!
lntroduction
I loot at the sentences about Sri Lanka. First,
underline the keg words Iexcluding ondJ that
connect together the ideas in each sentence
words that could be used for the same purpose
in a text on something completelg different.
Then put the words into three groups, according
to whether theg add information, express
: 062 i oz connecrors
The effective use ofconnectors such as also, so,
because, while, and in spite o/gives a logical flow
to your writing, linking ideas within and between
sentences. Connectors normally come at the beginning
- or in the middle of sentences.
. In sþite of the poor performonce of the economy, the
gouernment managed to retain a small majority in the
general election.
. Some doctors oppose the plonned changes to the
health seruice because they belieue that the new
system will require them to spend too much time
managing resources rather than treatíng patíents.
In this unit, a wide range of useful and common
connectors is divided into seven types.
I
1
Other units that cleal with connectors are unit
2 Comparing and contrasting, unit 5 Relatiue clouses,
unit 8 Being emphatic, unit 12 Cause ond effect, unít
17 Condítionols, and unit 20 Cohesion.
fÏiF Connectors are also known as tonnectives',
'linking' or 'connecting' words, and 'conjunctions'
 ffi Expressing reasons
and results
7.1 studg
1 Reasons: because (ofl , as, since, due to, owing to
Words like because, cs, and since are used to give
reasons for actions and events. Because is normally
placed in the middle of the sentence, where it tends to
introduce new or important information.
. The company website failed because uisitors found
too dfficult to nauigate.
As and since often come at the beginning of sentences,
introducing a reason that may be known already, and
leaving the more important information for the end of
the sentence.
. The f,rst fire occurred on a weekend. As/Sínce the
office was empty at the tíme, there were no injuries.
Before nouns you can use because o/or, particularly at
the beginning of sentences, due to and owing to.
. The car wos recalled because of a design fault in íts
brakíng system.
. Owíng to/Due to the recession, most retaílers haue a
recorded a sharp downturn in quarterly profits.
2 Results: as a result, consequently, therefore
As a result, consequently, and therefore all have the
same meaning. They are used to introduce the results
of actions, decisions, etc.
. The gouernment u)as hoping that lísteners would
switch from analogue to digital rodio well in aduance
of the deadline of 2012. As a result/Consequently/
Therefore, a series of aduertisements were plonned to
highlight the oduantages of digital transmission.
. So/es rapidly declined and as a resultlconsequentlg/
therefore Bailey Brothers were forced to close their
factones.
Note that it is also possible to place consequently and
thereþre in the middle of sentence. In the example
above, you could write: ... the deadlíne of 2012. A series
of aduertísements were consequently/therefore planned ..,
See unit 12 Couse and effect for more examples of os a
result, consequently, and thereþre.
a
:1 *:
il
5l s
'l +
Ã'
1 Ê
;l
'a,
*5
'¡l f,
TI
a oZ Connectors
Ël frF
lÏiF There are more emphatic alternatives to some of
the words and phrases above:
t As, since, andbecause may be replaced by due to the
fact that or owing to the fact that.
z As a result, consequently, and therefore may be
replaced by for this reason and that is why.
It is advisable, however, not to overuse these alternatives.
3 Results: so ... (that)..., such... (that)
You can use both ofthese structures to express results;
ít so comes before an adjective or a quantifier (e.g. many,
few), andsuch before a noun, or adjective + noun.
. The discussíon on the locotion of the new factory
tooh so long that there was no time left to agree on
its design.
. The conference organízers employed so few staffthat
delegates had to queue for at least on hour to register.
. The online ordering system created such confusion
that a consultant was brought in to redesígn it.
. There wos such a high demond for the new product
that supplíes to retoilers soon ran out.
It's also possible to use so on its own, but it may
sound a little informal in the context of an essay.
Here is an example from a presentation.
. €Þ In fact, the frst attempt to change the law
on copynght was unsuccessful, so the Labour
gouernment of the time redrafted their btll.
7.1 test Uourself
A Complete each sentence with one or two words.
1 Rises in the price of oil cause inflation and,
as there is upwards pressure
on pay.
2 Due the increase in rents, many of
the area's tenants are being forced to move out.
3 Older information is stored offsite
-,
of a lack of space within the main office.
4 A small business might not have an HR
department; the owner may have
to take care of personnel issues.
5 Internet marketingcan automatically measure
its own success websites provide
convenient access dat¿.
-
6 Owing to tïat the first few
perfonnances attracted very small audiences, the
showwas cancelled at the end of its firstweek.
-
...""""'i
i 063 :
(
B Rewrite the information as one.sentence, us¡ng
the connecting word Is) in brackets.
I The pressure of water was very great. The
dam broke. (so ... that)
2 The nuclear facility was damaged by the
tsunami. The local area had to be evacuated.
'
(for this reason)
i 3 Most of the bridges:iq the:-{egiqn,have a very
strong structure. They can suwive serious
earthquakes. (such)
4 The business had m¿de a late surge in sales.
The redundancy programrûe was cancelled.
(since)
5 Her first novel was very successful. She
immediately gave up her job. (such)
6 . There were many complaints. The company
withdrew the product; (so ... that)
æl Expressing purpose
7.2 studg
You can use all of the following structures to express
purpose: to + infinitive, in order (not) to + infinitive,
so as (not) fo + infinitive, and so (thot) + clause.
To + infinitive can be used in the middle of a sentence,
and also, in spoken English, at the beginning. In
written English, howeveç in order (not) to is preferred
at the beginning of a sentence.
. The expedition was equipped wíth tools to build
bridges across the smaller riuers.
.9 To demonstrate the declíne in the rate of these
major íllnesses, I'm goíng to show you two grophs.
. In order to understandthe causes oftheinfection, a
teom of scientists began a series of lab-oratory tests.
In order (not) to and so os (not) to are often used
in spoken and written English as more formal and
emphatic connectors than to. So os not fo is less
