moving towards a more integrated, multicultural society, and with this comes realizing that '[…] our worlds
are not in conflict after all.' (Omaar, 2006). ‘Hamza’ a participant in a study by Awan and Zempi (2015)
echoed these views, and the view that when the media does give attention to Muslim voices they do so to
antagonists. Proclaiming his distaste for the willingness of the media to “give airtime to idiots like Anjem
Choudray.” ‘Hamza’ continues that “he [Choudray] does not represent Islam, they know he will say something
controversial, that’s why they invite him.” (‘Hamza’; quoted in Awan and Zempi, 2015).
However, some theorist believe that multiculturalism has indeed 'died'. Ossewaarde (2014) believes this is
important as it is often expressed or interpreted as code for Muslims and the differences that their 'culture'
(note how it is described as a collective) and the issues that this brings as a threat to Britishness. It has
resulted in “social exclusion and cultural segregation” (Ossewaarde, 2014). The reinforcement of a monocultural
presentation of nationalist identity, is strengthened by the presentation of the “Muslim radical Other” through
“slogans, metaphors [and] neologisms” (Ossewaarde, 2014). Todd (2015) applied this notion to his book Je Suis
Charlie, written in the wake of the Paris attacks; “In general, ‘multiculturalism’ disguises the sidelining of the targeted
group by the use of the expression ‘respect for its culture’, or the term tolerance’. Typically, differencialism is happy to put up with
[…] the Muslim, so long as they stay in their place and agree to play the role expected of them: that of being different.” (Todd,

2015). Todd presents the idea that Islam is merely tolerated so long as it's presence remains beneficial to for
the majority as a way to compare themselves and maintain their Occidental status.
It is important to reference, Samuel Huntington’s Clash of Civilizations (1993). The validity of Huntington’s
theory has been much praised and criticized, but even more so after the events of 9/11, where his name was
propelled form the circles of academics to the public domain. He claims that the 'difference in culture and
religion' (Huntington, 1993) will inevitably cause tensions and unrest between communities and societies on a
larger scale. Within his study, Huntington continually references issues with Islam and Western Society. These
ideas give credence to Islam as The Other that the Muslims population will never 'fully integrate', and that it
is not within their nature to do so in the first place; the idea that “The underlying problem for the West is not Islamic
Fundamentalism. It is Islam” (Huntington, 1993). Kundnani argues that the perpetuation of Huntington’s view
in the media and society is the reason why “Muslim communities are seen as failing to adapt to modernity as a result of
their Islamic culture” rather than exploring the social and economic differences that they face (Kundnani, 2015).
2.4 Theoretical Framework
Edward Said's 1978 concept of Orientalism has been crucial to understand how islamophobia can manifest
itself within the media. The theory is one of the most debated, criticized and continuously praised since its
creation in the last quarter of the 20th century. Orientalism explains how the West, or Occident, has created
and image of the 'Orient' of belonging to a backward social structure and religion (Islam); overwhelmed with
violence, the idea that the Orient is inferior to Western power, culture and ideas. These “caricatures of
Muslims as oil suppliers, as terrorists […] as bloodthirsty mobs” (Said 1981; 1997). Brown and Richards
(2016) found that the responses they received upon asking participants how they think Islam is represented in
the media corresponded with Said’s theory. Participants responded with the following 3 main themes;
1. Muslims are portrayed as terrorists

2. Muslims are shown to be backwards, dirty and underdeveloped
3. Muslim countries are shown to be strict and conservative in terms of religion
(Brown and Richards, 2016)
Said's expands his theory and claims that Arab and Muslim identities are created and 'judged in terms of, and in
comparison, to the West, so they are always the Other, the conquerable, and the inferior' applies to the way in which the
media portrays Islam as a religion and the actions of Muslims. The presentation of Islam as ‘predatory’
exaggerates this position of otherness and projects it to form the ‘feared’ other. The theory has opened
channels of conversation to discuss the issues contained within the everyday discourse not only within the
media and literature, but all aspects of life. It dismantles the reasoning that is given behind 'anxieties' held by
individuals, communities and countries.
Referring to representation and the responsibility of journalists to communicate and unbiased report, Said's

introduction to the 2003 publication of Orientalism is particularly insightful. He proposes a halt to the
manufactured Clash of Civilizations and insists that to gain a more rounded cultural understanding in
everyday life, accompanied by harmonious relationships between communities, ‘patient skeptical inquiry,
supported by communities’ needs to take place (Said, 2003).
Said's contributions continue further as he is credited as having the first recorded use of the word
Islamophobia in his 1985 article Orientalism Reconsidered. The relevance of Orientalism to this subject matter
can be recognized in the claims Daniel Pipes makes in his 1990 National Review entry ‘The Muslims are
coming! The Muslims are coming!’ in which he claims that ‘Muslim countries host the most terrorists and the
fewest democracies in the world.’ (Pipes, 1990) – a claim that embodies the orientalist view perfectly; not only
as the other but also as a threat, one that does not possess the capabilities of ‘rational’ means to end conflict.
Sohail Karmani recognized the ‘orientalist’ line of discourse appearing more prominently post 9/11 of Islam
as ‘backward, extreme and authoritarian’ and the idea of being English as ‘modern, rational and democratic’
(Karmani, 2005; Cameron, 2012). This increased “demonization’s of Arabs and Islam” (Ashcroft and
Ahluwalia, 2001) after the events of 9/11, was something Said had already recognized a movement towards in
his 1997 revised edition of Covering Islam. Commenting on the deterioration of western image of Islam he
proposes that “[the] average reader comes to see Islam ad fundamentalism as essentially the same thing.”
(Said, 1997). Jones (2015) claims that this is deliberate action, describing it as a “culture of endemic dishonesty and
myth-making within the media, rather than providing an honest view of British society, media organizations relish hunting down
extreme examples that might be used to tap into widespread prejudices and insecurities.” (Jones, 2015)
Said's construction of Latent and Manifest Orientalism has been mirrored by Hatam Bazian (2014) and his
discussion around Latent and Manifest Islamophobia. For the purpose of this study the concentration lies on
his definition of Latent Islamophobia. Bazian describes Latent Islamophobia as an;
'[…] unquestionable certitude conceived through an inception process utilizing films, news reports, media
talking heads, publishing books with problematic Muslims subjects, exclusive emphasis on Islam as a
violent, backward and oppressive religion, and on Muslims' despotism and supposed lack of progress.'.
This continues the line of research and thought in which Muslims have come to be isolated and demonized
within the press, as well as being used a scape goat. In part of Said’s Orientalism trilogy of work Covering Islam he
recognized this manipulation of Islam and described it as “catastrophically bad” which should be vehemently
confronted and opposed (Said, 1981; 1997).
Istriyani (2016) realizes the danger of the infiltration of the media of Latent Islamophobia are propelled by
the image of the archetypal terrorist being one of Arab descent, continuing the cycle of familiarity and
association of identifiers that are then portrayed as evil and bad. Amin-Khan (2012) argues that the
Orientalist coverage and demonization of Muslims in the Western media are facilitated “by a racially embedded

