Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Level C
Open School BC
Solvig Norman, Senior Project Manager
Eleanor Liddy, Director/Advisor
Dennis Evans, Production Technician (print layout, graphics & photographs)
Christine Ramkeesoon, Graphics Media Coordinator
Keith Learmonth, Editor
Margaret Kernaghan, Graphic Artist
Publishing Services
Sherry Brown, Director of Publishing Services
Copyright Permission
The following suppliers have kindly provided copyright permission for selected product images:
Acklands-Grainger Inc.
The Crosby Group
J. Walter Company Ltd.
Lincoln Electric Company
NDT Systems, Inc.
Praxair, Inc.
Thermadyne Canada (Victor Equipment)
The Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
Photo of welder walks the high steel at a construction site, Kenneth V. Pilon, copyright 2010. Used under
license from Shutterstock.com
A special thank you to Lou Bonin and Jim Stratford at Camosun College (Welding department) for assisting
us with additional photographs. An additional thank you to Richard Smith from England, for allowing us to
use photographs of hydrogen bubbles.
Foreword
The Industry Training Authority (ITA) is pleased to release this major update of learning
resources to support the delivery of the BC Welder Program. It was made possible by the
dedicated efforts of the Welding Articulation Committee of BC (WAC).
The WAC is a working group of welding instructors from institutions across the province
and is one of the key stakeholder groups that support and strengthen industry training
in BC. It was the driving force behind the update of the welding learning modules
supplying the specialized expertise required to incorporate technological, procedural
and industry-driven changes. The WAC plays an important role in the province’s post-
secondary public institutions as discipline specialists that share information and engage
in discussions of curriculum matters, particularly those affecting student mobility.
ITA would also like to acknowledge the Resource Training Organization (RTO) which
provides direction for improving industry training in the resource sector and which led
consultation on changes related to the BC welder training program.
We are grateful to WAC and RTO for their contributions to the ongoing development
of BC Welder Training Program Learning Resources (materials whose ownership and
copyright are maintained by the Province of British Columbia through ITA).
Disclaimer
The materials in these modules are for use by students and instructional staff and
have been compiled from sources believed to be reliable and to represent best current
opinions on these subjects. These manuals are intended to serve as a starting point
for good practices and may not specify all minimum legal standards. No warranty,
guarantee or representation is made by the British Columbia Welding Articulation
Committee, the British Columbia Industry Training Authority or the Queen’s Printer
of British Columbia as to the accuracy or sufficiency of the information contained in
these publications. These manuals are intended to provide basic guidelines for welding
trade practices. Do not assume, therefore, that all necessary warnings and safety
precautionary measures are contained in this module and that other or additional
measures may not be required.
P4: Shielded Metal Arc Welding I (SMAW I)
Theory Competencies
Table of Contents
Theory Competency P4-1: Shielded metal arc welding and its applications . . . . . . . . . 7
P4-1 Learning Task 1: SMAW process and its applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
P4-1 Learning Task 2: Safety requirements for SMAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Theory Competency P4-3: Low-carbon steel electrodes for shielded metal arc welding . . 89
P4-3 Learning Task 1: Operation of common electrodes for SMAW . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
P4-3 Learning Task 2: Classifications of low-carbon steel electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
P4-3 Learning Task 3: Select common electrodes for SMAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
P4-3 Learning Task 4: Correct handling and storage of common SMAW electrodes . . . . 121
Theory Competency P4-4: Basic weld joint design and weld positions . . . . . . . . . . . 127
P4-4 Learning Task 1: Basic weld joint design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
P4-4 Learning Task 2: Weld types, their sizes and profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
P4-4 Learning Task 3: Welding positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Theory Competency P4-8: Procedures for SMAW on grey cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
P4-8 Learning Task 1: Procedures for SMAW on grey cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Theory Competency P4-10: Guided bend tests: Preparation and testing procedures . . . 255
P4-10 Learning Task 1: Guided bend tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Outcomes
This Theory Competency introduces shielded metal arc welding, or SMAW. SMAW
is a common form of welding that is used in a wide variety of applications, from
shipbuilding to pipelines. The equipment needed and techniques used are relatively
straightforward in comparison with other welding processes.
When you have completed the Learning Tasks in this Theory Competency, you will be
able to describe:
• SMAW process
• power sources for SMAW
• the steps necessary in a welding station inspection
• the dangers of electric shock in welding processes
• the safety rules for operating electric welding power sources
Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in module P4, you will take a
written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions that
are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-1:
• the safety factors, power sources and procedures used with SMAW
Resources
Required: In addition to the required resources contained within this Theory Competency,
you will need to refer to the following resources:
Optional: The following resources are optional and are NOT required to complete this
Theory Competency. The optional resources provide further information on a specific
topic. If you want more information on these resources, please see your instructor.
When the Welder touches the electrode to the workpiece and immediately
withdraws it a short distance, the arc is struck and the electrical circuit is
completed. The current flows through the electrode, across the arc, through
the workpiece, through the ground clamp and workpiece lead and back to
the power source (Figure 1). The metal table may or may not be part of the
welding circuit, depending on the location of the ground clamp.
Electrode holder
Notes Welding
power
source
+ Ground Electrode
clamp Workpiece
–
Workpiece lead
Metal work table
Electrode lead
As this current crosses the arc from the electrode to the workpiece, tremendous
heat is generated—anywhere from 5500 ºC to 6600 ºC (9900 ºF to 11 900 ºF).
The heat melts the end of the electrode and the base metal in the workpiece
directly beneath the arc, forming a pool of molten metal.
As the electrode melts, small particles of molten metal are carried across the
arc stream and deposited in the molten pool on the base metal, forming the
weld deposit. This weld deposit is actually a mixture of the melted electrode
and the melted base metal.
At the same time, the force of the arc digs into the workpiece and provides
the necessary depth of penetration for the weld.
Electrodes
The electrodes used in the SMAW process are coated with a flux. Most
electrodes have a core that consists of a solid metal wire. For some
applications, the core is a tube containing metal powders or other particles.
The metal core conducts the electrical current to the arc and also provides
the filler metal for the weld joint. This filler metal is deposited as the Notes
electrode is gradually consumed and as the Welder moves the arc over the
workpiece at the correct arc length and travel speed.
The coating of the electrode helps keep the arc stable and concentrated on
a precise point on the weld. The chemicals in the electrode coating provide
the shielding required to protect the molten metal from contamination
by the atmosphere. This is where the name “shielded metal arc welding”
comes from.
Applications of SMAW
The SMAW process can meet almost any requirement for welding carbon,
stainless and alloy steels and cast iron. Its uses include manufacture,
construction, maintenance and repair in:
• shipbuilding
• commercial transport and automotive
• industrial and agricultural equipment
• engineering applications
• boiler and pressure vessels
• piping and pipelines
• bridge-building
• building construction and structural applications
To exhaust fan
Non-flammable curtains
on all open sides
Welding
power source
Your inspection of your arc welding station should cover all of the Notes
following points:
1. Make sure that the welding power source is turned off before proceeding
any further.
2. Inspect all cables to make sure that they are free from damage.
3. Use channel iron to cover all cables that have to run across aisles. Wheeled
machines such as lift trucks and pallet movers easily damage cables.
6. Check that the welding booth or temporary screens have no holes that
could expose people to the dangers of arc flash.
7. Check that the ventilation system is working, and that the ventilation
pickup duct is placed so that fumes are removed before they reach the
Welder’s breathing zone. This is very important if a fume extraction arm
is used instead of a canopy (Figure 2).
8. Make sure that there is an insulated hook to hang the electrode holder
on when it is not in use.
Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
1. The mixture of melted electrode and melted base metal created by the
welding current flowing through the electrode and across the arc is called
a. SMAW
b. the weld deposit
c. the short circuit
d. the workpiece
3. In shielded metal arc welding, metals are fused by the heat from an
electric arc that is maintained between the surface of the workpiece and a
a. coated electrode
b. bare electrode
c. neutral electrode
d. carbon electrode
7. The electrical circuit in the SMAW process is closed at the point when
a. the power source is turned on
b. the electrode is inserted in the electrode holder
c. the arc is struck
d. the base metal begins to melt
8. What is the force called that causes current to flow in an electrical circuit?
a. amperage
b. voltage
c. resistance
d. power
9. The electrical pressure or voltage in a welding circuit after the arc has
been struck is called
a. open circuit voltage
b. line voltage
c. arc voltage
d. electrode voltage
Notes
Exposing inadequately protected eyes to the welding arc can cause a burn
called “arc flash.” Even a one-second exposure at a distance of 0.5 m (20 in.)
is enough to burn the eyes. WorkSafeBC recommends a minimum distance
of 12 m (40 ft.) between the welding area and unprotected viewers. See
module P1-2 LT3.
Never look at an arc with the naked eye. If you receive an arc flash,
immediately report it to your instructor. Keep a minimum distance of
12 m (40 ft.) between an arc and the naked eye.
Welding helmets
To protect your eyes, face and neck during arc welding, you must wear a
welding helmet equipped with a dark filter lens. These filter lenses come in a
range of different shades, each with a different number. Your choice of filter
lens depends on the level of current you are using, since this determines the
intensity of the arc. Figure 3 lists filter lens shade numbers recommended
for different current settings. These are suggestions only. If your eyes are
sensitive, you might need a darker lens.
Always check the filter lens in your face shield or helmet before you start
to weld to make sure it is not cracked or broken. If it is cracked or chipped,
replace it immediately.
If you are in a work area where arc welding is being done, always wear
approved safety glasses with side shields as protection from arc flash and
flying debris.
Arc burn
The infrared and ultraviolet radiation that arc welding produces can damage
improperly protected eyes and severely burn your skin. For this reason, you
must wear the proper protective clothing and equipment during SMAW and
other electrical welding processes.
The amount of protective clothing you require will depend on how much
welding you are doing and on the welding positions you use. When you are
welding, all parts of your body must be covered. Depending on the welding
position and type of welding you will do, you will need either full or partial
flame-resistant clothing. This could include jackets, sleeves, aprons, leggings
and anklets. Do not wear synthetics such as nylon and dacron, as they will
melt and cling to your skin as they burn. Your standard protective clothing for
arc welding must also include a peaked cap, leather gloves and safety boots.
Damp conditions
One of the main factors contributing to electric shock (fatal or otherwise) is
dampness. Any dampness between your body and an energized part of the
equipment provides a ground conductor that could carry the current to your
body. The best way to prevent yourself from being grounded in this way is
to make sure that your hands and clothing are dry. Do not weld if conditions
require you to stand in water or on a wet surface. Instead, find a dry board
or rubber mat to stand on.
If you know that the power switch is nearby, disconnect the circuit. If
you do not know where the power switch is or if it is not close by, send
someone else to disconnect the power, and at the same time, send for
emergency medical aid. In the meantime, find some non-conductive
material such as a length of dry wood, some rope or a blanket and
try to pull or pry the conductor from the victim. For more detailed
instructions in the procedures to use in cases of electrical shock, refer
to P1-2 LT2 and go to WorkSafeBC’s website, www.worksafebc.com,
and click on OHS Regulation under the Quick Links.
Fire prevention
The electrical welding processes (such as SMAW) pose as great a fire
hazard as the oxy-fuel welding processes.
In addition, all switches must be clearly marked, all electrical tools and
equipment must be properly grounded, and metal ladders must be kept
away from any source of electrical power.
http://www.worksafebc.com/publications/health_and_safety/by_
topic/assets/pdf/electricity.pdf
Maintenance of equipment
The Welder who is about to use a welding power source is responsible for
making sure that the machine is in a safe operating condition. The wiring,
switches, controls and cables must all be thoroughly checked before use.
Preventive maintenance (such as internal cleaning and lubrication) must be
carried out at regular intervals.
In most welding shops the electrical power for arc welding
equipment is 230 V, 460 V or 575 V. These are high voltages that can
easily deliver severe or fatal shocks. When performing any internal
preventive maintenance work on electrical welding equipment,
observe the following rules:
2. Do not work on main power lines, junction boxes and fuses. Only an
electrician qualified in accordance with the requirements of the Canadian
Electrical Code can do this. The Welder’s maintenance responsibilities
end with the welding power source.