common.
. We need to deuelop a new product ín order to extend
our market reach. (=... so ds to extend ...)
. You will need to wear a mash and gloues ín order
not to contamínate the euidence. (= so as not to
contaminote...)
I 064 : oz connectors
You can use solhaf ..., often with a modal verb such
as can, could, wtll or would, to replace any of these
structures with no change in meaning. Note that the
subject needs to be restated and can change after
so that.
. We will need to launch the product by October in
order to gain an edge on our competitors.
= We will need to launch the product by October so
thot we can gain an edge on our competitors.
.
Ç I'll fnish my presentation by 10.45 so that you'll
be able to start the meeting at 11.00.
läF When using order towhen there is a change of
ri,r
subject, þr goes before the subject.
. I'll fnish my presentation by rc.45 in order for you to
be able to startthe meeting at u:oo.)
7.2 test Uourself
Correct each sentence bg adding one word.
1 Paper frles need to be organized and labelled
that st¿ff can fìnd what they need easily.
2 Moresby has taught two chimpanzees sign
language in to communicate with them.
3 Meerkats use a special type of call let other
members of the group know that a predator is
nearby.
4 In order demonstrate the safety of a new car, a
number of tests are carried out.
5 The machinery was switched off in order
mechanics to repair a number of minor faults.
6 The team had to carry out their observation
with caution so as to disturb the nesting birds.
ÍB Expressing contrast
7.3 studg
L But, olthough, euenthough, though
Although and euen though link ideas that seem to
contrast with each other. They are both more emphatic
thanbut.
. The team carried out a series of experiments, but they
were unable to isolate the genetic material.
, Althauglt/Euen though the company has expanded,
ít hasn't yet increased its profit morgin.
. Our staff is hauing dfficulty wíth the new computer
progrom, olthouglt/eaen though they haue receiued
ertensiue trainíng.
In written English, though is normally only used in the
middle of a sentence. In spoken English though can
go at the beginning, middle, or end of sentence. When
it goes at the end, the two contrasting ideas occur in
separate sentences.
. Strindberg is mainly hnown as a playwrþht, though
he also produced a number of innouatiue paintings.
' Ç Though I'm enjoying my course, ít's hard work.
: I'm enjoying my course, though it's hord worþ.
: I'm enjoyíng my course. It's hord worh, though.
2 In sþite of, desþite
In spíte of and despite are similar in meaning and
position (beginning or middle of a sentence) to
although/euen though/though, but the grammar is
different. You can use them with a noun/pronoun or
-ing form of a verb.
. Aoron Brothers are on track to breah euen ilesþíte/in
sþite of mahíng losses in the first quarter
. costs to the state, the care of the oldest
Desþíte/In sþite of the evidence presented by expert
scientísts, some commentators still questíon the
existence of global warming.
However, you can make them act in the same way as
olthough by adding the fact that.
. In sþíte of the fact that/Although he wos already
profoundly deaf, Beethouen continued to compose.
. The company mode an ouerall profit desþíte thefact
that sales fell sharply in the autumn.
3 Howeuer, while/ whereas
Howeuer is useful at the beginning or the end of a
sentence in writing or formal speaking to present an
argument against something.
. The Dictionary of the English Language was not
Samuel Johnson's only major work, howeuer.
More than twenty-five years after it appeaîed, for
example, Johnson published the six-uolume Lives
of the Great Poets.
. The UK høs certainly built more roads. Howeuer,
it is the train system that hos a greater need for new
inuestment.
Note that it inthe
is also possible to place howeuer
middle of a sentence. In the example above, you could
wúte The UK has certainly buílt more roads. It is the
train system, howeuer, that has ...
While and whereas are both rather formal, and are
often used for making comparisons.
. WhíldWhereas NATO was created as an allíance
against Communist power; the UN was established to
keep the peace between nations.
See unit 2 Comparing and controstingîor words and
phrases for expressing contrast, including dissimilar,
diffe7 dffirence, in contrast to, and on the contrary.
7.3 test Uourself
Circle the correct option.
1 In spite of/Although we doubled our order from
the wholesaler, w.e still ran out of supplies.
2 Offrcial attendance figures for the protest stand
at 5,000. It is clear, whereas/however, that the
true frgure is much higher.
3 Despite/Even though the product winning
design awards, few people seemed to know
about it.
4 Several economists have recommended a cut in
interest rates, however/though this may cause
inflation.
5 While/However children clearly incur medical
members of the community is considerably
more expensive.
6 A number of breach of copyright cases have
been brought to court. Although/Despite this,
the amount of illegal online copying seems to be
rising.
7 The interest rate on UK government bonds is
2.2o/o even though/whereas the rate for French
bonds currently stands at3.Zo/o.
I Some people refuse to accept that global
warming is a threat to our wellbeing, in spite
of/however the scientiûc evidence.
æl Expressing time
7.4 studg
I lime words and phrases
The time words when, wheneuer, while, beþre, after,
untí\, as, as soon as, once, by the time, by/in + date,
and since come at the beginning or in the middle of
a sentence.
. Whenet)er there is excess supply in a marhet, we
expect to see prices falling.
' Van Gogh painted many of his masterpieces whíle he
was liuíng at Arles in Prouence.
. As soon as the strength of the bridge hos been tested,
we can begin planning the opening ceremony.
0Z Connectors
 In sentences referring to the future with two clauses
ñG At 7r st 1= in th e b e ginni n g) is different fr om st/ly
you must use a present, not a future, tense after the fir
(= firstin a list).
time words. . First Atfirx the company's prospects looked good,
. We will try to set up some meetings when we will get
but things rapidly b egan to go wrong.
to New Yorh tomorrow morníng.
At last (= after a long delay) is different from lastly
. As the public wi{l leaue the museum, they wiil be
(= last in a list).
osked to moþe a smoll contribution to its upkeep. . When technícians were la*þ at last able to ídentify the
Note that when the word s¡nce expresses time (rather computer vírus, the network could be protected.