process of securitization” (Amin-Khan, 2012) of western spaces, vilifying and criminalizing Islam, and presenting
it as an “antithesis of Western civilization” (Amin-Khan, 2012).
Chapter Three
3.1 Primary Data Analysis
The primary data collected yielded similar results to past studies. There is a clear increase in the reporting of
Muslims, for all except one paper, The Independent. The Sun and the Daily Mail held the position of
reporting the most headline stories by the end of the search parameters in 2016, which was the same case for
content in stories. The Sun holds the highest percentage increase on headlines reporting Muslims with
10800% in a 16-year period; followed by the Daily Mail (2154.55%) and the Daily Telegraph (552%). These
increases are a reflection of several factors; the realization that fear and hate sell, and the endorsement of the
right-leaning overtones that partially reject the way in which reporting has to correspond to political
correctness. The Daily Mail has the most substantial increase of the ‘reporting’ of Muslims in the main body
of texts, holding 4944% from 2000 – 2016.This result is followed by The Sun (1644%) and the Daily Mirror
(166.82%). The Independent is the only paper that holds a percentage decrease of 84.64%.
300
250
Number of headlines containing either 'Muslim' or 'Islam'
200
Number of Healdines
150
100
50
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
The Guardian 37 108 100 90 218 213 256 171 125 134 135 86 104 104 97 100 62
The Daily Telegraph 25 204 82 86 78 149 182 113 124 76 165 120 106 174 130 162 163
Daily Mail 0 11 9 20 40 84 146 147 113 192 150 96 74 127 177 253 248
The Independent 65 228 127 125 139 168 247 57 42 38 34 27 28 42 49 62 8
The Sun 2 53 12 21 33 58 114 63 67 142 116 106 100 154 121 224 218
The Daily Mirror 0 0 28 35 40 64 100 50 57 51 38 42 42 64 80 82 97
It is important to note the differences in reporting styles and subject coverage between Tabloid and
Broadsheet papers. Broadsheets are renowned for reporting on international events, producing travel, culture
and recipe pieces, providing context for the higher number in stories. However, the decrease in reporting
within the Independent does present itself as an anomaly within the data set. The reasoning behind this could
be in relation to the papers identity as a left leaning paper that operates within accordance of its reader’s
affinity for PC culture. In contrast, the British tabloid press was accused of ‘hate speech’ by the UN Human
Rights Chief Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein in 2015. This has also been recognized by the #stopfundinghate

campaign (stopfundinghate.org.uk), who urge supporters to put pressure on companies that provide the
papers (The Sun and the Daily Mail) with advertising revenue due to the levels of increasing media hate
speech. That being said, when the language within the sample pool of headline data over the 16-year period
was reviewed, a broadsheet, the Daily Telegraph published the majority of ‘negative’ stories about Islam and
Muslims, presenting 36 out of 118 that occupied that category; representing 72% of their overall articles.
From 2000-2016 they were accountable for the highest percentage number of Headline stories with 21.12%
(2139 total). This result is followed by the Sun producing 21 articles (75% of all sample articles and 15.84% of
all headlines 2000-2016), and the Daily Mail contributing 20 (67% of all sample articles and 18.64% of all
headlines 2000-2016). Within the negative stories, the headlines present several issues; the incredulous links to
terrorism and/or deviant behaviour, failure to assimilate leading to an upset in the status quo and creating
obstacles for ‘British culture’. The freedom to express opinions such as these could potentially be carried by
the lack of accountability for writers and journalists down to the amount of ‘Anonymously’ authored content
in the data; of which the Daily Mirror (55% of headlines) and the Sun (35.71% of headlines) contribute
Number of articles containting either 'Muslims' or 'Islam'.

3000
2500
Number of articles.
2000
1500
1000
500
0
-500
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
The Guardian 549 1175 913 993 1842 2239 2142 1644 1419 1511 1311 1400 1159 1156 1207 1109 756 38%
The Daily Telegraph 510 1482 948 942 1036 1228 1326 1074 859 671 1085 1372 1136 1249 1300 1201 1203 135.88
Daily Mail 45 215 124 266 653 836 1223 1293 1000 1803 1494 1444 1156 1395 2105 2498 2270 4944.4
The Independent 957 1893 1369 1310 1527 1761 2001 964 565 502 581 601 721 630 623 681 147 -84.64
The Sun 122 492 397 429 640 772 1016 622 601 1255 1286 1231 1254 1705 1754 2036 2128 1644%
The Daily Mirror 0 0 449 600 800 780 959 838 561 523 576 680 544 873 924 837 1198 166.82
hugely to. It is also of note that the combined

Negative (1), Postitive (2) and Neautral (3) percentage of headline coverage of both of
headlines per paper. these papers over the 16 year period, account
40
for almost a quarter of all headline stories
35
30 (24.43%). However, the paper has still
25
20
permissed the publishing of this content and
15 therefore should be held accountable for the
10
5 actions it takes.
0
The Sun The Guardian Daily Mail The The Daily The Daily
Independent Telegraph Mirror For headlines judged as positive, numerically
1 2 3 The Guardian (7), The Daily Mirror (4), the

Independent (3) and the Daily
Negative (1), Postitive (2) and Neautral (3)
Telegraph (3) present the majority.
headlines over time.
However, when compared to the
16
percentage of a papers total articles 14
12
The Daily Mirror (20%), The 10
Guardian (16%) and the Independent 8
6
(12%) herald the top 3 places. Again, 4
there is a mixture of Tabloid and 2
0
Broadsheet newspapers in these 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
results. The common denominator is 1 2 3

that they are all regarded as left-
leaning publications, with an emphasis on multiculturalism and celebrating diversity. Neutrally directed
articles account for more than positive articles. Of the neutrally headlined articles The Guardian (18), The
Daily Telegraph (11) and the Independent (10) hold the most, however in terms of percentage the top 3
results are The Guardian (41%), The Independent (38%) and the Daily Mirror (35%). For percentage total
the same mixture of Tabloid and broadsheet press occur as the results for positively inclined headlines. For
numerical results the date swings toward the three broadsheets reviewed; again, this could be due to the
stronger focus on international events that is contained within these publications. The sample pool shows
that while there have been slight increases and decreases over time stories framed with a positive headline are
the only ones to have kept a steady level from 2000-2016. Neutral stories have increased over this time period,
indeed spiking in 2007 and 2013. Negative headlines however have shown the clearest and most consistent
increase over the 16 year period. For headline data, the year yielding the most results is 2006 (1045), of which
October holds the most results (192). There are a few notable events that could bring explanation to this; the
5-year anniversary and sentencing of the 9/11 attacks, mass protests of Muslims opposing the publication of
a cartoon of the Prophet Muhammad in several European papers and the guilty verdict of Saddam Hussein.
The average headline count for this year is at 87.083. As expected the month with the most headlines is July
2005, the month of the 7/7 attacks in London presenting 205 articles. 2015 holds the most results for the
main body data (8362), which corresponds with the reporting of both the Charlie Hebdo and Bataclan attacks,
the Sousse beach attack in Tunisia, the Copenhagen attacks and the Leytonstone stabbing; more memorably
known by the tagline of “You ain’t no Muslim, bruv [sic].”. As to be expected, the most populous month
within the entire data set again remains July 2005 with 1463 stories.
3.2 Language Analysis.
When the Articles collected for the headline data were entered into SketchEngine, it enables the study to
investigate the types on language used within the articles. This part of the study will review the results for
‘Islam’, ‘Islamic’ and ‘Muslim’.