Notes
Figure 4—Lockout
When you connect an electrical welding power source to its main power
supply, it is extremely important to make sure that the main power circuit
is properly grounded. Without proper grounding, any stray current that
develops could give you or another worker a severe or even fatal shock. If
you have one hand on an inadequately grounded power supply in which
a current is flowing and you accidentally touch a grounded metal object
such as a switch box, you become part of the electrical circuit. The resulting
electric shock could be fatal.
Without proper grounding, stray current can also damage cranes, motors
and controls as well as computerized equipment.
Welding cables
Check the cables on a welding power source every time you use it. Never
use electrical current that is more than the rated capacity of the welding
cables on your power source. Not only is this uneconomical but, more
importantly, it causes overheating and rapid deterioration of the insulation.
electrode holder
noTes Your SMAW electrode and electrode holder are a part of the welding circuit.
When the welding power source is on but you are not welding, always be
extremely careful to remove the electrode from the holder so that the live
electrode will not accidentally make contact with the surrounding metal and
cause arc strikes. Arc strikes could result in damage to your work or cause fire
or personal injury.
Your welding booth should have an insulated hook on which to hang the
electrode holder. Always use the hook to prevent a hazardous situation.
electrode stubs
Electrodes should be used down to a stub length of 50 mm (2 in.) or less.
Dispose of these stubs in fireproof metal containers. If you throw them on
the floor they create a slipping hazard. Not containing electrode stubs is
against WorkSafeBC regulations.
Electrode stubs are a worksite contaminant that cause flat tires on equipment,
damage to machinery and electrical short circuits.
Slag
The coating that forms on the top of an arc weld is called “slag.” When it
is first deposited it is very hot. It has to be removed after it has cooled and
solidified. As you chip off slag, make sure that fragments do not hit you or
anyone else.
ventilation
When you are welding in a booth,
make sure that the booth is equipped
to extract fumes at an adequate rate
To exhaust fan
(Figure 5). The air movement must be no
less than 30 m3/min (100 ft.3/min).
Always be sure you know the metallic and chemical composition of the
materials and electrodes you are welding with. You must always be fully Notes
aware of the possibilities of toxic gas fumes in any location. Many toxic
fumes cannot be easily identified by smell, and they can accumulate
undetected in areas where you are welding. You might need to use special
detection equipment to determine whether harmful concentrations exist.
Summary
As you prepare to weld, remember these main safety points:
• Always turn off your welding power source when it is not in use.
• Wear gloves when handling arc welding equipment.
• Keep all equipment dry and do not work in damp or wet conditions.
• Make sure that the workpiece or work table is properly grounded.
• Do not overload the welding cables.
• Remove the electrode from the electrode holder before putting the
holder down.
• Switch the welding power source off when you are finished working.
Self-Test 2
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
1. The first rule to remember when dealing with victims of electrical shock is
a. pry or pull them loose with a non-conductive material
b. avoid touching the victim if he or she is still in contact with the
source of power
c. send someone else to disconnect the power source
d. send for the first aid attendant
3. When you inspect your welding cables before welding and find breaks in
the insulation, you should
a. ignore them
b. replace the cable before work
c. repair them with proper electrical tape
d. flag them for repair after work
5. What is the recommended minimum distance from which the electric arc
should be seen by the naked eye?
a. 8 m (26 ft.)
b. 10 m (33 ft.)
c. 12 m (40 ft.)
d. 14 m (46 ft.)
7. Which lens shade would you use for welding over 300 amps?
a. No. 10
b. No. 12
c. No. 4
d. No. 13
8. What must you check shaded lenses for before you begin to weld?
a. make sure that you have the smoked lens type installed
b. make sure that the seal around the lens is airtight
c. make sure that the lens number is No. 4 or less
d. light leaks from a cracked lens or improper installation
10. Toxic fumes that result from welding are always identifiable by
a. smell
b. taste
c. colour
d. none of the above
11. When your welding power source is on but you have finished welding,
you should always
a. remove your gloves and helmet
b. remove the electrode from its holder
c. disconnect the workpiece lead
d. disconnect the electrode cable
Notes
P4-2
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2
Outcomes
In order to produce an effective and high-quality weld, you must be familiar with
welding equipment and know how to use it correctly.
When you have completed the Learning Tasks in this Theory Competency, you should
be able to identify and describe:
Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in module P4, you will take a
written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions that
are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-2:
• principles of electricity
• types of welding current
• AC and DC welding power sources
• electrode holders
• ground clamps
• welding cables
Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.
Optional: The following resources are optional and are NOT required to complete this
Theory Competency. The optional resources provide further information on a specific
topic. If you want more information on these resources, please see your instructor.
The arc gap itself creates a resistance. Air is not as good a conductor of
electricity. The resistance to current flow across the arc gap is high. The
longer the gap, the greater the resistance that must be overcome. This is an
important factor affecting the quality of a weld.
In a water system, there must be pressure if you want to maintain water flow
against the resistance of the pipes. In an electrical circuit, you need a voltage
to maintain current flow (amperes) against the resistance (ohms) of the
wire. The higher the resistance, the greater the voltage required to maintain
the current. This relationship between voltage, current and resistance is
expressed in Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s law
Notes This basic but important relationship is expressed as follows:
E=I×R
E = voltage
I = current in amperes
R = resistance in ohms
If you know two values in an electrical circuit, you can use this formula to
calculate the third, value as follows:
E=I×R
I = E ÷ R
R=E÷I
Wattage
The total power in any electrical circuit is expressed in watts:
W=A×V
W = watts
A = amps
V = volts
Practical exercise
In this three-part practical exercise, we will find the resistance of welding
leads (cables) and the allowable loss in voltage.
Generally, the maximum voltage loss allowed between the welding power
source and the electrode is 4 V. A loss above this limit will mean that you will
have difficulty welding. If you try to compensate by increasing the settings,
the leads (cables) can overheat.
Part A
1. If a welding lead has a resistance rating of 0.31 Ω per kilometre, what is
the resistance per metre?
0.000 31 Ω/m × 30 m = 0.0093 Ω
E=I×R
Notes
In other words,
volts = current in amps × resistance in ohms
volts = 200 × 0.0093
volts = 1.86
b. If you use the same size of welding cable, but the total length of the
lead is doubled, what would happen to the voltage loss?
c. If you use the same size of welding cable, but the amperage is
doubled, what would happen to the voltage loss?
d. If you use the same size of welding cable, but both the total length of
the leads and the amperage are doubled, what would happen to the
voltage loss?
Aside from developing your math skills, this example shows why you need to
know about electrical resistance and voltage loss. Often Welders working in field
conditions can be the width of a building away and several stories up from their
welding power source. That distance can add up to several hundred metres.
Part B
In this example, you are on a job site 100 m away from your power source.
You have to do weld repairs on some hand railing inside a building. You
expect to be running a maximum of 150 A at 30 V.
Your welding leads are 2/0 gauge (10.5 mm diameter). The resistance is
0.25 Ω per kilometre.
Is the welding lead capable of supplying the required current while keeping
the voltage drop to less than the 4-V maximum?
Part C
In Part A examples 2 and 3, the voltage drop in the 30-m long welding lead
was 1.86 V. Your welding current was set at 200 A.
Using the formula, watts = amps × volts, calculate the number of watts used
up in the cable.
A typical toaster draws 1000 watts of energy. Slightly over a third of the
Notes energy used to brown your toast in the morning would be lost as heat in the
30 m of welding cable. Over time, the cable might get warm, but it would
not be so hot that the insulation would melt or burn off the copper core.
The welding job was approximately 200 m away from the engine-driven
welding power source. To reach that distance, over 400 m of leads had
to be strung, which included many connections. In order be able to weld
with a 3.2-mm (1⁄8-in.) E4918 (E7018) electrode, the Welder had to turn
the current up to 275 A. The normal setting would be 125 A.
With these extreme settings, the welding would be difficult and the cable
connections would eventually overheat. Welding would be affected because
the voltage loss would be greater than 4 V, making it difficult to maintain an
arc. The overheating of the connectors would further increase the voltage
loss and could become a burn or fire hazard.
There are occasions where welding has to take place outside the limits of
good practice, but there is no justification for working outside safety limits
and rules.
Effects of resistance
In arc welding, it is essential to understand the practical effects of resistance.
To weld efficiently, you must maintain sufficient heat in the arc. That means
you must select the correct current and voltage settings.
If you cannot move your welding power source closer to the work, you
might have to add three or four sections to the welding leads to reach the
work location. The increase in lead length will increase the resistance in the
circuit. You will then have to increase the current settings to maintain the
heat of the arc.
Electromagnetism
Many aspects of SMAW and other electric welding processes will be clearer if
you understand the basic principles of electromagnetism and the generation
of electricity. Delivery and maintenance of power in a welding circuit and
how the current flows in that circuit could affect your choice of welding
power source. Your understanding of these principles will also affect how
you connect the circuit components and will help you to recognize and cope
with the problems of arc blow that occur under some circumstances.
Motion of
conductor
Conductor
Magnetic
field
All devices that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy work
on this principle, which is called “Faraday’s law.” In a generator, the
conductor moves through the magnetic field. In an alternator, the
magnetic field moves across the conductors. The principle is the same.
Current flow
+ –
Conductor –
–
+
Magnetic field
This second principle explains the basic operation of the transformer. The
Notes strength of the magnetic field around a conductor is proportional to the
current flowing in the conductor. Winding the conductor in the form of a
coil will produce a stronger magnetic field (Figure 8).
Current flow
+
Power source
–
Coil
Magnetic field
When the flow of current through the circuit of an electromagnet stops, the
existing magnetic field collapses. As the magnetic field collapses, it moves
across the conductor, creating a very brief current flow. The principle behind
the creation of this current is called “induction.”
Transformers
Transformers are a central component of stationary welding power sources.
Transformers use the principle of induction to transform the high voltage
from the main supply (220 V to 575 V) down to safe and usable welding
voltages (18 V to 36 V).
Within a transformer, two coils (or windings) are placed close to one another
(Figure 9). When the current in one coil (called the “primary coil”) is turned Notes
on and off rapidly (as with alternating current), the continually collapsing
magnetic field will induce current in the other coil (called the “secondary
coil”). Depending on the number of turns in the secondary coil, the induced
voltage may be higher or lower than that flowing in the primary coil.
AC input power AC output power
Ammeter
Primary Secondary
coil coil
(winding) (winding)
If the secondary coil has more turns than the primary coil, the induced
voltage will be higher. This is called a “step-up transformer.” If the secondary
coil has fewer turns than the primary coil, the induced voltage will be lower.
This is called a “step-down transformer.”
Rectifiers
A rectifier is a device that changes alternating current (Figure 10) to direct
current. The rectifier does this using a small electronic device called a “diode.”
A diode is much like a one-way check valve in a water line. The diode allows
current to travel in one direction only and blocks the current from reversing.
Notes +
– Time
A single diode allows only half of the AC current to pass. It blocks the other
half (Figure 11). This diagram shows the simple concept of rectifying AC
into DC.
~
AC
+
input
DC
~ output
Inverters
An inverter does the opposite of what a rectifier does: it converts DC current
into AC current. Today inverters are solid-state electronic devices that can be
designed to alternate the current from several times a second to thousands
of times per second. Modern inverters coupled with transformers can be
made to produce almost any form of electrical current desired.
Notes
Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
5. If you add three extra sections to the cable on your welding power
source, the resistance in the circuit will
a. decrease
b. be unaffected
c. increase
d. be reversed
9. If the secondary coil in a transformer has fewer turns than the primary
coil, the voltage of the secondary coil will be
a. higher
b. lower
c. the same
d. lethal
Notes
SMAW electrodes are designed for use with either AC or DC current, and
some types can be used with both. The type of welding current will affect
your choice of electrode.
Alternating current
The flow of alternating current reverses direction 120 times per second. A
complete direction change from zero to maximum volts at one pole, then
back to zero volts and up to maximum voltage at the other pole, is called a
“cycle.” Most electrical utility companies distribute alternating current at 60
cycles per second. This means that 60 times a second, the voltage reaches a
maximum in one direction and 60 times per second it reaches a maximum
in the other direction. The current is said to be operating at 60 hertz (cycles
per second). The symbol for alternating current (AC) is “~.”
Volts
Time
–
1⁄120 sec 1⁄120 sec
1⁄60 sec
Direct current
With direct current, the electrons in a circuit flow steadily in one direction only,
from the negative pole to the positive pole (Figure 16). This type of current is
produced by DC generators, by batteries and by rectifying AC current.