than a reason, see page 063),youwill normally have Finally can mean 'at iast' or'lastly'.
to use a present perfect tense before it.
. This hospitol wae@ has been insþected fiue 7.4 test gourself
times since it was opened in 1gg4.
A Circle the correct option.
2 Sequencing events 1 The engineering team continued to test the
engine by the time/untit they found the fault.
You can use a number of words to order information
2 We will have a question-and-answer session
by time. Some of the most common are:
frst(ly), before we finish/witl finish.
second(ly), etc., then, next, ofter that, at the same time,
3 The government received/has received six offers
finally/ostly since the centre was turned over to the private
. Fírst, you start the engíne. Then/Nøct you press the
sector.
accelerotor. Then/Next, you press the clutch pedal
4 Elcron's sales figures declined in the UK during
wíth your left foot, and hold it
fulty down. After that, the second quarter. Subsequently,/Meanwhile,
you moue the gear leuer into
first geor; ond let the export income for the same period rose
clutch pedal up until you hear the engine noise change
dramatically.
slíghtly. This change means that you are ot the bíting
5 The construction of the new museum r¡ras
poínt. Finolly, after checking that it is sofe to moue,
eventually/afterwards completed in 2009.
you release the hondbrake ond, at the same tíme, Iet
6 When the new wing of the hospital witl be/
the clutch pedol come up o little more. The uehicle wíll
is opened, it will provide bed space for j00
begín to moue off additional patients.
3 Otherwords and phrases
B Complete the text, using one of the words
In the meontíme (which is common in spoken English) - or the phrase in the box in each space.