Islam
When ‘Islam’ s framed as an adjective, the main modifier is ‘radical’. Already posing a negative view for the
rest of the results. For nouns and verbs modified by the word ‘Islam’; some of the most common are ‘race’,
‘hate’, ‘cleric’, ‘convert’ and ‘extremist’. The significance of race being one of the most commonly modified
presents issues with 1) Islam not being a race, rather a religion, and b) it points to that need for differentiation
and the orientalist line of otherness. The word ‘hate’ has two main possible frames, the hate which is received
by followers of Islam, or alternatively the sensationalism of any opposition from minority groups, or perceived
dissonance for the ‘British way of life’. ‘Cleric’, ‘convert’ and ‘extremist’ all serve as additional descriptors to
dehumanize and differentiate groups and individuals that they describe. It is worth noting that ‘cleric’ applies
to any member or influential figure within a clergy, and can be used in definition for other faiths, it is mostly
recognized in the definition of members of the Muslim faith; more often than not individuals that hold
extreme or eccentric views. The orientalist line continues when ‘Islam’ is presented and an option for ‘and/or’,
of which ‘Christianity’ produces the largest results, similarly followed by ‘independence’ and ‘Judaism’. This
supports the underlying themes of the ‘us’ versus ‘them’ mentality. Adjectives the predicate ‘Islam’ are;
‘wicked’, ‘suspect’, ‘cruel’, fervent’ and ‘difficult’, all compellingly negative words.
Islamic
Once again, when ‘Islamic’ is framed as an adjective the nouns and verbs modified by it are acutely negative.
Although the word ‘state’ which is the most common is not usually perceived as a negative word, in the
context of following ‘Islamic’ creates the connect of terrorism and fear through association with the terror
organization Islamic State (other names include; ISIS/ ISIL/ Daesh). ‘Extremist’, ‘Fundamentalist’, ‘hardliner’
and ‘militant’ are also picked up by sketch engine as commonly modified nouns and verbs. Words such as
these present the image of a violent threat, pertaining more to combat than to a religion. In the description of
‘Islamic’ ‘and/or’ the results garner pejorative words; ‘strict, ‘radical’, ‘extremist’ and ‘terrorist’ are all present,
and quite highly on the list for the first three.
Muslim
Both in the state of adjective and ‘any’ word options, the results reflect that of ‘Islam’ and ‘Islamic’. The only
main difference is in the occurrence of the commonality of ‘woman’ as a noun modified by ‘Muslim’ and
‘moderate’ as a modifier of ‘Muslim’. For the latter, this is important as it is continuing the occurrence of the
orientalist line; it urges on the importance of differentiation and carries the sense that the word ‘Muslim’
carries negative connotations and needs to be extricated by this modifier. It carries that notion that Muslims
are so inherently different that they need to be categorised in order to understand the level of their actions as
Muscovici’s theory of social representation suggested. As for the emphasis on ‘Woman’ this is important
when it comes to reviewing the presence of causality as there is a preponderance of female victims is
Islamophobic hate crimes compared to males. As a criticism of Orientalist theory in relation to issues such as
this, many post-structuralist and feminist thinkers criticize the lack of consideration of intersectionality within

Orientalism; for cases such as this where an individual is not only discriminated because they are an ‘oriental’
but also because of their presented gender.
3.3 Results Overview
1. There has been a definite increase of the Reporting of Muslims in both headline and main body
articles. Headline articles have seen a 517% increase from 129 headlines in 2000, to 796 in 2016; with
the highest reporting year being 2006 with 1045 headlines. Main body articles have seen an increase
of 253% from 2183 articles in 2000, to 7702 in 2016; with the highest reporting year being 2015 with
8362 articles.
2. Headline reporting had the highest increase in reporting with the Sun yielding a 10800% increase and
the Daily Mail and The Daily Telegraph obtaining 2154.55% and 552% respectively. All publications
increased, except the Independent which saw an 87.69% decrease from 2000-2016.
3. Main body reporting also increased with the Daily Mail, the Sun and The Daily Mirror seeing the
biggest increases with 4944.44%, 1644% and 166.82%. The Independent was the only paper to see a
decrease over the 16-year period of 84.64%.
4. July 2005 holds the highest amount of main body articles, September 2000 the lowest with 12.
5. October 2001 had the most headline articles, September 2000 the lowest with 3.
6. The Daily Telegraph, the Guardian and the Daily Mail had the highest percentages of headlines with
21.12%, 21.11% and 18.64% respectively.
7. The Guardian, Daily Mail and The Sun obtaining the highest percentages of main body articles with
21.11%, 18.58% and 16.63% respectively.
8. Of the sample pool, the publications most partial to the publication of anonymously authored
content consist of two tabloids, The Daily Mirror and the Sun and one broadsheet, the Independent.
9. The publications of the most negative/positive/neutral headline articles are as follows;
i. Negative – The Sun (75%)
ii. Positive – The Daily Mirror (20%)
iii. Neutral – The Guardian (41%)
10. There are overwhelmingly more negative headline articles about Muslims (118) and neutral headline
articles (60), than there are positive ones (20)
11. The most populous year for negative articles (14/118) is 2006, positive (6/20) is 2015 and neutral
(8/60) is 2007.

Chapter Four
4.1 Causality
The persistent negative representation and ‘irresponsible reporting’ of Islam in the British media creates
cumulative extremism (Littler and Feldmen, 2015) for individuals and groups ensuing anti-Muslim hatred. Awan
and Zempi (2015) argue that certain ‘trigger events’ are what influence the growth and/or occurrence of hate
crime and that the way in which events are framed within the media has an impact on the way in which these
events are received by high risk individuals. Of course, it is probable that this is not the aim of journalists and
publishers who may indeed “unwittingly provide Islamophobic motivation for anti-Muslim hate crimes”
(Githens-Mazer and Lambert, 2010). Hargreaves (2016) study into risk and resilience amongst Muslim
communities found that Muslims expressed knowledge of a “media depictions and […] further discrimination”.
Hargreaves continued that the groups recognized hostility directed by the media and “anticipated the risk”
(Hargreaves, 2016) that commonly follows; something that Burt, Simons and Gibbons (2012) had explored in
the way that Muslims have “preparations for bias” against them. This, paired with the accusation of tabloid hate
speech by UN Human Rights Chief Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein, presents a predilection of causality between what
is written in the British press and the negative stereotyping, which may potentially escalate to verbal,
psychological and physical violence towards Muslims. ‘Nabeela’, a respondent in Awan and Zempi’s 2015
study expressed knowledge of this direct link, saying; “I experience anti-Muslim hostility from people based on what
they read in the Daily Mail” (‘Nabeela’; quoted in Awan and Zempi, 2015). Considering that 18.64% of stories
and 18.58% of headlines in this studies data were representative of Daily Mail stories, this has a huge impact;
particularly alarming when the paper claimed the second highest figure for percentage of its headline stories
being negative (62%) and the lowest number of Headline stories being positive (3%). This is also
accompanied by an almost 5000% increase in the reporting of stories pertaining to be about ’Islam’ and over
a 2000% increase in headline stories from 2000-2016. Muslim women are more likely to be attacked than
Muslim men as they appear more ‘visibly Muslim’ (Tell MAMA, 2015). There is also the assumption form
assailants that Muslim women are passive, powerless and oppressed, therefore easier to target (Awan and
Zempi, 2015).
4.2 Recommendations and Conclusions
The Study recommends the following;
i. Newspapers need to be held accountable for their actions on a much wider scale; this needs to
include more stringent guidelines on the publication of anonymously authored articles and the
publication of public letter and opinion pieces. It should be recognised that even if it is obvious that

content is that of an individual’s opinion, the editors have still decided to publish it, inline with the
publications stance on a particular topic. A review of the official complaints procedure would benefit
the system to provide impartiality to any reported cases. More serious fixed penalty fines as an
example.
ii. An overhaul of the reviewing panel of the IPSO to remove any individual who benefits personally
from the decisions that are made in reference to all complaints. Whilst the study understand that an
element of expertise is needed, it also believes anyone currently (or recently) employed by any
reviewable publication is deemed unsuitable to provide commentary to the IPSO as they cannot
claim to be completely impartial.
iii. Retractions and apologies issued by publications should be promoted and presented in a much more
obvious fashion.
iv. There needs to be an employment of a more balanced viewpoint (Awan and Zempi, 2015) within the
media. Muslims and minority voices should have fair representation on all platforms, rather than the
faux representation that currently takes place to benefit the publication.
v. The implementation of a better structure in place for educational institutions to;
a. Learn about minority groups and the diversity of the British public – in hope to decrease
Allen’s 2015 statistic that 64% of the British public rely solely on the news media to provide
them with knowledge about Muslims.
b. Aide the understanding of linguistic consequence and the implications this has on real world
situations.
c. Give individuals and groups the support they need to understand and report instance of anti-
Muslim- hate, whether in written form in the media, or as a direct action to themselves.
d. Provide a better understanding of all rights and freedoms, especially freedom of expression;
but also, the responsibilities that accompany freedom of expression.
vi. The study proposes recognition and support from the government to campaigns such as
#stopfundinghate for their work in adopting positive methods of change in some of the nation’s
most popular tabloid papers when it comes to reporting Muslims, minorities and refugees.
Whilst the paper recognizes freedom of expression and freedom of the press it is evident that these freedoms
may be infringing on those who identify as Muslim in the UK. The paper recognises the salient nature in
which Islamophobic language and discourse has entered the British media and continues to circulate in a
blasé fashion. There is a lack of accountability for publication, and this dissonance for consequence has led to
an indefinite increase on the reporting of Muslims and Islam in the British media. The evidence suggests that
the main increase lies within a negative framing of an article, whilst positive and neutral frames have remained
constant. The study has garnered similar results to other studies in line with it; the general ongoing message
being that yes islamophobia and the misrepresentation of Muslims is rife within the British Press.