Current
Volts
Time
Polarity
Electron flow in an electrical circuit is always from the negative pole to the
positive pole. The practical effects of this for welding are important with DC
welding current (Figure 17).
Electron flow Electron flow
reverse straight
polarity half polarity half
of AC cycle of AC cycle
– + – +
DCEP DCEN AC
Heat concentrated Heat concentrated
at the workpiece at the electrode
In direct current, the electron flow is in one direction only. Depending on how
Notes you connect the circuit, the current flow can be made to affect the heat of the
electrode or of the workpiece. An additional influence is the type of gas that
makes up the arc plasma and the material that is moving along this path.
For SMAW, the polarity of a DC welding circuit can be used in two ways:
Note that the concentration of heat generated by the arc will depend on
the process being used. For example, in gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW),
where the tungsten electrode is not consumed and the shielding gas is inert,
the heat will be concentrated at the positive side of the arc. This is opposite
to SMAW. The difference is due to the ionization of molten metal and flux
particles across the arc as compared to ionized shielding gas.
– + – +
DCEP DCEN
Arc blow
Notes
Arc blow (or “magnetic arc blow”) is a condition that can occur
when you use a DC welding current. The polarity of the DC circuit
creates a magnetic field that pushes the arc to one side or along
the length of the weld. The arc can be off by as much as 50 mm to
75 mm (2 in. to 3 in.).
When it occurs, arc blow not only makes welding more difficult but can
also make the appearance of the finished weld less attractive. At its worst,
arc blow can cause incomplete fusion, slag inclusion and weld spatter,
resulting in an unsatisfactory weld. With iron powder or other heavily coated
electrodes that produce large amounts of slag, forward blow can cause the
heavy slag deposit in the crater to run forward under the arc.
There are welding techniques for dealing with arc blow. You can reduce
Notes the effect of arc blow by starting your weld from an inner point on
the plate and welding back toward the tack weld at the outside edge
(Figure 19). This procedure can be repeated in a technique called
“back-step welding” (Figure 20).
Start
Tack welds
1 2 3 4 5
Tack welds
You can also use run-on and run-off tabs placed beneath the plate
(Figure 21). These tabs can be tack welded or held firmly by clamping Notes
to make a good connection. The tabs have the effect of extending the
most concentrated part of the magnetic field beyond the end of the weld,
reducing the effect of arc blow in the area of the weld itself.
Tack welds
Figure 21—Run-on and run-off tabs to reduce the effect of arc blow
Self-Test 2
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
Notes
Volt-ampere curve
The relationship between the voltage and the current produced by a
welding power source is usually expressed in the form of a graph that shows
the “volt-ampere curve.” Each time you adjust the power source settings or
change the arc length, you create a new set of electrical characteristics. The
volt-ampere curve will also change to reflect those new characteristics.
32
Voltage
Amperage
Closed circuit voltage
range
2V
high current flow
0
115 130
Amperage
The top left of the curve represents the condition in which the welding
power source is on but no arc has yet been struck. The circuit is open and
the graph shows the full “open circuit voltage” (OCV). This is the maximum
available voltage for the machine at that setting. The OCV can range
between 50 V and 100 V, but is normally around 70 V. Since there is no
current flow, the graph shows the amperage at zero.
At the bottom right of the curve, the graph illustrates the condition in which
the welding electrode is in direct contact with the workpiece. This condition
is essentially a short circuit. There is almost no voltage across the arc, while
at the same time there is maximum current flow. The only resistance is that
from the welding power source, welding leads and connections.
The middle of the curve shows the normal voltage level during welding. This
level is known as the “arc voltage.” It is the voltage required to maintain the
welding arc between the electrode and the workpiece. It is generally in a
range between 18 V and 36 V.
At the startup of the welding process, the sequence moves from maximum
OCV before the arc is struck, to maximum current flow (or closed circuit)
when the arc is struck. Once the arc is established, the current will stabilize
in the arc voltage range during the welding process.
50
40
30
Volts
20
10
0
50 100 150 200
Amperes
Adjusting amperage
The “amperage control” on a constant current welding power source might
also be called “current adjustment,” “current range” or “welding current.”
As you increase the available current level, the slope becomes flatter
(Figure 25). This means that at lower current settings the slope is steeper
and at higher current settings, the slope is flatter.
Notes
Voltage
Amperage
On some CC welding power sources, you can affect the slope of the volt-
amp curve using a high-low range lever. The current level is adjusted with a
rheostat-type dial control.
The volt-ampere curves for different settings of the welding power source
can be shown in a graph (Figure 26). The settings illustrated produce two
quite different slopes. This difference is especially clear in the range for
standard arc lengths. The graph shows why it is important to be able to
control the slope of the volt-ampere curve.
High
OCV Steep curve for flat position
and production welding
Long arc 30
Normal arc 25
Short arc 20
At a higher open circuit voltage (OCV), the slope is steep. A steep slope
means there is little change in amperage regardless of change in arc length. Notes
This is suitable for flat position welding, which requires a more stable current.
At a lower OCV setting, the slope is flatter. A flat slope means that amperage
(and weld heat) will change as arc length changes. This allows the Welder to
control some conditions in the weld pool by changing the arc length. This is
precisely the kind of control needed for out-of-position welding.
To summarize: With a flat volt-amp curve, any change in arc length will
noticeably change the current level. With a steep volt-amp curve, any
change in arc length will cause only minor current change.
Some welding power sources have controls labelled “arc dig,” “crisp and
soft” or “arc force control.” These affect the welding current and will give
you some control over the slope.
Self-Test 3
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
1. In SMAW welding, when you increase the length of the arc, the
a. arc voltage increases and amperage decreases
b. amperage increases and arc voltage decreases
c. resistance and current both decrease
d. resistance and arc voltage both decrease
2. All the possible amperage and arc voltage conditions for each setting on
a welding power source are represented graphically by a
a. flat curve
b. sine wave
c. volt-amp curve
d. variable wave
3. Open circuit voltage (OCV) is the voltage available in the welding circuit
a. before the welding power source is turned on
b. after the welding power source is turned on and before the arc is
struck
c. at the moment the arc is struck
d. after the arc is struck
4. The voltage created between the electrode and the workpiece during
welding is called
a. arc voltage
b. open circuit voltage
c. variable voltage
d. constant voltage
Notes
AC transformers
The AC transformers (Figure 27) used as
welding power sources are known as “step-
down transformers.” They take the line
voltage from the main electrical supply and
bring it down to a suitable voltage level for
welding.
Notes Do not adjust the current while welding if the welding current range
control is a stepped control that makes a clicking sound when you move
it. The electrical switching contacts will be burned if it is switched while
under a welding load. Always stop welding to adjust current settings if
you are not sure.
Transformer/rectifiers
The purpose of a transformer/rectifier welding power source (Figure 28) is to
produce the DC that is required for certain welding operations. The machine
consists of an AC transformer and rectifier circuit.
DC transformer/rectifier control
The current control on a transformer/rectifier is the same as that on
an AC transformer welding power source. Generally, there are coarse
current adjustments in low, medium and high ranges. There are also finer
adjustments to match the current to variables such as electrode type and
size, metal thickness and welding position.
AC/DC transformer/rectifiers
Some transformer/rectifiers can provide both transformed AC current and
rectified DC current. These welding power sources have a switch that allows the
transformed current to bypass the rectifier circuit when you need AC current.
Machines with this capability are called “AC/DC welding power sources.”
more power.
Notes
Engine-driven DC generator welding power source
Most engine-driven DC generators for SMAW have controls for both current
and voltage levels. These allow the Welder to change the slope of the volt-
amp curve. In this way, the Welder can adjust the characteristics of the arc to
suit the requirements of a particular welding task. These power sources are
called “dual-control welding power sources.”
The controls can be of the tapped type, the stepped type or the continuous
control type. The tapped and stepped type controls offer a range of
prescribed settings. The continuous control type allows for infinite setting
adjustment.
On machines with dual continuous type controls, the coarse adjustment dial
(sometimes known as the “job selector dial”) allows for continuous variation
of current level. The second of the two controls allows for fine adjustment
of the current and voltage. By manipulating the two dials together, you can
adjust the slope of the volt-amp curve for any particular current level within
the output range of the machine. It is not recommended to change the job
selector under load.
Inverters
Inverter welding power sources use the frequency converter principle
to produce DC current (Figure 30). Inverters are also called “rectifier-
converters” or “converters.” They work in the following way:
Inverter welding power sources operate in the region of 20 000 hertz. But
their electrical efficiency is still remarkable when compared to old technology.
Inverters can operate on either single-phase or three-phase power.
The use of high-frequency current in the conversion means that all of the
components are electronic. This reduces size and weight and increases
electrical efficiency. A standard transformer/rectifier can lose as much as
55% of the incoming power, while the energy loss with an inverter can be as
low as 15%.
• Energy efficient. Loss is minimal and energy is only used when there is
an arc. The cooling fan is thermostatically controlled.
• Light weight means they can be moved between work sites.
• Small size saves floor space.
• Built-in programs allow a limitless number of custom welding currents.
Many can be connected to a laptop computer and be reprogrammed
for any new welding process developed.
• Arc blow is minimized.
• Many can adapt to any input current from single-phase to higher
voltage three-phase without any adjustment.
• They compensate for slight variations in voltage from the utility.
• The inverter power supply can be engineered to supply all the various
types of current for a multitude of applications. There are now power
sources that do GTAW and PAC. This eliminates the need for two
different power sources.
Multi-operator sets
Notes
In some industrial applications of welding, such as steel mills and shipyards,
a number of Welders must work in a limited space. Rather than overcrowd
the work area by giving each Welder his or her own welding power source,
the units are set on a large rack.
A remote-control current setting device (Figure 31) can be used for fine
adjustment of the current setting within the coarse setting already selected
on the power source.
Current output
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) has established
three rating classes for welding power sources:
Power requirements
Notes Information about the type of electrical line power required by the
welding power source is labelled on the outside of the power source.
If the power source does not come with an attached power cord and
plug, you must have a qualified electrician connect the power source
to the line supply.
Duty cycle
The duty cycle is a way of rating a welding power source. The duty cycle is
the length of time a welding power source can be used continuously at its
rated capacity during any 10-minute period.
Most manual arc welding power sources are rated at a current output of
200 A, 300 A or 400 A and a duty cycle of 60%. This means that they can be
used at their rated current output for 6 minutes out of every 10.
When you are welding, you will also have to spend time doing other tasks,
such as preparing the workpiece, changing electrodes and cleaning and
inspecting the finished weld. This means that operating at a high amperage
setting with less than 100% duty cycle is quite acceptable.
Smaller power sources, such as those used for light industrial or home use,
are normally in the range of 150 A output with a 20% to 30% duty cycle.
The duty cycle rating tells you the percentage of time you can use the
power source at its maximum rated current output. This means that at lower
settings, the power source can be used for a longer continuous period.
Manufacturers usually supply a graph that shows the length of time you can
use the power source at a given current setting (Figure 32).
The graph shows that, at a rated output of 250 A, the duty cycle is 30%.
At 200 A it is 40%, and at 150 A it is 75%. At the bottom end, the graph
shows that at 140 A, the power source has a 100% duty cycle. However, no
welding power source should be used continuously unless it has an official
100% duty cycle.
Exceeding the duty cycle guidelines for a power source will cause overheating
of the internal components and permanent damage.
300 Notes
250
200
Welding amperes
150
100
80
15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
% Duty cycle
• When you are not using your welding power source, follow a storage
procedure that protects it from weather and secondary damage.
• Operate away from grinding dust in cool, clean air to make sure that
proper internal cooling can take place.
• Locate away from weld spatter and sparks.
• Inspect cable connections daily and repair as necessary to reduce
welding circuit resistance.
• Check daily that ventilation openings are not blocked by dust or dirt.
Notes
• Check engine-driven equipment daily for coolant and oil levels as well
as air filters as required in the operating manual.
• Have a shop copy of the equipment manufacturer’s operating manual
attached to or nearby the welding power source.
Most manufacturers supply their product manuals online. Some
manuals are available dating back to the 1940s.