andmeanwhile both mean,while something else is 0ne word/phrase is not needed.

happening'. Afterwards and subsequently mean, after last then

at same first lastly
that' and euentuaþ means ,after alonger period next after
of time'.
. Q) Jeff wíII now prepore the room for his
From wood chips to paper
presentotion. In the meantíme, sholl we tohe a coffee
, the wood chips are mixed with
break? t
water and acid.
. Caroline Carman become the Morketing Director in
they are heated
and crushed to a heavy pulp. 3
2005, and the CEO shortly aftmlords, ouerseeing
that, the wood pulp is cleaned, and, at the
the merger with Stapleton plc. Subsequently, she
time, chemically bleached to
whiten it. s------
was appointed as o non-executiue director of seueral
it is passed through
choritíes. Euenfually, on retírement, she began a
rollers to flatten it, producing sheets of wet paper.
second career os on author and monagement guru. 6
, the sheets are dried to rìiake the
finished paper.

66 ! oz connecors
 ÍE Expressing additional
inform ation
7.5 studg
1 Apart îrom and, the commonest words which express
additional information are also, os well (as) , andtoo.
The most frequent of these in writing is o/so.
. We will discuss the decline in Britain's manufacturing
base, and we will also consider some of the measures
the gouernment is taking to arrest this decline.
As well and foo are normally used at the end of
sentences in spoken English.
. @ Although most of my presentotíon will focus on
English cathedrals, I'll discuss one or two examples
from Fronce os well/too.
The phrases os well os and in addition fo are followed
by the -íng form of a verb or by a noun.
, As well as/In addítion to eating smaller flsh, the tiger
shark has been þnown to consume weaker members of
its own famíly.
. ran for two years in the West End, and it
Barrow and Wilson sells antíque furniture as well as/
ín addition to rare and first edition books.
2 These other connectors all have the same basic
meaning, and can add emphasis and variety to your
writing: in addition, moreouer, furthermore, what ís
,
more, not only ... (but) olso.
Learners of second longuages often haue to fit classes
around their full-time jobs. In addition,/Moreouer,/
Furthermore,/What is more, they moy be required to
show euidence of their progress by taking exams.
' Frídtjof Nansen was not onlg an explorer and
scíentist, but slso a renowned humanitarian.
In order to give greater emphasis, you can begin your
sentence with not only ...If you do this, you need to
invert (= change the order of) subject and verb and, if
there is no auxiliary verb (be, haue, will, etc.) present,
you must use a form of do.
, Not only was Frídtjof Nansen an explorer and
scíentist, but also a renowned humanitarian.
Or ... (but) he was also a ...
, Not only saeeeede*J{aftEeft did Nansen succeed ín
crossíng Greenland from east to west, (but) he also
managed to gather informatíon on the Eshimos.
I
(See page 076 in unit 8 Beíng emphafic for more
:
information on emphatic inversion.)
;
7.5 test Uourself
Rewrite the sentences, following the instructions
in brackets.
1 Charles I lost the Battle of Naseby, and was
also forced to give up his croü/n. (start with
As well as ...)
2 The company lvas declared bankrupt, a'nd the
CEO was imprisoned for fraud. (use moreouer
and write two sentences)
3 Edison patented many new inventions, and
he also developed systems for the mass
distribution of electricity. (start with NoÚ
only ...)
4 The University of Nottingham has its main site
in the UK, and campuses in Semenyih, Malaysia
and in Ningbo, China. (start with In addition
to ifs...)
5 The centre's research will increase our
understanding of the brain, and it may also
help to fight diseases such as cerebral palsy.
(startwith Not onlY ...)
6 The National Theatre's production of Hamlet
toured in India, Australia, and Canada, winning
several awards. (use what ís more and write two
- sentences)
Íß Using part¡c¡ples to
connect ideas
7.6 studg
For economy, and to maintain the flow of your
sentences, you can use participle clauses to link two
ideas that have the same subiect.
. Lincoln's Electricals needed to expand abroad to
maíntaín theír market share. They bought a small
factory outside Paris.
--+ Needing to expand abroad to maíntain their marhet
share, Lincoht's Electricals bought a small factory
outside Paris.
. Lab workers began their tests, hoþing that they would
find the source of the food poisoning by the weekend.
The perfect participle is used for completed actions.
, Ilauing read out a statement, the Chíef Supenntendent
ínuited questions from i ournalísts.
0Z Connectors 67
 You can use a past participle to replace a passive
. verb.
Penicillín was díscouered in 1929. It prouided a cure @ Giving examples and
for mony serious diseoses. -+ Discouered in 1929, reph ras ing
penícíllín prouided a cure
for mony serious diseoses.
. Wiften around 1600, Hamletbecome Shakespeare,s 7.7 studg
most famous trogedy.
Some connecting words and phrases may be useful