Appendices

Percentage of headlines per paper
8%
21%
16% The Guardian

The Daily Telegraph
Daily Mail
The Independent
The Sun
15% 21%
The Daily Mirror
19%
Percentage of stories by paper.
10%
21%
The Guardian
17%
The Daily Telegraph
Daily Mail
The Independent
17% The Sun
The Daily Mirror
16%
19%

Year Stories contating the world Islam or Muslim Percentage of total Percentage value of sample pool of 2000 Story selection
2000 2183 2% 40 1 per 55
2001 5257 5% 100 1 per 52
2002 4200 4% 80 1 per 53
2003 4540 4% 80 1 per 57
2004 6498 6% 120 1 per 54
2005 7616 7% 140 1 per 54
2006 8667 8% 160 1 per 54
2007 6435 6% 120 1 per 54
2008 5005 5% 100 1 per 50
2009 6265 6% 120 1 per 52
2010 6333 6% 120 1 per 53
2011 6728 6% 120 1 per 56
2012 5970 6% 120 1 per 50
2013 7008 7% 140 1 per 50
2014 7913 7% 140 1 per 57
2015 8362 8% 160 1 per 52
2016 7702 7% 140 1 per 55
106682
% Increase 253%
Year Headlines containing the world Islam or Muslim Percentage of total Percentage value of sample pool of 200 Headline selection
2000 129 1% 2 1 in 64
2001 604 6% 12 1 in 50
2002 358 4% 8 1 in 45
2003 377 4% 8 1 in 47
2004 548 5% 10 1 in 55
2005 736 7% 14 1 in 53
2006 1045 10% 20 1 in 52
2007 601 6% 12 1 in 50
2008 528 5% 10 1 in 53
2009 633 6% 12 1 in 53
2010 638 6% 12 1 in 53
2011 477 5% 10 1 in 48
2012 454 4% 8 1 in 57
2013 665 7% 14 1 in 48
2014 654 6% 12 1 in 55
2015 883 9% 18 1 in 49
2016 796 8% 16 1 in 46
10126 Remainder 1% due to rounding to whole percentages
% Increase 517% There is a 2 story deficit due to the 1% deficit in rounding of percentages.

1045 2007 601 2008 528 2009 633 2010 638 2011 477 2012 454 2013 665 2014 654 2015 883 2016 796
2000 129 2001 604 2002 358 2003 377 2004 548 2005 736 2006 1045 2007 601 2008
53 Jan 73 Jan
Jan 57 16 Jan Jan 45 Jan 7 67
Jan Jan 25 58 Jan Jan 31 34 Jan Jan 33 30 Jan Jan 28 71 JanJan 14053 Jan
Jan 10973 Jan
158 Feb 93 Feb
Feb 61 10 Feb Feb 56 Feb 6 24
Feb Feb 27 53 Feb Feb 27 24 Feb Feb 37 26 FebFeb 42 20 FebFeb 97158 Feb
Feb 4193 Feb
48 Mar 33 Mar
Mar 32 17 Mar Mar 73 Mar 9 76
Mar Mar 20 55 Mar Mar 29 33 Mar Mar 37 68 MarMar 33 44 MarMar 5348 Mar
Mar 7933 Mar
17 Apr 36 Apr
Apr 50 5 Apr Apr 50 Apr 13 52
Apr Apr 28 35 Apr Apr 49 45 Apr Apr 27 66 AprApr 79 42 AprApr 5817 Apr
Apr 9636 Apr
25 May 32 May
May 47 15 May May 49 May 7 55
May May 20 51 May May 40 24 May May 74 51 MayMay 59 27 MayMay 3225 May
May 7832 May
56 Jun 31 Jun
Jun 48 7 Jun Jun 53 Jun 6 60
Jun Jun 48 23 Jun Jun 30 14 Jun Jun 56 36 JunJun 90 18 JunJun 7556 Jun
Jun 4331 Jun
92 Jul 78 Jul
Jul 53 6 Jul Jul 45 Jul 18 48
Jul Jul 19 32 Jul Jul 36 12 Jul Jul 63 39 Jul Jul 59205 JulJul 7392 JulJul 5678 Jul
151 Aug 43 Aug 37 7 Aug Aug 55 Aug 19 58
Aug Aug 31 43 Aug Aug 26 18 Aug Aug 55 57 AugAug 53115 AugAug 24151 Aug
Aug 8643 Aug
118 Sep 32 Sep 37 3 Sep Sep 41 Sep138 46
Sep Sep 33 33 Sep Sep 88 45 Sep Sep 95 50 SepSep 73 77 SepSep 63118 Sep
Sep 5432 Sep
192 Oct 52 Oct 50 26 Oct Oct 49 Oct 214 52
Oct Oct 38 24 Oct Oct 29 41 Oct Oct 76 37 OctOct 55 38 OctOct 39192 Oct
Oct 4752 Oct
91 Nov 48 Nov 28 11 Nov Nov 52 Nov128 69
Nov Nov 37 43 Nov Nov 49 38 Nov Nov 57 55 NovNov 52 51 NovNov 7891 Nov
Nov 5148 Nov
44 Dec 50 Dec 28 6 Dec Dec 65 Dec 39 Dec
31 Dec 32 27 Dec Dec 20 49 Dec Dec 55 33 DecDec 31 28 DecDec 15144 Dec
Dec 5650 Dec
.08333 Average: 50.08333 Average: 44 10.75 Average: Average:
52.75 50.33333 Average:
Average: 53.16667 Average:29.8333339.75 Average: 31.41667
Average: 37.83333 Average: 45.66667
Average:55.41667 Average: 61.33333
Average: 66.33333 Average:
[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY

256 The Guardian 171 The Guardian
Guardian 125 37 The Guardian
The Guardian 134 The108
Guardian 135 The Guardian The Guardian100 86 The Guardian
The Guardian 104 90 The Guardian
The Guardian104 218 TheTheGuardian
Guardian 97213 TheTheGuardian
Guardian 100256 The Guardian 171
TheGuardian 62 The Guardian
graph
182 The Daily Telegraph
113 The
The Daily
Daily Telegraph
Telegraph
124 25 The DailyThe
Telegraph
Daily76Telegraph The204 The Daily Telegraph
Daily Telegraph
165 The Daily Telegraph
82 120 The Daily Telegraph
The Daily Telegraph
106 86 The Daily
The Daily Telegraph
Telegraph
174 78 TheTheDailyDaily Telegraph
Telegraph
130149 TheTheDaily Telegraph
DailyTelegraph
162182 The
TheDaily Telegraph
113
DailyTelegraph
163 The Daily Tel
146 Daily Mail 147 Daily
Daily Mail
Mail 113 0 Daily MailDaily Mail192 Daily11Mail 150
Daily Mail Daily Mail 9 96 DailyDaily
Mail Mail 74 20 DailyDaily
MailMail 127 40 DailyDaily
MailMail 177 84 Daily
DailyMail
Mail 253146 Daily
DailyMail
Mail 248 147 Daily Mail
ent247 The Independent 57 The Independent
The Independent 42 65 The Independent
The Independent 38 The228 The Independent
Independent 34 The Independent
127 27 The Independent
The Independent 28 125 The Independent
The Independent 42 139 TheThe Independent
Independent 49168 TheTheIndependent
Independent62247 The Independent
The Independent 578 The Independ
114 The Sun 63 The
The Sun
Sun 67 2 The Sun The Sun142 53
The Sun The
116 Sun The Sun 12 106 The Sun
The Sun 100 21 The
The Sun Sun 154 33 The
The Sun Sun 121 58 The
The SunSun 224114 The Sun
TheSun 21863 The Sun
ror 100 The Daily Mirror 50 The
The Daily
Daily Mirror
Mirror 57 0 The DailyThe
Mirror
Daily51Mirror 0 The
The Daily Mirror 38 Daily Mirror
The Daily Mirror
28 42 The Daily
The Daily
MirrorMirror 42 35 The Daily Mirror
The Daily Mirror 64 40 The Daily Mirror
The Daily Mirror 80 64 The Daily Mirror
The Daily Mirror 82100 The Daily Mirror
The Daily Mirror 9750 The Daily Mir
33
2008
2000 5005
2183 2009 20016265 5257 2010 6333
2002 4200 2011 6728 2003 4540 2012 5970 2004 6498 2013 7008 2005 2014 7913
7616 2006 20158667 8362 2016
2007 7702
6435
Jan
Jan 403238 Jan Jan 535 161 Jan Jan 693 Jan
354 Jan 545 Jan 355 Jan 374 Jan 452 449
Jan Jan 626 424 Jan Jan 500 1227 Jan Jan 938
640
Feb
Feb 537156 Feb Feb 453 167 Feb Feb 445 Feb
264 Feb 746 Feb 355 Feb 477 Feb 361 458
Feb Feb 414 338 Feb Feb 984 736 FebFeb 457
670
Mar
Mar 357214 Mar Mar 593 180 Mar Mar 650 Mar
316 Mar 697 Mar 355 Mar 531 Mar 607 404
Mar Mar 490 416 Mar Mar 542 751 MarMar 627
404
Apr
Apr 485165 Apr Apr 544 182 Apr Apr 456 Apr
308 Apr 583 Apr 355 Apr 557 Apr 722 453
Apr Apr 439 553 Apr Apr 428 530 AprApr 487
401
May
May 421189 MayMay 438 154 May May 512 May
396 May 643 May 355 May 567 May 610 898
May May 470 756 May May 408 456 MayMay 800
477
Jun
Jun 409136 Jun Jun 608 174 Jun Jun 442 Jun
310 Jun 385 Jun 355 Jun 453 Jun 497 550
Jun Jun 364 983 Jun Jun 584 648 Jun Jun 767
609
JulJul 480163 Jul Jul 485 211 Jul Jul 604 Jul
294 Jul 539 Jul 355 Jul 441 Jul 528 787
Jul Jul 1463 799 Jul Jul 815 661 Jul Jul 631
794
Aug
Aug 409164 Aug Aug 462 213 Aug Aug 486 Aug
297 Aug 654 Aug 355 Aug 466 Aug 515 765
Aug Aug 1026 887 Aug Aug 1079 353 AugAug 693
506
Sep
Sep 390129 Sep Sep 473 1040 Sep Sep 489 Sep
419 Sep 536 Sep 355 Sep 680 Sep 610 770
Sep Sep 628 849 Sep Sep 914 569 SepSep 590
425
Oct
Oct 390294 Oct Oct 564 1368 Oct Oct 465 Oct
495 Oct 521 Oct 355 Oct 530 Oct 495 534
Oct Oct 584 810 Oct Oct 1080 568 Oct Oct 473
453
Nov
Nov 361189 Nov Nov 550 867 Nov Nov 591 Nov
406 Nov 480 Nov 355 Nov 528 Nov 581 399
Nov Nov 632 591 Nov Nov 776 843 NovNov 607
530
Dec 500 Dec 399 541 Dec 507 632