Notes
Self-Test 4
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
5. The main reason inverter power sources are lighter than conventional
transformer/rectifiers is that
a. they avoid the use of a rectifier in their circuits
b. they use aluminum wiring internally
c. they avoid the use of transformers in their circuits
d. they use high-frequency current
6. To convert main line power directly to DC welding current, you would use
Answers
a. a transformer/rectifier welding power source
b. a transformer welding power source
c. a DC generator
d. an alternator
9. A step-down transformer
a. reduces the high voltage coming in to low voltage going out
b. reduces the voltage and amperage
c. reduces the amperage coming in to welding amperage
d. increases the voltage and amperage
10. Which welding power source converts AC line supply to DC, converts it
to a new AC and, finally, converts it back to DC for welding?
a. motor generator
b. transformer/rectifier
c. transformer
d. inverter
11. Which device permits the Welder to avoid having to return to the
welding power source to make fine current adjustments?
a. capacitor
b. diode
c. integrated circuit
d. remote control
13. A welding power source that has a duty cycle of 60% is only able to
a. draw 60% of the available current
b. draw 60% of the available voltage
c. operate at rated capacity for 6 minutes out of every 10
d. operate for 6 minutes out of every 10
15. The current range and polarity switches on welding power sources
should be operated only
a. by a qualified electrician
b. after the arc has been struck
c. when there is no load on the circuit
d. if the machine is shut off
16. To prevent overheating and to reduce wear and tear on welding power
sources, it is important to regularly inspect and service
a. terminals and cable connections
b. air vents and filters
c. coolant and lubricant levels
d. all of the above
The connection between the welding cable and the electrode holder is a
vulnerable point in the welding circuit because it is constantly being flexed
during welding operations. This connection is usually a mechanical one.
You must inspect the connection every time you weld. Make sure that the
connection is tight. Loose connections increase electrical resistance and
cause additional heat. If your electrode holder becomes hot, it means that
you need to check the connection.
Ground clamps
At the other end of the welding circuit is the ground clamp that makes the
workpiece connection. The ground clamp is needed to make the welding
circuit complete. Excessive heat buildup at the clamp indicates welding cable
connection problems similar to those mentioned for electrode holders. Without
a good cable connection, there can be a loss of power through increased
resistance, a risk of fire from sparking and increased danger of electric shock.
There are different types of ground clamps. The most common are the
spring-loaded clamp, C-clamp, rotary clamp and magnetic clamp.
Spring-loaded clamp
One common type of ground clamp is the spring-loaded type (Figure 34).
The advantage of the spring-loaded clamp is that you can easily change
the location of the workpiece connection. You might need to do this when
trying to reduce the effects of arc blow.
C-clamp
The C-clamp (Figure 35) is useful because it allows for a secure connection,
preventing arcing on the base metal and ensuring a solid electrical connection.
Figure 35—C-clamp
Rotary clamp
The rotary clamp (Figure 36) is similar in design to the C-clamp. However, Notes
the rotary clamp has the extra advantage of allowing you to turn the
workpiece without twisting the workpiece lead at the same time. This is a
common requirement when you are welding on powered weld positioners
that rotate the weldment.
Magnetic clamp
A magnetic clamp (Figure 37) has the advantage of attaching quickly
but securely. Magnetic clamps also do not damage a workpiece that has
finished surfaces.
One design of the magnetic clamp switches off the magnetic force to make
relocation much easier.
Cables
Notes
Current is conducted from the welding power source to the electrode holder
and workpiece clamp by cables called “welding leads.” These cables are
normally made of insulated copper wire.
Rubber insulation
Paper
Wires
Cable size
There might be times when you will have to change to a different size of
cable used with your welding power source. The size of cable you should
choose depends on two factors: the welding current and the length of the
welding leads.
The resistance in any conductor and the current flow combined with the
length of the leads reduce the voltage available from the welding power
source. As you learned earlier, this reduction in voltage due to resistance in
the welding leads is called “voltage drop.”
Cable maintenance
Maintenance and care of welding leads is important. Follow these guidelines:
• Protect the leads against hot sparks and weld spatter from your work
or that of nearby coworkers.
• Protect the leads from falling objects and cover them properly if
vehicles will be driving over them.
• Prevent the leads from rubbing against sharp corners that could
damage the insulation and create a fire or shock hazard.
• Use electrical tape to repair minor surface breaks in the welding leads.
Replace any lead that appears to have serious damage.
Cable connections
Welding leads might have connections in any of four places:
Cable to cable
Cable-to-cable connections are used to extend the length of your leads Notes
when you are required to work at a greater distance from the welding power
source. It is also common for Welders to use a “whip.” This is a short length
of smaller diameter cable connected to an electrode holder, and is used to
increase flexibility and reduce fatigue.
Twist-lock quick connectors (Figure 42) are a convenient and practical cable-
to-cable connection. To connect, simply push the two connectors together
and twist. To separate, twist, then pull apart. These usually attach to the
cable ends with a mechanical socket and set screw similar to the electrode
holder connection.
Notes
Self-Test 5
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
1. The two most common types of electrode holders are the jaw type
and the
a. spring type
b. twist-head type
c. clamp type
d. jig type
6. The paper cover around the wire in the electrode cable is designed
to provide Answers
a. greater flexibility
b. greater current flow
c. greater insulation
d. all of the above
7. To select the proper size of welding cable for a particular job, you need
to know the
a. length of lead required and the type of welding power source
b. length of lead required and the type of current used (AC or DC)
c. length of lead required and the current level desired
d. type of welding power source and the type of voltage used
8. The connection between the electrode lead and the electrode holder
is normally
a. brazed
b. welded
c. soldered
d. mechanical
9. With cable connections that are soldered or brazed, care must be taken
to make sure that the filler metal
a. establishes a full electrical connection
b. melts at the right temperature
c. is compatible with the voltage level
d. is compatible with the current type
10. Before you begin to weld, you must check that all cable connections are
clean and tight in order to
a. minimize risk of personal injury
b. decrease resistance in the circuit
c. reduce heat levels in the terminals and cables
d. all of the above
Notes
P4-3
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-3
Outcomes
The shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process has many applications. This versatility is
thanks to the development of a wide range of SMAW electrodes. The American Welding
Society (AWS) lists over 20 different classifications for low-carbon steel SMAW electrodes.
When you have completed the Learning Tasks in this Theory Competency, you should be
able to describe:
Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in Module P4, you will take
a written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions
that are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-3:
Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.
Optional: The following resources are optional and are NOT required to complete this
Theory Competency. The optional resources provide further information on a specific
topic. If you want more information on these resources, please see your instructor.
• rate of melting
• amount of deposition
• creation of slag
• stability and direction of the arc
• depth of penetration
• rate at which the molten weld metal solidifies (weld pool freezes)
• addition of alloys to the weld metal
• provision of gases to protect or shield the molten weld pool
Direction of travel
Flux coating
Arc stream
Electrode
Gaseous shield core wire
Slag Crater
Penetration
Bare electrodes
Notes
Early arc welding used a non-consumable carbon electrode with a separate
filler rod. Later, bare-wire electrodes were developed that eliminated the
need for the separate filler material. Although bare-metal electrodes are used
today, they are rare. Uncoated manganese electrodes are an example.
Core wire
CSA
E491
8 AW
S E7
018
Size of electrodes
Notes
Sizes of SMAW electrodes are measured as the diameter of the inner core wire,
excluding the flux coating. Following are standard SMAW electrode sizes:
Lengths range from 225 mm (9 in.) to 1000 mm (36 in.). The most
common length is 350 mm (14 in.). The coatings are designated as light,
medium or heavy.
Types of electrodes
SMAW electrodes come in several types, depending on the composition
of their coatings. The ingredients in the electrode coating control four
important features:
Fast-fill
Fast-fill electrodes deposit substantial amounts of filler metal at a fast rate.
Electrodes used for production work frequently have this characteristic.
They are usually heavy-coated and often contain substantial amounts of iron
powder to add filler metal.
Fast-freeze
Fast-freeze electrodes deposit a weld bead with the ability to solidify or freeze
quickly. They generally operate with an arc that penetrates deeply but produces
little slag. These characteristics make them suitable for welding in the vertical
and overhead positions, where the effects of gravity need to be counteracted.
Fill-freeze (fast-follow)
Fill-freeze or fast-follow electrodes allow for higher travel speeds with
consistent bead formation. They deposit thin, narrow stringer beads with
shallow penetration. Their main use is for welds that require little filler
material, as on light-gauge sheet metal. As the name suggests, fill-freeze
electrodes combine both fast-fill and fast-freeze characteristics.
These pictures clearly show that hydrogen has been trapped in the weld
metal. Hydrogen trapped in weld metal can create internal stresses that can
lead to underbead cracking, even in low-carbon steels. Hydrogen is a serious
concern when welding high-strength low-alloy, medium-carbon, high-carbon
and high-sulphur steels.
• cellulose
• rutile
• china clay, silica and mica
• potassium
• ferro-manganese
• iron oxide (magnetite, hematite)
• iron powder
• sodium silicate
Cellulose
Cellulose is made from wood pulp. It helps form the inverted cup–type
shield at the electrode tip that gives direction to the shielding gases and to
the arc stream. Cellulose also produces the shielding gases. As the cellulose
is consumed, it forms a gaseous envelope of carbon dioxide and water
vapour that excludes oxygen and nitrogen. Sodium or potassium is added to
these coating to stabilize the arc.
Rutile
“Rutile” is another term for titanium dioxide. It makes the arc smooth and
stable and forms a hard, black slag that gives a smooth finish to the weld.
Like cellulose, rutile is frequently combined with sodium or potassium.
Potassium
In electrode coatings, potassium is used as an arc stabilizer and as an ionizer.
As an ionizer, it alters the electrical characteristics of the arc and helps ease
and stabilize the flow of current. In addition to its use in compounds with
cellulose and rutile, potassium is combined with feldspar or with titanium. It
is commonly used in AC electrodes to promote a stable arc.
Ferro-manganese
Notes Ferro-manganese is an alloy containing about 80% manganese. When used
in electrode coatings, it helps remove oxygen from the arc by combining
with the oxygen to form an oxide. The oxide then forms part of the slag.
Iron powder
Iron powder can make up 10% to 60% of an electrode coating. It creates a
heavier coating that adds to the filler material produced by the electrode wire.
It also allows for the use of higher welding current. This increases the rate
of deposition of the weld. Iron powder also improves the appearance of the
finished weld, makes the weld more ductile and makes slag removal easier.
Using iron powder in the electrode also helps reduce arc instability during
AC welding.
Sodium silicate
Sodium silicate, more commonly known as “water glass,” is a heavy liquid,
quite viscous and sticky. It is used to bind together the various ingredients of
electrode coatings so that they can coat the core wire.
There are a number of theories to explain how the molten metal in the
electrode is carried across the arc gap to the workpiece. None of these
explanations gives a complete picture. What is clear is that this metal
transfer always takes place, whether electrode positive or electrode negative.
It also occurs in opposition to the force of gravity when you weld in the
overhead position.
Gravity
Gravity is clearly a factor in metal transfer from electrode to weld pool.
When you are welding in the flat position it helps metal transfer. But when
you are welding in the overhead, vertical or horizontal positions, gravity has
an adverse effect. Using smaller diameter electrodes will help minimize this
by reducing the loss of weld metal.
At the same time, you should keep the arc length as short as possible to
reduce the distance molten electrode metal has to travel. A long arc also Notes
increases the risk that molten metal will fall and burn you.
Gas expansion
The rapid expansion of gases at the tip of the melting electrode is another
factor in metal transfer. These gases form as the electrode coating burns
and breaks down, and as the electrode wire melts and produces carbon
monoxide. The gases will force metal and slag particles across the arc gap.
Electromagnetic force
The magnetic field associated with the arc has a pinching effect on the
melting electrode (Figure 47). This frees globules of molten metal, and the
electromagnetic force carries them across the arc gap.
Flux coating
Core wire
Pinch effect
Electromotive force
The circuit voltage produces an electromotive force that pushes the globules
of molten metal along, regardless of the position in which you are welding.
Surface tension
Surface tension on the workpiece attracts the globules of filler metal and
slag from the electrode as they approach the molten weld pool. Once they
are part of the weld pool, surface tension helps keep the metal in place even
in the overhead position.
Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
3. SMAW electrodes are available in sizes ranging from 1.6 mm (1⁄16 in.) to
a. 3.2 mm (1⁄8 in.)
b. 4.8 mm (3⁄16 in.)
c. 6.4 mm (1⁄4 in.)
d. 8.0 mm (5⁄16 in.)