Present participles can replace subject + main verb

after the time words after , beþre, since and, while.
,
. After ínuestigatíng (= after they had investigated)
to you in indicating that the next part of the text will
give an example, an explanation, a paraphrase, or a
f/re
summary.

couses of the occident,

flight engíneers recommended 1 You can use for exomple, for instonce, e.g., and such
withdrawíng the remainíng Concordes
from seruice. os to introduce an example or examples. For example
. You should talh to the tutor before chongíng (= before
is more common lhan þr instance; e.g. tends to be
you change) your course again.
used for a series of short examples.
. Since leauíng (= since they left) college, 20%o of . Grierson plc made many attempts to enter the
graduates haue been unable to
find worh. American mtorhet. For ínstance, it acquired o small
. While trauelling (= while he was travelling) with the
maíl order company ín Wisconsin in 2009.
British nauy, on the ship HMS Surpri se, the naturolist . Another solution ís to digítíze information, and giue
Maturin wos able to collect rare species of wíld plant. coded access to those who need it. This would mean,

If the meaning is clear, you can also replace connecting for examþle, that the sales teom would houe occess to

words such as because, so, and thereþrewith a all the informotion they might need while on the rood
participle. contacting clients.
o Not being (: Because it isn,t)
. One can soue files on a physicol object such as a hard
far from the centre of driue or on o memory stich, or one con saue them on a
the city, the museum attracts many uisitors.
. The new model of bonk opens on o Sunday, mahing
seruer hosted elsewhere.

(= so it makes) it easier
. Mícronutrients (e.g. chromium, iodine, ond zinc) are
for customers to uísít.
. A uideo link may be set up in court for uulnerable found ín such small quantities ín the body that their
presence moy need to be detected by spectrographic
witnesses such as chíldren, þreuentíng them (= ¿n6
methods.
therefore they are prevented)
from hauing to giue
euídence in person.
2 Thot is to soy, i.e., in other words, and namely
are sometimes used to introduce a definition,
paraphrase or a particular example.
7.6 test gourself . Many countríes depend on primary industries, that
Rewrite the sentences, using the present, past, is to say, industries that
taͿe directly from the eorth
or perfect participle of the underlined verb. or seo.
I The Democrats needed to regain Califomia, so . The hangaroo is a marsupiol, í.e. an oninrul that
they launch"d of aggressive TV ads. suckles its young in a pouch on the mother,s belly.
2 Before he began"ìoi.s
his expeditions, Amundsen . Cors contribute to, and ore symbolic of, what hos
always made meticulous preparations. come to be called the'obesogenic' enuironment we
3 Hans Blix and his team were refused access now find ourselues in. In other words, society and our
to the nuclear facility, ro th.y hrdãreturn to citíes are now shaped in a woy that mokes us líkely to
their hotel. become fat.
4 Because Professor Ancram had worked through . We will looh at four management models, and we
the night, she was able to *nou*. h.r resutl will then exomine how they fit, or faíI to
fit, one
before the midday deadline. orgonizotion, namelg o uniuersíty.
5 After they had exploited known reserves around
the world, oil companies began to look to the
Arctic for new sources of petroletrm.
6 The bridge rises automatically on the approach
of tall ships, and therefore allows them to pass
safeþ through.

i 068 i oz connectors
 3 In brief, to sum up, and in conclusíon can be used to
introduce restatements in summarized form.
.Ç (in a presentation) ... and these ore no more than
a few examples of the airborne pollution that now
ffiicts the mego-cities we haue allowed to deuelop.
We ore, ín brief, poisoning the uery oir that susfoins
our urban liues.
, In conclusíon, ít seems clear that in times of recession
a sígnifcant proportion of inuestors wíll reuert to
traditionally safer holdíngs such as gold.

7.7 test Uourself

Circle the correct opt¡on.
1 The flrst works of many writers, that is to say/
such as D. H. Lawrence and James Joyce, derive
almost entirely from the experience of their own
earþ lives.
2 The list price, i.e./e.g. the price of an article as
listed by the manufacturer, may be subject to
discount by the ret¿iler.
3 Some peoples, for example/in other words, the
French, are renowned for the quality of their
restaurants.
4 An individual has two options when confronted
with a problematic situation, for instance/
namely to change the situation, or to change
themselves so that the situation becomes
tolerable.
5 Namely/To sum up, authenticating paintings has
become a much more reliable process, but can
perhaps never be perfected.

at.'

:l

07 Connectors :069