Dec 363146 Dec Dec 560 540 Dec Dec 341 Dec Dec 355 Dec 366 Dec 520 Dec 480 Dec Dec 557 1020 DecDec 526
Average:
Average: 417.0833
181.9167 Average:
Average: 522.0833438.0833 Average: Average: 527.75 Average:
350 560.6667
Average: Average:
355 497.5
Average: Average:541.5 584
Average: Average: 634.6667 659.4167 Average:Average: 696.8333
722.25 Average:
Average: 641.8333
536.25
180.25 - December:
Average (excluding September
Guardian
TheGuardian
The 1419549 The Guardian
The Guardian 1511 1175 The GuardianThe Guardian 1311 The Guardian The Guardian
913 1400 The Guardian
993 1159
The Guardian The Guardian
1842 1156
The Guardian The Guardian 2239 1207 The Guardian 2142 1109
The Guardian Guardian
Guardian
TheThe 756
1644
Telegraph
Daily Telegraph
TheDaily
The 859510 The Daily Telegraph
The Daily 1085
The Daily Telegraph
Telegraph 671 1482 The Daily Telegraph The Daily Telegraph
948 Telegraph
The Daily1372 The Daily Telegraph
1136 TelegraphThe Daily1036
942 Telegraph The Daily 1249 The Daily Telegraph
The Daily Telegraph 1228 1300 Daily Telegraph1326 1201
The DailyTheTelegraph Telegraph
Telegraph
DailyDaily
TheThe 1203
1074
Mail
DailyMail
Daily 1000 45 Mail Mail
DailyDaily 1803 215 Daily Mail Daily Mail 1494 Daily Mail Daily Mail1444
124 Mail
Daily266 Mail
Daily1156 Daily Mail653 1395
Daily Mail Daily Mail 836 2105 Daily MailDaily Mail 1223 2498 MailMail
DailyDaily 2270
1293
Independent
TheIndependent
The 565957 The Independent
The Independent 502 1893 The Independent The Independent581 601
The IndependentThe Independent
1369 721
Independent The Independent
The1310 The Independent
1527 The Independent
630 Independent
The 1761 623 The Independent
The Independent 2001 681 Independent
Independent
TheThe 147
964
Sun
TheSun
The 601122 The Sun
The Sun 1255 492 The Sun The Sun 1286 The Sun
397 The Sun 1231 The Sun
429 1254
The Sun The Sun 640 1705
The Sun The Sun 772 1754 The Sun The Sun 1016 2036 SunSun
TheThe 2128
622
Mirror
Daily Mirror
TheDaily
The 561 0 The Daily MirrorMirror 523
The Daily The Daily Mirror576
0 The Daily Mirror 680
The Daily MirrorThe Daily Mirror
449 The Daily
600 Mirror The Daily Mirror
544 Mirror The Daily 800 The The Daily Mirror780
873 Daily Mirror 924 Daily Mirror 959 837
The DailyTheMirror Mirror
Mirror
DailyDaily
TheThe 1198
838
34
LETTER: Mainstream society and Muslim views Rashed Akhtar The Independent 2005 3
Christianity
Islam, Headline (Headline)
and the ties that bind us Andreas WhittamAuthorSmith Paper
The Independent 2005 Year 3Assessment
Car row Muslims in a Jam
Al-Qaida urges Muslims to come to Pakistans aid: Bin Ladens deputy calls for help in al-Jazeera video: US forefront of rescue efforts as winter looms Declan Walsh n/a The Guardian The Sun 2005 20001 1
British Muslims take Path
Muslims march over cartoons of the Prophet to jihad: Kasmir Terror group claims suicide bomber was from Birmingham Kate Connolly Jeevan Vasagar and Vikram Dodd The Guardian
The Daily Telegraph 2005 20001 1
Sausage Letters:
'sorry'toNew Approach to Islam and Immigrants
Muslims n/a Tara Mukherjee The Guardian 2005
The Daily Mirror 20001 3
Muslim in
Gay magazine parents
race row mosques
andafter callingare to blame,
Islam a barmysays Hindu leader
doctrine Patrick BarkhamAmit Roy 2006
The Guardian The Daily Telegraph 20011 1
Protecting
Newspapaers Muslims
challenge while rooting
Muslims out Islamists
over cartoons Daniel Pipes suggests ways in which Western governments can fairly handle the terroist menace
of Mohammed David RennieDaniel Pipes The Daily Telegraph
On the brink of war: Backlash:
Free speech? Labour cares more about the Muslim vote British Muslims despair over extremists: Racists and Islamists exploit tragedy Jeevan
Matthew d'Ancona Vasagar The Guardian
Bertie's Muslim Visit
Have they captured the Butcher of the Balkans? ; THE NET CLOSES IN ON THE GENERAL WANTED OVER MASSACRE OF 8,000 MUSLIMS David Williams Bertie Ahern Daily Mail The Sun 2006 20013 3
School's on Afghanistan:
Strikesdress
AirMuslim win British Muslims - Hardline group faces rapid eviction and a Scotland Yard Investigation n/a Paul Waugh and Robert Verkaik
The Sun The Independent
2006 20011 1
TERROR Attack
RAID:on THE Afghanistan:
BACKLASH ; In 'nothing
Asbrief: Muslims urged to boycott
more dangerous than anUSasprin' is found at suspects' house, Muslims radical leads call fro a protest n/a Williams and Rebecca
Ben Taylor, David Mail
Camber
Daily The Guardian 2006 20011 3
Muslims Ankara's
have lostMuslims police -join
faith insoldiers poll campaign in Turkey n/a Amberin Zaman 2006
The Guardian The Daily Telegraph 20013 2
TakingEU for a ride 'must
us Muslims fully' Europe
Towers wedding
; Altonintegrate couple told they willhave to split up to go on attractions they've been doubled-booked with a Muslim fun day Chris Brooke Ambrose Evans-PritchardDaily Mail The Daily Telegraph
2006 20011 1
Top cop Muslims
Five muslims killed in the fighting
Britishwarning n/a Thomas Harding The Sun 2006
The Daily Telegraph 20011 1
Targeting
Lerrer:Islam, musicMuslims
and me Pop - When
foronsecurity checksCat Stevens became a Muslims, he was advised that making music was forbidden. So what led him to return to the recording studio? Farheen KhanNeil McCormick The Independent 2006
a time of
Love inMuslim tolerance
clerics must ;be The latest in
trained Barry Unsworth's vivd historical novels brings to life a golden age of Muslims-Christian pertnership. BOYD TONKIN meets him at his home in Umbria
of Britain Boyd Tonkin Muslim P. Salamat The Independent 2006
Home HowNewsaIN BRIEF:
Scot turned Muslim pupils
his back onare this article
fight for;Islam;
UK totolerant'
the'more Terror (RED) edition
from therevealed
is suspect of 21 September
of The Independentproduct
as university-educated 2006,
of a middle home
classguest n/a
designed by Giorgio Armani. Half the Revenue from the edition will be donated Fund to Fight
GlobalGardham
to theDuncan The Independent
Richard
and Aids Price Daily Mail 2006 20022 1
Far-right calls for
party cleric
Muslim Jews toofjoin
accused war on
inciting Islam
murder Stephen Castle Audrey Gillan The Independent
The Guardian 2006 20023 1
Back Brisit is Islam,
This values lose grants, Kelly tells Muslim groups
or Ma'am Toby Helm Jane Kerr The Daily Telegraph 2006
Leading Article:
DIRTY BOMB Muslims
THREAT: in Britain:
SECURITY: Speak freely
Targer but carefully
America: the simple device for causing an explosion of panic ; US alarm after revelation that former street gang member who turned Islam is suspect in planned al-Qa'ida n/a attack Andrew Gumbel The Guardian The Independent2006 20023 1
A family divided
LETTER: A grandmother
by faithshould
Muslims condemnisHamas struggling with her daughter-in-law who has converted to Islam. But is religion really the only problem in their relationship? Lesley GarnerHarvey R Cole The Daily Telegraph 2006
The Independent 20021 1
Muslims warning
Proud to beforBritPopeMuslim n/a Joe Ahmed-Dobson The Sun The Sun 2006 20021 2
Yard wants
Islamic on flag-burning
bancleric 'held as terror in crackdown
suspect' on demos by extremists: Calls for firm action after Muslims' cathedral protest: Opinion divided over 'get tough' measures Hugh Muir Alan Travis The Guardian The Guardian 2006 20021 1
Anglican Bishop
British criticises
Muslim, held under
22, Muslims 'victimhood' ; Home
anti-terrorism News IN BRIEF
laws n/a Chris Gray The Independent 2006
Muslims 'refuserival
Muslim anti-MRSA
in cola war soap' ; Exclusive John Troup n/a The Sun 2006
Muslims victimised over mosque plan
Faith &Reason: on the brink of war no one seems to understand muslim fears ; Western leaders - including the new Archbishop of Canterbury - are sending out bad signals. They risk feeding extremism and violence inFuad Malcolm Moore British mosques
Nahdi The Daily Telegraph 2007
Younger Muslims 'radical' n/a The Daily Mirror
War in the Gulf: Bringing aid and the Bible, the man who called Islam wicked: Evangelists Fears that US Christians will inflame the situation Matthew Engel The Guardian 2007 20031 3
The burqini ; Two-piece that lets Muslim beach girls get in the swim Richard Shears Daily Mail 2007 3
The Guide: PREVIEW food: Jeremy Wayne tries flavours from the Muslim world in the week of Milad Al-Nabi Jeremy Wayne The Guardian 2003 2
Muslim Girl, 12, loses court battle for right to wear veil in lessons Joshua Rozenberg The Daily Telegraph 2007 1
Jailed Muslim cleric issues defiant message Alex Spillius The Daily Telegraph 2003 1