9. The force responsible for transferring molten particles of metal across the
arc by means of a pinching effect is
a. gravity
b. electromagnetic
c. gas expansion
d. surface tension
Notes
The systems developed use a letter and number code to indicate the content
and performance specifications of an electrode. Manufacturers must print the
appropriate code number on the coating of every electrode (Figure 48). In
North America, three basic classification systems are used. These are the CSA,
AWS and ASME systems.
• if the filler metal rod is to be used for electric arc welding or gas welding
• the tensile strength of the welds produced with that filler metal rod
• the welding position recommended for use with that filler metal rod
• the kind of current supply and circuit setup to be used
• the composition of the filler metal rod coating
E 43 1 0
designates electric designates tensile designates welding designates
welding strength in tens of position (see composition of
megapascals (MPa) Figure 50) coating and current
requirements (see
Figure 51)
The code numbers are the same in both systems except for the indication of
tensile strength (Figure 52). AWS code numbers indicate tensile strength using
the imperial system, in thousands of pounds per square inch, rather than in
megapascals.
For example, the E4310 electrode can be designated in the AWS system as
E6010 (Figure 53).
Many manufacturers use their own trade names and numbers for their
electrodes. On the job, you are just as likely to know electrodes by these names
as by their CSA identification number. For instance, the E4924 (AWS: E7024)
electrode may be known as Rocket 24®, Easyarc 12® or L.A. 7024®, but each
one will meet the CSA W48.1-06 and the AWS A5.1 standards.
Self-Test 2
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
2. The main difference between the CSA and AWS electrode identification
systems is that the CSA system measures tensile strength in
a. megapascals
b. kilopascals
c. pounds per square inch
d. pounds per square foot
7. In the AWS electrode identification system, the first two digits designate
tensile strength in
a. kilopascals
b. megapascals
c. thousands of pounds per square inch
d. thousands of pounds per square foot
Notes
To help make sure that you achieve these conditions, there are seven factors
you should consider in choosing an electrode for a given job. These are:
The thickness of the required weld deposit will also determine your choice
of electrode. In multi-pass groove welds, the narrower dimensions at the
bottom of the joint will generally call for a smaller diameter electrode, while
the fill passes will require a larger diameter electrode.
Welding current
The current that welding power sources produce can be AC, DC or both.
Many electrodes perform equally well with either AC or DC. But some
electrodes (as their numbers indicate) can be used only with AC, others only
with DCEN and still others only with DCEP.
Service conditions
On many jobs, the actual specifications for welds are given and will
generally dictate the electrode you will use. When you do not receive the
specifications, you must assess the conditions that the weld will encounter
when in use and choose the appropriate electrode. Conditions such as shock
loading or extreme temperature will require a particular electrode choice.
Production factors
Your choice of electrode could depend on production requirements. For
example, fast-fill electrodes that have high deposition rates might be a
desirable choice because of the increased productivity they provide.
E4313 (E6013)
E electric 43 m
inimum tensile 1 all positions 3 t itania (rutile)
strength 430 MPa potassium—AC
(60 000 psi) or DC
• all-position electrode
• AC or DC (either polarity, DCEN preferred)
• classified as fill-freeze (fast-follow)
• medium penetration
Notes
• rutile electrode coating
• medium slag coating that gives a good weld appearance
and flakes off easily
• popular for vertical down on light gauge and for use on simple AC
power sources
E4914 (E7014)
E electric 49 minimum tensile 1 a ll positions except 4 t itania (rutile) iron
strength 490 MPa vertical downhill powder—AC or DC
(70 000 psi)
• all-position electrode
• AC, DC (either polarity)
• medium to low penetration
• thick slag gives a smooth bead appearance
• slag flakes off easily
• thick flux coating contains iron powder, which adds to the filler metal
• high deposition rate increases productivity
• fill-freeze
E4924 (E7024)
E electric 49 minimum tensile 2 flat and horizontal 4 t itania (rutile) iron
strength 490 MPa positions powder—AC or DC
(70 000 psi)
E4918 (E7018)
E electric 49 minimum tensile 1 all positions except 8 low hydrogen,
strength 490 MPa vertical downhill potassium, iron
(70 000 psi) powder—AC or
DCEP
• designed for low-alloy steels and unknown alloys that are prone to
underbead cracking from hydrogen entrapment Notes
• 25–40% iron powder in flux
• arc length must be kept short to prevent porosity
• designator after the number indicates the maximum level of hydrogen
(e.g., H2, H4, H16)
Historically, the most common stainless steel was called “18-8.” It contained
18% chromium and 8% nickel. Stainless steels in the 300 series contain
these approximate proportions.
Electrodes are numbered to indicate the base metal alloy on which they are to
be used. Since corrosion resistance is most important, matching the electrode
to the alloy is critical. When in doubt, consult the welding procedures written
for the job or a welding supplier who will supply literature.
The base metal alloy number of a stainless steel electrode will have a suffix
indicating the coating:
E309-15
This electrode is used to join low-carbon steel to stainless steel base metals.
It is all-position except vertical downhill. If the incorrect electrode is used
to join stainless steel to low-carbon steel, the weld is likely to crack while in
service. This electrode contains extra nickel to prevent cracking.
E316-16
This electrode is designed to join 316 stainless steel.
The various products create surfaces that range from very soft all the way up
to glass hard. When you apply a hardfacing weld, it is important to understand
the application. If the weld is too hard and brittle, it will fracture and break
away from the surface (spalling). If it is too soft, it will be quickly worn away.
• tungsten carbides
• chromium carbides
• semiaustenitic steels
• austenitic manganese steels
• austenitic stainless steels
• martenisitic stainless steels
• carbon steel alloys
The special feature of these cutting electrodes is the high-velocity gas and
particle stream they develop that cuts through the metal. The special slow-
burning ingredients in the electrode coating and the deep cavity in the
electrode end (Figure 54) are the features that help develop this cutting action.
Steel core
Coating
–
Kerf
SMAC electrodes are available in the standard lengths. The most common
Notes length is 350 mm (14 in.). SMAC electrodes are available in diameters of
2.5 mm (3⁄32 in.), 3.2 mm (1⁄8 in.), 4.0 mm (5⁄32 in.), 5.0 mm (3⁄16 in.) and
6.0 mm (1⁄4 in.). These electrodes are used with a constant current machine
producing either AC or DC. Your choice of electrode sizes and current
settings for cutting depends on the thickness of the metal being cut.
Techniques to be used for cutting include the use of a very short arc. The
electrode can be dragged across the metal without any danger of it shorting
out because of the heavy coating and the recessed electrode wire.
Never use a water-soaked electrode for welding. The absorbed moisture will
cause hydrogen to be trapped in the weld.
Notes
Self-Test 3
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
1. It is essential to know the properties of the base metal before you weld
so you can select an electrode with the right
a. diameter
b. coating ingredients
c. length
d. weight
2. To weld thin base metal, you would usually select an electrode with
a. a larger diameter
b. deeper penetration
c. a smaller diameter
d. base metal thickness is not an important factor in electrode selection
3. For weld joints with tight rather than open fit-up, it is usual to select an
electrode with
a. deeper penetration
b. shallower penetration
c. moderate penetration
d. fit-up is not an important factor in electrode selection
Notes
Because electrodes with very different properties can look the same, correct
handling of electrodes also includes marking them accurately after the package
has been opened. It is equally important to collect and clearly mark unused
electrodes that are being returned to storage. Do not risk producing a weld
that does not meet specifications just because you used the wrong electrode.
An electrode that is not clearly identified should be considered unusable.
Storage of electrodes
The main requirement for storing electrodes is to keep them dry. Not only
are electrode coatings fragile, but their composition allows them to pick up
moisture from the air.
Electrode ovens
Some electrodes can be safely stored at normal room conditions if the
temperature and relative humidity do not go above certain normal
tolerances. For other types of electrodes, electrode ovens are widely used to
guarantee a humidity-controlled environment for storage.
Ovens are essential for the more sensitive low-hydrogen and hardfacing
electrodes and for special-alloy electrodes such as stainless steel, brass,
bronze, aluminum, inconel and monel.
Electrode ovens can be the large type that are found in welding shops. These
are capable of holding several hundred kilograms of electrodes. There are
also smaller field ovens that can be connected to an auxiliary power supply.
Ovens are also useful for restoring electrodes that might have been exposed
to a certain level of moisture but that can be re-baked to make them
usable. Electrode manufacturers and suppliers provide information on
storage and re-baking conditions for their electrodes and, if available, these
recommendations should be followed (Figure 55).
Self-Test 4
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
3. If too much hydrogen is transferred to the weld deposit, the weld could
a. expand
b. contract
c. crack
d. become more ductile
Notes
P4-4
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-4
Outcomes
Welding an effective joint requires careful attention to weld joint design and
preparation. The design of a weld joint is a major factor in the depth of penetration and
the strength of the completed weld. Weld joint design and welding position also affect
your choice of electrode, welding technique, current settings and speed of travel.
When you have completed the Learning Tasks in this Theory Competency, you should be
able to describe:
• the five basic weld joint designs and their many variations
• the types of welds and their acceptable dimensions
• continuous and intermittent welding
• the weld positions for fillet welds and for groove welds
Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in Module P4, you will take a
written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions that
are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-4:
Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.
Lap joint
The lap joint joins two pieces of metal that overlap.
Corner joint
The corner joint also joins two pieces of metal at right angles, but the joint is
formed at the ends of both pieces in an L shape.
Edge joint
The edge joint joins two pieces of metal that are turned up at the edges. It is
also called a “flange joint.”
Butt joint
The butt joint joins two pieces of metal lying in the same plane.
Tee joints
The square tee joint requires no edge preparation. It is widely used because it
is relatively inexpensive and easy to fit. On thicker material, the edges might
be prepared with a single bevel, double bevel, single J or double J (Figure 57).
Tee joints that are welded on one side are only satisfactory for light static
loads. For heavy or fluctuating loads, tee joints need to be welded on both
sides to increase their strength.
Tee joints are relatively easy to design, and they provide maximum access for
welding. However, the chance of them being distorted is high. They are also
expensive because they need more filler weld material, especially on larger
tee joints and on joints that need to be welded from both sides.
Lap joints
Lap joints need little or no edge preparation. On thicker material, a single bevel
is all that is usually required, although such preparations are extremely rare. Lap
joints are often used for welds joining two materials of different thickness.
If a weld does not need great strength, a single lap joint might be enough to
provide a “tight” joint. Do not use a single lap joint when the weld will be
subjected to fluctuating, bending or twisting loads. For these types of loads,
weld the joint from both sides, or use a double lap joint (Figure 58).
Lap joints have two significant drawbacks. As with tee joints, the material
requirements are high. That means you can only get maximum tensile
strength when the overlap is five times the thickness of the thinner member.
Also, the joint tends to lose its strength under stress loading. Notes
Corner joints
There are two types of corner joints: the open corner and the closed corner
(Figure 59).
Open Closed
Welders use the open corner joint more often than the closed corner joint.
Penetration is usually excellent, resulting in a full-strength weld. With the
closed corner, penetration is impossible on all but light-gauge sheet metal. On
thicker material, you must prepare the edges (Figure 60). A small root opening
can be left between the two pieces in order to ensure full penetration.
Square corner joints are relatively easy to prepare and assemble, but the
bevel, the V, the J and the U preparations require more skill and time to
accurately fit the joint.
Corner joints are not satisfactory for heavy stress loading if they are only
Notes welded from one side. For heavy stress loading applications, corner joints
are welded from the inside before gouging the outside to sound metal and
welding. Although this increases the cost of the weld, it produces joints
capable of withstanding heavy stress loading.
Edge joints
Edge or flange joints are most commonly used on light-gauge material such
as sheet metal. The edges of the sheet metal are turned up with a piece of
metal-forming equipment called a “brake.” The turned-up edges reduce the
danger of burn-through on thin metal and at the same time help to prevent
distortion. On thin metal, no additional filler metal is required. With plate, the
edges must be prepared in order to ensure sufficient penetration (Figure 61).
Butt joints
Butt joints are the most widely used of the five designs. Like tee joints,
butt joints provide the most access for welding. They use the least weld
material. Butt joints allow 100% penetration, so they are effective for all
types of stresses.
Butt joints are the preferred joint for resisting fatigue stresses if complete
penetration is assured. A correctly prepared and welded butt joint is nearly
as strong as the base metal.
Square
Joints that are prepared and welded from both sides are called “double joints.”
Joints that are welded from only one side are called “single joints.” To ensure Notes
complete penetration on single joints, you will often need to add a backing
strip or plate.
The main drawback of the butt joint is the higher skill and accuracy the
Welder needs to fit and weld the joint. Of the five joints, the butt joint is
the most difficult to master. It takes considerable experience to become
proficient in preparing and welding butt joints.
Natural preparation
Notations in drawings sometimes describe a joint preparation as a “natural Notes
preparation” (Figure 67). This means that no cutting or grinding is required.
If the joint is tilted to create a natural preparation and the tilt is more than
30°, structural codes consider it to be a butt joint. The rules for depth of
penetration for butt joints will then apply.
Single flare butt joint
Natural preparation
Bevel angles
The common bevel angles used in preparing the edge of materials are:
Different thickness
Notes
If the two members of a butt joint are of different thicknesses, the end of the
thicker section must be sloped to meet the thinner, at a slope of not more
than 1 in 2.5 (1:2.5). The CSA and AWS guidelines call this a “4 in 10 (4:10)
slope” (Figure 68).
Notes
Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
1. There are five basic joint designs used in welding: lap, tee, corner, edge
and .
a. plug
b. vee
c. bevel
d. butt
3. The single vee butt joint is commonly used with steel plate that is
thick.
a. 3 mm to 10 mm (1⁄8 in. to 3⁄8 in.)
b. 6 mm to 19 mm (1⁄4 in. to 3⁄4 in.)
c. 19 mm to 25 mm (3⁄4 in. to 1 in.)
d. 25 mm to 38 mm (1 in. to 1 1⁄2 in.)
4. In order for lap and tee joints to support heavy or fluctuating loads, they
need to be
a. welded from both sides
b. prepared in a brake
c. back-gouged
d. single-bevel welds
• surfacing weld
• tack weld
• fillet weld
• groove weld
• plug and slot weld
Surfacing weld Tack weld Fillet weld Groove weld Plug weld
Surfacing welds
Surfacing welds are deposits of weld materials used to build up the surface
of metal or to replace metal on worn surfaces. Following are other terms
used to more exactly describe the surfacing welds:
Tack welds
Notes
Tack welds are a series of short welds used to hold the joint assembly in
place during the fit-up procedure (Figure 74). Each tack weld is a short
(sometimes temporary) weld about 13 mm (1⁄2 in.) long. Tack welds are
usually deposited at both ends of the weld joint and at roughly equal
intervals along the length of the joint.
Tack welds should be used on the opposite side of the weld joint whenever
possible. Joints that require welds on both sides should be tack welded on
the side opposite to the first side to be welded. On tee joints, tack welds are
used along the opposite side of the weld to prevent the upright plate from
leaning toward the weld (Figure 75).
Tack weld
Fillet welds
Notes
Fillet welds are used extensively on lap, tee and corner joints, where they
join two pieces of metal that are usually at right angles (90°) to each other. A
fillet weld consists of one or more beads or passes that are roughly triangular
in cross-section. There are a number of terms for describing various aspects
of a fillet weld (Figure 76).
Depth of fusion or bond
Leg
Face
Leg Toe
Throat
Root
Root penetration
In many cases, fillet welds are more economical than groove welds because
they are easier to assemble and require less edge preparation. On the other
hand, they usually use more weld filler metal, and they are less able to
withstand stress loads.
Fillet welds are not considered capable of carrying stress loads unless their
length is at least four times the leg length of the weld. For material up to
25 mm (1 in.) thick, stress-carrying fillet welds should not have a leg length
of less than 10 mm (3⁄8 in.).
Size
Size
Size
45º
• welding position
• type of electrode
• type of joint
• stress requirements of the joint
Figure 79 displays two 45º right triangles. The ratio of the sides is
displayed. This ratio is constant for all such 45º triangles. Finding the
throat as described above is simply an application of trigonometry. This
diagram explains how the numbers 0.707 and 1.414 were arrived at. It is
easier to remember something if you understand it.
0.707 1.414
1 1
0.707 0.707
0.707
0.707 1
Concave Flat
Size
Size
45º
Size
Size C Size C
Size Size
Figure 80—Acceptable fillet weld profiles and unacceptable fillet weld profiles
For similar reasons, excessively concave fillet welds are also undesirable. The
longer leg length requires additional weld material that does not contribute
to the strength of the weld. A flat or convex fillet weld with the same effective
throat (strength) uses less weld material and is a more economical weld.
Note that on the flat profile (Figure 80) the toes of the weld must Notes
be at a 45° angle to the face of the weld. With convex profiles, the
convexity (C) must not exceed 0.07 × face width + 1.5 mm (1⁄16 in.).
Of the three profiles, convex fillet welds are much less susceptible to
shrinkage cracking than concave and flat fillet welds. Concave and flat fillet
welds are much more likely to crack, especially on heat-sensitive metals such
as the high-carbon steels. There are also fewer problems with undercutting
on convex fillets than on either concave or flat.
Concave fillet welds have two major advantages over the other two profiles:
Concave fillet welds are preferred for joints that are subjected to fatigue
stresses. Concave fillet welds are also used in such applications as inside
grain feed chutes, where free flow is desired.
Groove welds
Groove welds fill in the gap or groove between two pieces of metal. Groove
welds are most commonly used on butt joints. The weld on an open
corner joint or on specially prepared lap and tee joints can sometimes be
considered a groove weld.
Groove welds consist of a root bead, fill passes and a cap (Figure 81). The
number of passes will vary, depending on the thickness of the metal. On
thinner metal, the fill pass and cap can be combined into one pass. In some
cases a single pass is adequate for the entire weld.
Cap
Fill passes
Root face
Root bead
Root opening
The significant dimensions of groove welds include the root opening, the
Notes root face, the included angle, the thickness and the throat (Figure 82).
On bevelled joints, the bevel angle is important. On groove joints with a J
preparation, the root radius is significant.
Included angle
Bevel angle
Thickness (T)
Root face
Root opening
Throat
Thickness (T)
Root face
Root radius
Root opening
The size of the root opening, the root face, the included angle and
the root radius all affect the amount of weld required and the depth
of penetration. For example, too large a root opening, root face or
included angle will result in excessive penetration and the deposition
of unnecessary weld metal. On the other hand, dimensions that
are too narrow will make full penetration extremely difficult, if
not impossible. If the root radius on a U joint is too great, you will
deposit too much weld material, and the possibility of uncontrollable
distortion increases.
These dimensions will depend on the material thickness, the electrode size
and the welding process.
Size Size
Size
R
Reinforcement (R)
must not exceed 3 mm (1⁄8")
R
The width of a groove weld should not extend more than 3 mm (1⁄8 in.) beyond
the shoulder or edge of the joint on either side. Extra deposit beyond this is
uneconomical, because there is no corresponding increase in joint strength. It
also can negatively affect the heat-affected zone next to the weld bead.
for a fillet weld. When a slot is made rather than a circular hole, the weld is
Notes called a “slot weld” (Figure 85).
Weld
Weld
To prepare the weld joint for a plug or slot weld, punch, drill or flame cut
the hole or slot in the overlaying plate. Position the plates, then make the
weld through the opening to the underlying plate. The hole or slot may or
may not be entirely filled in with weld metal and, on relatively thin metal,
the hole or slot might not be necessary.
Intermittent welds are a series of short welds spaced along the length of
the weld joint (Figure 86). The size and the spacing of the welds depends
on plate thickness, the type of joint, the welding process and the strength
requirements of the weld.
Notes
Self-Test 2
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
2. Which type of weld is most commonly used to weld lap, tee and corner
joints?
a. groove weld
b. bead weld
c. fillet weld
d. plug weld
4. Fillet welds are not considered capable of carrying stress loads unless their
a. length is four times the size of the weld
b. throat is twice the length of the shorter leg
c. legs are four times the depth of the throat
d. profile is flat
5. For flat and convex fillet welds, the size is determined by the
a. width of the weld
b. length of the shorter leg
c. length of the longer leg
d. depth of penetration
d. bevel angle D
Figure 87
12. In Figure 87, B indicates the
a. included angle
b. root face
c. plate thickness
d. root radius
Figure 88
18. The width of a groove weld should not extend more than __________
beyond the shoulder of the joint on either side.
a. 1.5 mm (1⁄16 in.)
b. 3 mm (1⁄8 in.)
c. 5 mm (3⁄16 in.)
d. 6 mm (1⁄4 in.)
Notes
The term “welding out of position” means welding in any position other
than flat. There are four positions that are used for plate and two that are for
pipe (Figure 89).
15º
15º
Horizontal 2 2G 2G 2F
15º 15º
Vertical 3 3G N/A 3F
Overhead 4 4G N/A 4F
Pipe 5 N/A 5G 5F
15º
15º
Horizontal position
Welds in the horizontal position are also parallel to the floor, but they are
done along a vertical surface. Weld metal is deposited from the upper side
of the weld joint. For butt joints, the electrode is held horizontally (parallel
to the floor), but for the other four weld joints it is usually either slightly
higher or lower than horizontal, depending on the technique used. For butt
joints, the two plates are supported in the vertical position, but the lap, tee
and edge joints can be set up and welded on a flat surface. With horizontal
welds, the main difficulty is that gravity causes the molten pool to flow
toward the lower side of the weld.
Vertical position
In the vertical position, the plate to be welded is positioned vertically and the
weld joint itself is vertical. The direction of travel can be uphill or downhill,
but the majority of vertical welding is usually done uphill, from bottom to
top. The electrode points slightly upward. As with horizontal welding, gravity
causes the molten metal to pull away from the edges of the bead and, unless
the weld pool is correctly controlled, molten metal will drip.
Overhead position
The overhead position is the reverse of the flat position: the weld is done
from the underside of the plate with the electrode pointing upward rather
than downward. Overhead welding is considered difficult to master. In
the overhead position, the force of gravity typically pulls the molten metal
from the toe of the weld bead to the centre of the bead, where it can drip.
These frozen drips of metal hanging from the weld bead are commonly
called “grapes.”
• F: fillet weld
• G: groove weld
The position number and the letter abbreviation are used together.
For example:
Notes
Self-Test 3
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
Figure 94
7. A weld designated as 1G is a
a. fillet weld in the vertical position
b. groove weld in the flat position
c. fillet weld in the horizontal position
d. groove weld in the vertical position
8. A 4F weld is a
a. fillet weld in the flat position
b. groove weld in the vertical position
c. fillet weld in the overhead position
d. fillet weld in the horizontal position
9. A 2G weld is a
a. horizontal fillet weld
b. vertical groove weld
c. vertical fillet weld
d. horizontal groove weld
10. For a horizontal weld on a butt joint, the plates are positioned
a. flat
b. vertical
c. horizontal
d. at a 45° angle
Notes
P4-5
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-5
Outcomes
You must be familiar with many of the problems caused by weld defects and distortion.
With experience and a thorough understanding of these problems and their causes, you
will be able to avoid making most of them.
When you have completed the Learning Tasks in this Theory Competency, you should be
able to:
Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in Module P4, you will take a
written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions that
are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-5:
Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.
Optional: The following resources are optional and are NOT required to complete this
Theory Competency. The optional resources provide further information on a specific
topic. If you want more information on these resources, please see your instructor.
Distortion control
• The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, Lincoln Electric (This text is a “must read“
for every Welder.)
• http://www.lincolnelectric.com/knowledge/articles/content/distortion.asp
• dimensional faults, where the weld deposit does not meet the
specifications and requirements of the weld, including incorrect weld
sizes and profiles
• structural discontinuities, including such defects as porosity, undercut,
incomplete penetration and lack of fusion
• defects in the mechanical properties of the weld metal, including
reduced tensile strength, ductility, hardness or corrosion resistance
Dimensional defects
Incorrect weld size
Any variation from the specified weld size
affects the distribution of stress in the weld.
This will affect the strength of the weld.
Overlap
Notes “Overlap” is a condition in which too
much weld metal is deposited at the
toe of the weld (Figure 98). Overlap
is most often a sign of poor fusion
between the weld metal and base
metal. This condition is extremely
serious, because stresses concentrate
in notches that form at the toes of the
weld. In fillet welds, overlap will also
reduce the effective weld size.