Kelly woos Muslim hearts and minds Steve Doughty Daily Mail 2007 3
Home: Kurd who slit daughter's throat in 'honour killing' is jailed for life: Muslim father of girl, 16, who had relationship outside her religion, subjected her to months of beatings before stabbing her repeatedly Vikram Dodd The Guardian 2003 1
International: Pope movesto dampe Muslim fears over inter-faith dialogue John Hooper The Guardian 2007 3
Muslims asylum seekers 'convert to Christianity to stay in UK' ; Iranian's court victory could create back door into Britain, says judge Matthew Hickley Daily Mail 2003 1
Who's who in Muslim politics David Blair The Daily Telegraph 2007 3
Five killed in Hindu - Muslim rioting n/a The Independent 2003 1
We Muslims are now guilty until proven innocent ; EDITORIAL £OPINION Yasmin Alibhai-Brown The Independent 2007 3
Divisions on Kurdistan and role of Islam delay agreement on interim constitution Michael Howard The Guardian 2004 3
Your LIFE: WE LOVE TELLY! - DOCUMENTARY SHE'S A THOROUGHLY MODERN MUSLIM BBC1 11.15PM Jane Simon The Daily Mirror 2007 3
Staking out suburbia, why police moved quickly after a long watch: Neighbours fear new anti Muslim backlash in wake of arrests Rosie Cowan and Tania Branigan The Guardian 2004 1
Isreal: Brighter future for Arabs and Jews in the school that teaches peace: New $11m home for 410 pupils from Muslim, Jewish and Christian backgrounds Rory McCarthy The Guardian 2007 3
A black and white case of US injustice ; Jose Pailla was a devout Muslim, born on the wrong side of the tracks. White, middle-class John Walker Lindh shared his religion but little else. Examines their unequal treatment Rupert the law
Cornwell
before The Independent 2004 1
AN OUTRAGE THAT SHOULD SHAME ALL MUSLIMS Saira Khan Daily Mail 2007 1
Why judge Muslims by the actions of a few
Sister of Terrorist Scot has picture of Muslim hitman on Bebo website extremists?' Tim Bugler n/a Daily Mail The Independent
2007 20041 3
Bridge opens but Mostar remains a divided city: Though Lord Ashdown
Credit card chief quits over joke at Muslims' expense Staff complain at 'wholly inappropriate' remark has imposed unity on the Bosnian town, Croat and Muslim politicians continue to scheme Richard AlleyneIan Traynor The Guardian
prayer call
MuslimMUSLIM RANT' AIDE IS SACKED
is 'un-English' n/a n/a The Daily Mirror
AROUND uslimTHEwho refused
WORLD..: to fighttoinmeet
Muslims loses appeal
Iraq Pope n/a David Pallister The Guardian 2008
Cabinet CHOCHALAL
split on 42-day ; First Muslim
terror chocolate
detention bar on sale
as Commons for 45p
defeat looms: Straw fears extra tensions in Muslim community: Home secretary keen to convince backbenchers David HenckeRuki Sayid 2008
The Guardian The Daily Mirror 20041 3
Suburban All Muslims
G2: Sydney shows are the as
notside
dark sameMuslim school row gets vicious Kathy Marks David Aaronovitch The Guardian 2008
Muslim's rob row
Met faces race claim from senior Muslim officer: Yard's No 3 man set to sue force for discrimination: move will add pressure to police chief Blair Vikram Dodd n/a The Guardian The Sun 2008 20043 1
HynterLeaders and Muslims
offending
'is afraidofofJews Muslims' aim to halt extremism Colin Randall
Tim Walker Edited The Daily Telegraph
by Richard Eden The Daily Telegraph 2008 20051 2
We need Comment
more Muslim&Analysis: Islam, race
babies..then British
can take
we and overidentity
BritainReligion is returning to rhe heart of political debate for the first time in over a generation. How should we respond? Anthony France,n/a Vince Soodin The Sun The Guardian 2008 20051 3
threat
Chef sues
MuslimTerror fromfor
police 'very many'
asking himMuslim pork says Met chief
to cookMen, John Steele
Charlotte Gill,Caroline Grant Daily Mail The Daily Telegraph
2008 20051 1
Muslims2005:
BritishElection Islamists
are heading intostep up campaign
a ghetto to stop Muslims
We are allowing voting
the growth of a parallel Islamic state, says Damian Thompson Damian ThompsonAudrey Gillan and Vikram Dodd
The The Guardian 2008
Daily Telegraph 20051 1
Comment Muslim woman
&Debate: allianceatof
Anstrikes repression
values: While taboo-breaking
withgovernments erotic
stand mute,bestseller
Muslims must unite with the majority to resist the violence done to Gaza Tariq Ramadan Jon Henley The Guardian The Guardian 2009 20053 1
Banned7/7:from war On Britain:
Britain, DutchNo campigner of all Muslims
be waryIslam
need to against Ruki Sayid
Ben Russel, Vanessa Mock The Daily Mirror
The Independent 2009 20053 3
Calm for Muslims
Letter: Muslims' duty to confront hatred Anonymous Cherry Mosteshar The Sun 2009
Watch your sons, Muslims police chief tells parents ; SHADOW OF TERROR Stephen Wright Daily Mail 2005 1
Muslim Women Jermey Clarkson The Sun 2005 1
35
Rebel' imam's victory in Muslim libel court case Tom Whitehead The Daily Telegraph 2009 1
BBC offers Pounds 30,000 and an apology over Muslim protest 'slur' Paul Revoir, Abul Taher Daily Mail 2009 3
Muslim kill threat man is detained Stephen White The Daily Mirror 2009 1
Work: A working life: The imam: Compass points: As a leader of Bath's Muslims, Rashad Azami faces unending duties in a cramped mosque.But that, as Leo Benedictus finds, doesn’t cramp his style. Leo Benedictus The Guardian 2009 2
International: Muslims make up a quarter of worlds population, survey on Islam shows: Religion is practised by 1.57bn people, says study: Only one in five followers livesin the Middle East Peter Beaumont The Guardian 2009 3
Law Scalded by 'Muslim' prison gang Anonymous The Daily Mirror 2009 1
National: Balls hits back in row over funds given to Muslim schools Patrick Wintour The Guardian 2009 3
Religion: British Muslims feel the most patriotic in Europe Riazat Butt The Guardian 2009 2
I get lonely …I imagine day Muslims rule whole world Simon Hughes The Sun 2009 1
La Plante: BBC would take muslim boy's script over mine Prime Suspect creator bemoans drama commissioning process Neil Midgley The Daily Telegraph 2010 3
G2: Shortcuts: Science: The Muslim scientists who changed the world Jim Al-Khalili The Guardian 2010 2
Head fell ill as council gave in to Muslims Anonymous The Daily Telegraph 2010 1
Madeleine
National: Campaign 2010: Inside story: A small revolution: the British Muslim who could make history: Salma Yaqoob could become Britains first Muslim woman MP. The hijab-wearing Question Timestar and Candidate Buntingparty talks to Madeleine
for the Respect Bunting
The Guardian 2010 2
Most people in Britain assosciate Islam with terrorism, poll shows Anonymous The Daily Telegraph 2010 1
Ministers dismantle pounds 60m project to prevent violent extremism: Plan had lost confidence of Muslim communities Control orders and stop and search to be reviewed Alan Travis The Guardian 2010 1
MINISTER: BURKAS EMPOWER WOMEN James Slack Daily Mail 2010 3
Fifth of Americans polled think Obama is a Muslim: Majority of president's own supporters doubth his faith Opponents accused of spreading misinformation Chris McGreal The Guardian 2010 3
RC school first to turn Muslim Richard Moriarty The Sun 2010 3
Primed to kill by the jet ink bomber Mike Sullivan The Sun 2010 1
MUSLIM ARTIST CASHES IN ON 7/7 BUS HORROR Brian Flynn The Sun 2010 1
Friend of 7/7 victim in air rage outburst about Musims Anonymous Daily Mail 2010 1
The Islamification of Britain: record numbers embrace Muslim faith Jerome Taylor, Sarah Morrison The Independent 2011 1
King to meet with Muslim Brotherhood Anonymous The Independent 2011 1
Muslim fined for burning poppies Rob Hastings The Independent 2011 1
Front: Death of Bin Laden: UK reaction: Muslim community: Worshippers voice support and disbelief Rajeeb Syal The Guardian 2011 3
Christians more militant than Muslims, says equality chief Daniel Martin Daily Mail 2011 1
Breastfeeding mother told: You will upset Muslims Anonymous The Daily Telegraph 2011 1
MUSLIM LADS PAINTED BURKAS ON SEXY ADS Mike Sullivan The Sun 2011 1