Figure 98—Overlap
Dimensional defects also include the
distortion and warping that occur as a result of stresses from the heating and
cooling of the weld deposit and base metal during welding.
• undercut
• incomplete penetration
• underfill
• incomplete fusion
• porosity
• slag inclusions
• cracking
These defects often appear with size and profile problems. But they can also
occur in welds that meet size and profile specifications.
Undercut
“Undercut” means a cutting away of
the plate surfaces at the edge of the
weld (Figure 99). A sharp recess forms
in the plate where the next layer or
bead must fuse with the base metal.
The plate is thinner at this point, so the
joint is weaker. Joint failure is especially
likely when the undercut occurs at the
toe of the weld.
electrode manipulation. Other causes are too much current, too long an arc
or slow travel. On joints that are not very accessible, undercut can be very
hard to avoid.
Incomplete penetration
Incomplete penetration is the failure of the weld pool and the base metal to
fuse together at the root of the joint.
On groove and fillet welds, this defect occurs when the areas above the root
reach fusion temperatures before the root does. The molten weld metal
forms a bridge across the joint and prevents the arc from reaching the root.
Even when the joint is correctly designed, incorrect welding procedures can
cause incomplete penetration. If the current is too low, the weld metal is not
able to reach the root of the joint and/or the arc is not hot enough to melt
the base metal at the root. If the rate of travel is too fast, the weld metal
is deposited only on the surfaces above the root. Electrode size is also an
important factor, especially for the root bead. If the electrode is too large, it
will not fit into the narrow root opening.
Underfill
Notes “Underfill” means there is not enough weld metal in the weld joint to bring the
face of the weld level with or above the surface of the base metal (Figure 101).
Figure 101—Underfill
Incomplete fusion
“Incomplete fusion” means that the layers of weld metal or the weld metal
and base metal did not fuse together (Figure 102). This failure can occur at
any point in groove and fillet welds. Overlap at the toe of the weld is often a
sign of inadequate fusion.
• Failure to heat the base metal or the previously deposited weld metal
to the melting point. This usually happens if the electrode is too small,
the travel is too fast or the current is too low.
• Failure of the electrode flux to dissolve the oxides or other foreign
material on the surfaces being welded.
Porosity
“Porosity” means that there are gas pockets in the weld metal (Figure 103). Notes
Porosity can be spread evenly in the weld metal or be grouped in clusters.
Figure 103—Porosity
The gases that cause porosity form during chemical reactions in the weld
pool as the weld metal is heated and cooled. Porosity usually is the result of
one of the following factors:
Slag inclusion
“Slag” is the metallic oxides and other solid compounds that chemical
reactions produce during the welding process. Sometimes slag can become
trapped in the weld metal. Like gas, it creates porosity in the weld metal
(Figure 104).
In SMAW, slag can form when flux is trapped in the weld pool. The stirring
action of the arc can force the slag into the molten metal. Slag can also
be pushed ahead of the arc and then be covered over by the weld pool.
Notes Because it is less dense than molten metal, slag tends to rise to the surface of
the pool, where it can be chipped away when the weld is cooled.
Several factors can prevent the release of slag from the weld pool.
These include:
• prepare the weld joint correctly before depositing each weld bead
• make sure to maintain the correct weld bead contour for each layer so
that the arc can access the weld joint completely
• make sure you clean all slag from the surface of the previous weld bead
You can also help to promote the release of slag by making sure that the
weld pool becomes hot enough to reduce its viscosity (thickness) and by
pre- and post-heating to slow down the cooling process.
Cracking
Cracks are the most dangerous weld defects. They happen when stresses
are greater than the ultimate strength of the base metal. Cracking that
occurs shortly after the weld metal has been deposited and is just beginning
to solidify is called “hot cracking.” Hot cracking is more likely with certain
metals, especially the high-alloy steels and high-temperature alloys.
External cracks
Cracking that is visible or external usually occurs in the weld metal (Figure 105).
External cracks might run across the face of the weld metal and sometimes
extend into the base metal. These are called “transverse cracks.”
“Longitudinal cracks” run lengthways along the weld, usually down the
centre of the weld deposit. “Crater cracks” form in the centre of the crater
and can become a starting point for longitudinal cracking. Crater cracks are
usually the result of interruptions in the welding procedure.
Notes
There are several causes of external cracks. The most common are:
• porosity
• lack of penetration
• slag inclusion
• incomplete fusion
Internal cracks
Internal cracks usually occur within the heat-affected zone of the base metal
(Figure 106). Underbead cracking (a type of internal crack) occurs almost
exclusively in steel. It is often related to not using or improper use of low-
hydrogen electrodes. Hairline cracks at the toe of the weld are caused by hot
cracking in or near the fusion zone of weld and base metal.
Internal cracks happen mostly in metals that have been hardened and
that are less ductile. They often occur with other weld faults such as
undercutting, lack of fusion, incomplete penetration and slag inclusions.
Notes
Toe cracks
Underbead
cracks
Figure 106—Internal cracks
Notes
Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
Figure 110
Notes
We can use butt joints as an example of this (Figure 111). When the joint is
welded, the base metal in the weld area expands. But the surrounding cooler
metal restrains this expansion. The heated weld and base metal must expand
upward, in the unrestrained direction. Upon cooling, this displaced metal
contracts, pulling in the surrounding metal across the width of the weld joint.
This pulling force causes the edges of the weldment to bow upward, resulting
in distortion.
Notes
If the edges of the weldment had been rigidly restrained to prevent movement,
distortion would be controlled and kept to a minimum, but the residual stresses
would be high.
Types of distortion
Heating and cooling cause metal to expand and contract in all three
dimensions: length, width and depth. If the metal is restrained to limit
expansion along any of these dimensions, there will be distortion due to
contraction in that dimension. The distortion is a product of the metal
contracting in all three dimensions, which results in the restrained dimension
being smaller. The larger the dimension, the greater the distortion.
Distortion is likely to be greater on a long weld than on a short weld.
Generally, contraction is greater along the length and across the width than
in the depth of weldments.
• longitudinal
• transverse
• angular
Longitudinal distortion
“Longitudinal distortion” is distortion or shrinkage along the length of the
weld deposit. It is particularly serious in long welds along strips of steel.
This distortion causes the overall length of the weld to shrink (Figure 112).
Longitudinal shrinkage is mainly the result of the contraction (upon
cooling) of the weld reinforcement above the surface of the weld joint. This
contraction draws in the ends of the weld deposit so that they bow inward
as the weld cools.
Notes
You can also use techniques such as back stepping, and in some cases
clamping might be necessary. After longitudinal distortion has occurred, it
can sometimes be corrected by welding from the back side of the joint.
Transverse distortion
“Transverse distortion” means the tendency for the plates in butt joints to
pull together down the length of the joint as you are welding (Figure 113).
The plates are pulled together by the contraction across the face of the weld
metal as it cools. The amount of movement mostly depends on the speed
of welding. Generally, a slower deposition rate increases the likelihood of
transverse distortion, while a faster rate helps to control it.
There are several mechanical methods you can use to prevent transverse
Notes distortion. One way is to place tack welds at the ends of the joint and
spaced along the length on longer welds (Figure 114).
You can also place a wedge about 300 mm to 450 mm (12 in. to 18 in.)
ahead of the welding to hold the plates apart (Figure 115). Another method,
called “pre-spacing,” requires aligning the plates at an angle so that the
weld joint gap increases along the length of the joint. The shrinkage will pull
them into the correct alignment (Figure 115).
Wedge
Angular distortion
“Angular distortion” means that the angle between two pieces of base metal Notes
changes as the weld metal cools and contracts. It is easiest to see on tee
joints (Figure 116). This distortion happens when only one side of the joint
is welded. Shrinkage across the width of the weld deposit pulls the vertical
member of the tee joint toward the welded side. A tee joint might also bow
inward because of longitudinal shrinkage.
You can often correct angular distortion of a tee joint by welding the other
side of the joint. The shrinkage that occurs on the second side pulls the
vertical member up to its original position.
Tee joint
A single vee butt joint is also prone to angular distortion. The weld metal
contracts more at the face than at the root of the joint (Figure 116). With
the square butt joint, angular distortion is much less likely because the weld
metal is able to contract evenly across the joint.
Angular distortion is greater on single vee butt joints than on single U joints.
It is least on double vee and double U butt joints. You can sometimes correct
angular distortion on butt joints by welding from the back side.
Distortion control
Notes
You can minimize or eliminate distortion by doing the following:
• avoid over-welding
• deposit the greatest amount of weld metal in the shortest time
• spread the heat as evenly as possible (for example, using weld
sequencing)
• balance welds around the neutral axis
• use mechanical methods such as clamps or strongbacks to restrain or
prebend
• preheat and post-heat when necessary
Avoid over-welding
Use the smallest permissible size on fillet welds and, where possible,
use intermittent rather than continuous welds. On butt joints, choose a
joint design that uses a minimum of weld metal. A U joint preparation is
preferable to a vee preparation (Figure 117). If you must use a single vee
preparation, bevel it to make the smallest permissible included angle.
Wherever possible, try to weld in the flat position and use electrodes as
large as possible for the particular weld joint. Iron powder electrodes are
particularly good, because they have a high deposition rate.
metal is heating and expanding. Expansion and contraction will not be the
same everywhere, making distortion more likely. By maintaining a high rate of Notes
travel, you can minimize the differences in heat input (Figure 118).
Temperature
315 ºC
(600 ºF)
400 ºC
(750 ºF)
Direction of travel
Direction of travel
510 ºC
(950 ºF)
600 ºC
(1100 ºF)
980 ºC
(1800 ºF)
Weld point
Other techniques for keeping the heat input as even as possible include the
following:
These methods break up the weld into short sections. This helps to control
distortion and the buildup of residual stresses. The principle is that the
shrinkage from one weld is offset by the shrinkage from the following welds.
In the back-step welding sequence, the weld begins a short distance from
one end, and the direction of travel is toward that end (Figure 119). The
second deposit begins the same distance in from where you started the
first deposit and runs into the first deposit. The third deposit runs into the
second, and so on along the seam. With SMAW, the maximum length of
each step is usually the distance that one welding electrode can cover. The
length between steps in the end is judged by experience.
With the intermittent welding sequence (Figure 120), short weld deposits
are applied with spaces in between. Weld deposits can be spaced on one
side or alternately on both sides of the joint, for example on a tee joint. The
first weld is made at the beginning of the joint. A section is skipped, and
the second weld is applied farther down the joint. When full strength is not
required, the spaces are left and not welded.
You can control longitudinal distortion on long seams by starting the first
weld a short distance in from the beginning of the joint. The direction of Notes
travel of the first weld is toward the beginning of the joint. Then start the
main weld from the starting point of the first weld and progress in the
opposite direction to the end of the joint (Figure 122).
Start point
3 3
2 1 2
3 3
The “neutral axis” is the line that the assembly flexes around when it is bent
slightly. It is the location where the metal is not stretching or compressing
when the assembly is flexed. For a simple beam, the neutral axis is the same
as the centreline and centre of gravity.
Figure 124—Pre-bending
Tee-joint Butt-joint
Figure 125—Offsetting
You can use this same principle by clamping or tack welding assemblies
back to back before welding. This is useful if you are making more than
one identical welded assembly. A typical application would be to control
distortion when welding the sides of a truck dump box (Figure 126). The left
and right sides can be clamped together with a spacer between to pre-bend
them as well.
Inside
Preheated areas
Weld area
Notes
Self-Test 2
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
1. Define “distortion.”
a. 1, 3
b. 1, 4
c. 2, 3
d. 2, 4
Figure 128
a. transverse
b. angular
c. retrograde
d. longitudinal No distortion but may be high in stresses Figure
Extreme 130
distortion
1.
2.
b. strip
c. intermittent Direction of travel along weld joint
b. strip
c. intermittent Direction of travel along weld joint
Outcomes
By this point in your study, you have learned the basic information about shielded metal
arc welding and its applications.
When you have completed the Learning Task in this Theory Competency, you will be
able to describe:
Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in module P4, you will take a
written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions
that are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-6:
Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.
Optional: The following resources are optional and are NOT required to complete this
Theory Competency. The optional resources provide further information on a specific
topic. If you want more information on these resources, please see your instructor.