These men did their duty as proud British s Muslims' ..we salute their sacrifice Richard Smith The Daily Mirror 2011 2
Sbihi skips fasting, but will deliver 1,800 meals Simon Briggs The Daily Telegraph 2011 2
MILLY KILLER CHANGES NAME TO MOHAMMED Jeremy Armstrong The Daily Mirror 2011 1
Muslims clash with Chinese riot police n/a The Daily Telegraph 2012 1
Hatred tearing a town apart Nick Francis The Sun 2012 1
Muslim gangjailed for girls' kidnap and rape Katherine Faulkner Daily Mail 2012 1
G2: Hideously Diverse Britain: Another case of scapegoating Islam Hugh Muir The Guardian 2012 3
Muslim converts held over 'Olympics plot' Duncan Gardham The Daily Telegraph 2012 1
It's my Sharia right to have a lover, says Muslim 'lord' in divorce fight n/a Daily Mail 2012 1
Muslim hate film producer jailed n/a The Daily Mirror 2012 1
Muslims made me feel like pariah, says chef Hannah Furness The Daily Telegraph 2012 1
Parents sue school that banned daughter's Muslim Headscarf Graeme Paton The Daily Telegraph 2013 1
Muslim wins fight to keep blessing on house n/a The Daily Telegraph 2013 3
Independence, not Islam, has driven Chechnya's rebels Shaun Walker The Independent 2013 3
Dead victim of gangland gun battle was Muslim cleric's son Gavin Madeley Daily Mail 2013 1
Dictators, power and the blame for Muslim strife Hussein Moloobhoy Daily Mail 2013 3
The sectarian cleansing of Homs Ruth Sherlock The Daily Telegraph 2013 3
Muslim women in my court must lift the veil, says judge Rebecca Evans Daily Mail 2013 3
SQUADDIE BECOMES Muslim woman James Beal The Sun 2013 3
Best looking muslim win n/a The Daily Mirror 2013 2
PM: Muslim women should remove their veils in court Peter Dominiczak, James Kirkup The Daily Telegraph 2013 1
Muslim pork fears delay flu vaccine n/a The Daily Telegraph 2013 1
36
The Muslim patrol Enforcer Christ Greenwood Daily Mail 2013 1
ABDUL…THE ONLY MUSLIM IN THE EDL Paul Sims The Sun 2013 1
Muslim Patrol' vigilanted jailed for assaults in east London Sam Jones The Guardian 2013 1
Muslim trio to be released n/a The Daily Mirror 2014 3
Rigby killer's final frenzy of violence David Barrett The Daily Telegraph 2014 1
25-school islam fear n/a The Sun 2014 1
Dozens of schools toget superheads after probe into 'Muslim takeover' Laura Clark Daily Mail 2014 1
Student stabbed 16 times may have been targeted for wearing Islamic dress Daily Mail
Andrew Levy, Sam Marsden, Arthur Martin 2014 1
Special Report: Intolerance at the heart of city's Trojan horse schools: Left unchecked, pupils' education would be skewed by hardline Islam, says report Patrick Wintour The Guardian 2014 1
HSBC accused of Islamophobia over Muslim account closured Chris Green The Independent 2014 1
Im UK's only gay Muslim drag queen Anila Baig The Sun 2014 3
Saudis may rish Muslim division with proposal to move Mohamed's tomb Andrew Johnson The Independent 2014 3
Jihadists are about to murder a caring, devout Muslim, says freed French captive Ruth Sherlock The Daily Telegraph 2014 1
Racist ripped off Muslim woman's niqab outside shop Grant McCabe Daily Mail 2014 3
Peer blames Muslims for pub closures Steven Swindon The Daily Telegraph 2014 1
Merkel condemns anti-Muslim protest Andrew Marszal The Daily Telegraph 2015 3
Javid: 'Lazy and wrong' to deny link to Islam Steven Swinford The Daily Telegraph 2015 1
Journal: Letter: Jews and Muslims for justice and rights Yiftah Curiel The Guardian 2015 2
Gun range in Muslims ban n/a The Daily Mirror 2015 1
Religion: Love thy neighbour - mosquesopen their doors for the day to reach out and reassure: Tours and talks aimed at giving balanced view of Islam to loval communities Peter Walker, Dominic Smith The Guardian 2015 2
What are the prospects for BritishMuslims? James Kirkup The Daily Telegraph 2015 3
No 10 block Muslim Brotherhood report n/a The Daily Telegraph 2015 1
WEDDING SERVICE Brian Flynn The Sun 2015 1
Has Brit dad taken family to join ISIS? Martin Fricker The Daily Mirror 2015 1
Muslim Council of Britain says government hampering anit-Isis efforts Vikram Dodd The Guardian 2015 1
Young Brit Muslims send loud Martin Phillips The Sun 2015 2

TWO Muslim converts slashed the […] n/a The Sun 2015 1
Loyalist band and Muslim join forces n/a The Daily Mirror 2015 2
British son of Islamist hate preacher is executed by Isil for leaving the Muslim faith n/a The Daily Telegraph 2015 1
The free world needs a real leader now Charles Krauthammer The Daily Telegraph 2015 3
YOU AIN'T NO MUSLIM, BRUV' TRENDING ON TWITTER n/a The Independent 2015 2
Trump in call for U.S. Muslim Ban n/a The Sun 2015 1
Let's focus on all the peaceful, loving Muslims Atif Rashid Daily Mail 2015 2
US police arrest Muslim convert over plot for a New Year's Eve terror attack David Lawler The Daily Telegraph 2016 1
PM: Muslim mums must integrate to defeat extremism Jack Doyle Daily Mail 2016 1
You're wrong Trevor, we don't want to change Muslims.. they want to change US n/a The Sun 2016 1
Barack Obama uses mosque visit to call for rounded Muslim characters on TV David Smith, Nigel M Smith The Guardian 2016 3
Deradicalising Britain: the activists turning young Muslims away from extremism Rachel Shabi The Guardian 2016 1
BIN THE BURKINI! Yasmin Alibhai-Brown Daily Mail 2016 1
Islam hat in Citizan Khan' n/a Daily Mail 2016 1
Mayor Khan slams Trump's 'ignorant' Muslim ban plans Jack Blanchard The Daily Mirror 2016 3
Schools urge Muslim pupils to break Ramadan fast for exams Javier Espinoza The Daily Telegraph 2016 1
ISLAM INSULTED n/a The Sun 2016 1
Muslim woman held over book on Syrian art n/a Daily Mail 2016 3
French mayors defy call to drop Burkini ban David Chazan The Daily Telegraph 2016 3
Fury at Muslim school's bid to censo Ofsted Eleanor Harding Daily Mail 2016 1
Convert ordered killing of Muslim cleric n/a The Daily Telegraph 2016 1
Muslim cleric is 'relieved' at end of threat Niall O'Connor The Sun 2016 1
Muslims are failing to integrate because men keep marrying abroad Steven Swinford The Daily Telegraph 2016 1
37
1 2 3 Total No Author/ Anonymous 1
The Sun 21 2 5 28 10 35.71% 2000 2
The Guardian 19 7 18 44 4 9.09% 2001 7
Daily Mail 20 1 9 30 4 13.33% 2002 6
The Independent 13 3 10 26 6 23.08% 2003 6
The Daily Telegraph 36 3 11 50 10 20.00% 2004 5
The Daily Mirror 9 4 7 20 11 55.00% 2005 8
118 20 60 Negative 2006 14
The Sun 75.00% 2007 4
1=Negative The Guardian 43% 2008 6
2=Positive Daily Mail 67% 2009 4

3= Neutral The Independent 50% 2010 6
The Daily Telegraph 72% 2011 7
The Daily Mirror 45% 2012 7
Positive 2013 7
The Sun 7% 2014 8
The Guardian 16% 2015 9
Daily Mail 3% 2016 12
The Independent 12% 118
The Daily Telegraph 6%
The Daily Mirror 20%
Neautral
The Sun 18%
The Guardian 41%
38
Daily Mail 30%
The Independent 38%
The Daily Telegraph 22%
The Daily Mirror 35%
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[Islam in the

[Stephanie Cargill] [100354092]

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 1

IV. Chapter Two ............................................................ 9

V. Chapter Three ......................................................... 21

VI. Chapter Four ......................................................... 26

VII. Appendices ............................................................ 28

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 2

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 3

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 4

Petley and Richardson (2011)

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 5

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 6

(Editors Code of Practice, IPSO, 2017)

a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others;

Article 20. 1) Any propaganda for war shall be prohibited by law.

2) any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to

(Un General Assembly, ICCPR, 1966)

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 7

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 8

Main sources of information include;

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 9

 Datasets and visual graphs were garnered from these results.

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 10

Limitations of this methodology include;

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 11

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 12

(Poole, 2002; Poole and Richardson, 2006)

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 13

(Stanistreet, quoted in Jones, 2015)

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 14

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 15

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 16

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 17

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 18

2.4 Theoretical Framework

1. Muslims are portrayed as terrorists

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 19

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 20

3.1 Primary Data Analysis

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 21

Number of articles containting either 'Muslims' or 'Islam'.

hugely to. It is also of note that the combined

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 22

results. The common denominator is 1 2 3

3.2 Language Analysis.

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 23

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 24

3.3 Results Overview

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 25

4.2 Recommendations and Conclusions

The Study recommends the following;

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 26

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 27

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 28

16% The Guardian

Percentage of stories by paper.

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 31

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY 32

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY

[ISLAM IN THE BRITISH MEDIA FROM 2000-2016] - 6IR999 – INDEPENDENT STUDY