If you are right-handed, brace your right wrist with your left hand and place
your left elbow on the welding bench. Use your left elbow as a pivot while
you move the electrode along the base metal. For right-handed Welders, the
usual direction for flat-position welding is from left to right. If you are left-
handed, your arm positions and weld direction will be reversed. Eventually
you should be able to weld with one hand.
Bracing your body against something stationary can help you to hold steady.
Placing your elbow on the welding bench helps, but you can also lean your
hip against the edge of the bench to improve your ability to hold steady.
Try to stand completely still with your eyes closed. It is hard to do,
because your nervous system uses visual and tactile (touching) cues to
locate your body and keep it oriented. When you are in the dark under
your helmet, you lose most of those visual cues.
Before you strike an arc, make sure your head is in a good position for an
unobstructed view. You will find that your depth perception will be limited if
you view your welding from directly ahead or directly behind the direction
of travel.
Notes Before you start the weld bead, check that you have the correct polarity,
your amperage settings are correct, your workpiece lead connection is
secure, your gloves are on and you actually have a welding helmet on
your head.
Most experienced Welders will admit they have forgotten that they took
their helmet off for a minute, then nodded their head and struck an arc.
Before welding, turn the welding power source off and check that you can
move the electrode through the full distance. Rolling your wrist can extend
that distance. Wrapping your arm partially around circular weld joints allows
you to reach behind. Unwrap your arm as you weld.
You must also make sure that the current or amperage is correctly set for the
electrode you are using, the type of weld joint, the weld position, the type
of material to be welded and the travel speed required for the weld. The
current setting determines the welding temperature, which will affect the
quality and soundness of the weld.
Also consider how you will adjust your fine settings. Each manufacturer uses
slightly different terms or symbols on the controls, such as “arc force,” “arc
crisp” or “arc soft.”
Arc length
“Arc length” is the distance from the end of the electrode to the workpiece.
It is determined by the diameter of the electrode, but it might change with
the welding position and the amount of current required. When the arc
length is correct, the arc makes a distinct crackling sound. When it is too
long, the crackling changes to a hissing sound. When it is too short, the
electrode will stick to the base metal. Normally the arc length is equal to the
electrode core wire diameter.
Welding arcs that are too long prevent good penetration and fusion, permit
the absorption of oxygen and nitrogen into the weld and produce excessive
weld spatter. In addition, they increase the possibility of arc blow.
Electrode angle
Notes
“Electrode angle” includes two angles: the work angle and the travel angle.
Both angles are taken from a line perpendicular to the weld axis at the weld
pool. The work angle is taken in a transverse plane from the weld axis. The
travel angle is taken in a longitudinal plane from the weld axis (Figure 133).
The travel angle is also referred to as the “drag angle” or the “push angle.”
Drag angle is when the electrode is pointing toward the weld deposit. Push
angle is when the electrode is pointing in the direction of travel. Normally,
you weld with a 10° to 20° drag angle (Figure 133).
10º–20º
Direction of travel
90º
Using the correct work and travel angles is important in preventing undercut,
slag inclusions and porosity. It also makes it easier for you to deposit weld
metal and to obtain the desired weld profile, fusion and penetration.
Travel speed
The “travel speed” is the speed at which you move the electrode along the
weld joint. Generally, the travel speed should be such that 25 mm (1 in.) of
electrode produces 25 mm (1 in.) of deposit. This is the average speed. You
might need to go faster or slower, depending on the welding position and
the size of the deposit required.
Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
4. When using DC electrodes, what are the two welding power source
settings that you must check before beginning your weld?
1. arc length, 2. polarity, 3. current, 4. electrode angle, 5. speed of travel
a. 1, 2
b. 1, 5
c. 2, 3
d. 3, 4
6. Three problems that occur when the arc length is too long are
Answers
a. penetration too deep, absorption of gases in the weld and too much
weld spatter
b. penetration too shallow, decreased arc blow and less weld spatter
c. less absorption of gases in the weld, increased arc blow and
too much spatter
d. increased arc blow, excessive spatter and incomplete penetration
Notes
P4-7
Hardfacing procedures using SMAW
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-7
Outcomes
Hardfacing is important in industries where machinery and equipment suffer extreme
wear, corrosion or high temperatures. Hardfacing can be deposited using the OFW,
SMAW, GMAW, GTAW, SAW, FCAW and MCAW processes.
When you have completed the Learning Tasks in this Theory Competency, you should be
able to describe:
Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in Module P4, you will take a
written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions that
are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-7:
• all aspects and uses of the hardfacing process and its applications
Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.
Optional: The following resources are optional and are NOT required to complete this
Theory Competency. The optional resources provide further information on a specific
topic. If you want more information on these resources, please see your instructor.
Before starting a hardfacing project, you should look for sources of reliable
information. Errors in applying hardfacing can mean a waste of time and
material. In extreme cases, errors can cause damage to perfectly serviceable
and very expensive pieces of equipment.
Types of wear
Notes
The types of hardfacing electrodes and welding rods you should use for
hardfacing depend on the wear that the base metal will face. In order to
choose the correct hardfacing material, you must consider the following
types of wear:
• abrasion
• impact
• erosion
• corrosion
• oxidation
• compression
• thermal shock
Abrasion
Abrasion removes metal by gouging or grinding. It is caused by the
continuous exposure of the metal parts to the scouring friction of earth,
sand, gravel or other gritty substances. Abrasion can also occur when metal
parts grind against one another. Metal-to-metal wear is a seizing or galling
type of wear that rips and tears a metal surface. It usually happens in places
that are hard to lubricate properly.
Impact
Impact is a pounding, battering type of wear. It can split, break, chip,
mushroom or otherwise deform the metal surface. Dipper buckets and rock-
crushing hammers have impact wear.
Erosion
Erosion is a gouging type of wear that washes away or grooves the metal
surface. The usual cause is steam, liquids or solids moving rapidly across or
against a metal surface. This occurs in ducts, pipes, pumps and valves.
Corrosion
Corrosion is wear that pits, perforates and eventually dissolves metal parts.
Contact with moisture, acid, acid fumes, gas fumes or salts can cause
corrosion.
Oxidation
Oxidation is a special form of corrosion that affects some metals when
they are exposed to a combination of heat and air. The resulting wear is a
crumbling or flaking of the metal surface.
Compression
Compression is a squeezing type of wear. The usual cause is a heavy static
load or loads that gradually increase pressure on a metal surface. This pressure
can cause a metal surface to lose its original shape. Compression wear is an
important consideration when close dimensional tolerances are important.
Thermal shock
Thermal shock is cracking or splitting caused by exposing metal parts to Notes
temperature extremes such as rapid heating and cooling cycles.
High-speed steels
The high-speed steel alloys provide a hard, wear-resistant surface, even at
high temperatures. They are also well suited for resisting metal-to-metal
wear. These alloys are not as effective at withstanding impact loads, as they
tend to crack. Typical applications for high-speed steel alloys include cutting
tools, shear blades, reamers and chain sprockets.
Chromium carbides
Chromium carbide hardfacing materials are slightly lower in hardness and
abrasion resistance than tungsten carbide. Chromium carbide is slightly
softer, making it preferable to tungsten carbide for impact loads. It also
provides good resistance to corrosive wear.
Chromium carbide alloys can be either ferrous based (iron based) or non-
ferrous based. The ferrous-based chromium carbide alloys provide excellent
resistance to abrasion and maintain their hardness at higher temperatures.
The non-ferrous alloys are usually based on cobalt or tungsten. They are
especially good at resisting corrosive wear and are a good choice for
applications such as a lime kiln auger.
Tungsten carbide
Notes Tungsten carbide is the hardest hardfacing material and provides the most
resistance to abrasion. It is commonly applied to earth- or rock-cutting
tools such as rotary bits for oil rigs. Machine parts that are in contact with
highly abrasive material are often hardfaced with tungsten carbide. Tungsten
carbide is a poor material for impact wear, because its hardness makes it
brittle and it will shatter under impact.
Copper alloys
Aluminum bronze, phosphor bronze and silicon bronze are commonly used
copper alloys. These alloys provide good corrosion resistance and high-
quality sliding friction-bearing surfaces. Copper in its pure state is rarely used.
AWS codes
The chart in Figure 135 lists the AWS identification for the most commonly
used hardfacing electrodes.
Surface preparations
The surface must be clean and free of cracks and distortion in order to
ensure a good bond. Solvent will remove grease and oil, while dust and rust
can be removed by mechanical means such as grinding and brushing. Arc-
gouging or grinding will remove cracks, distortions, discontinuities and old
hardfacing deposits.
Buildup
The application of some hardfacing materials might be limited to two or
three layers. You should rebuild badly worn surfaces with filler metal similar
to the base metal before applying hardfacing.
Sometimes the weld metal in this buildup is different from the base
metal. This could be in order to create a surface that can more effectively
support and bond to the final hardfacing. Buildup or covering with an alloy
that is different from the base metal is sometimes called “buttering” or
“cladding.” Be careful when using these terms because they have slightly
different meanings.
Preheating
Preheating is not usually necessary in hardfacing, although the materials
should be at a temperature of 21 ºC to 38 ºC (70 ºF to 100 ºF). Higher
preheat might be required for medium- to high-carbon and low-alloy steels
in order to prevent weld cracking, underbead cracking, spalling or stress
failure. Very large or rigid parts might also require preheating. Torches,
electrical heating devices and ovens are commonly used for preheating,
depending on the size of the part and the equipment available.
Cooling rate
The cooling rate has a great impact on the control of undesirable hardfacing
side effects. It also determines the wear resistance of the hardfacing material.
Sometimes the cooling rate is slowed to reduce the undesirable side effects,
although this reduces the wear resistance.
25–75 mm
(1–3")
25 mm (1")
13 mm (½")
Button pattern
The button pattern (Figure 139) is economical and resists impact wear. The
base metal does not overheat during application. The button pattern makes a
good second application when hardfacing over parallel line or waffle patterns.
• be cost effective
• use the pattern to control distortion and cracking
• apply an open bead pattern if abrasive material is going to fill the
openings
• apply beads with consideration to the type of material
• apply beads with consideration to the type of wear
Problems in hardfacing
The problems you might encounter in hardfacing include the following:
• cost
• dilution
• spalling
• stress failure
• cracking
• distortion
You need to be aware of these problems, their causes and how to avoid them.
Cost
Hardfacing must be cost effective. The cost of hardfacing not only includes
direct costs such as labour and consumables, it also includes downtime and
service life of the equipment.
Dilution
Hardfacing deposits can vary because of dilution with the base metal.
As explained earlier, the deep penetration of the SMAW arc can result in
dilution of the deposit metal. To limit dilution caused by the filler metal and
the base metal mixing too much, use:
Larger diameter electrodes produce less dilution because the heat is not as
concentrated. Less heat concentration means it does not penetrate as deep,
which results in less dilution.
Welding position also influences the amount of dilution. The flat and
vertical downhill positions produce the least dilution. The vertical uphill and
horizontal positions produce the most dilution.
Faster rates of travel do not allow the base metal to heat up as much. This
produces a higher bead profile and less penetration. The higher bead profile
may be desired in some hardfacing applications but could cause spalling in
others. Less penetration results in less dilution.
Spalling
Spalling occurs when the surfacing weld metal breaks away from the base
metal. The degree of spalling ranges from tiny chips to large chunks. The
base metal might be exposed if the chunks are large enough.
1. Prepare the surface. A good bond is possible only when the surface is
perfectly clean and smooth.
2. Control the cooling rate. If the cooling rate is too fast, brittle areas might
occur in the base metal. These areas will crack and lead to spalling.
3. Limit deposit thickness. Do not apply more hardfacing layers than specified.
Heavy hardfacing deposits increase the chance of spalling due to shrinkage
stress. If a thicker deposit is necessary, apply buildup before hardfacing.
Stress failure
Stress failure occurs when stresses caused by welding are added to
weldments already having high retained internal stresses. Examples of parts
having high retained internal stresses are highly rigid parts, shrink-fitted
parts, large castings and parts hardened by heat treatment. These can
fracture under additional stresses caused by welding.
Weld cracking
Notes There are three common types of weld cracks: underbead cracking,
transverse or cross-cracking and longitudinal or centre-line cracking.
Distortion
If your answer to number 2 is “No,” then this is the time when planning
can save large amounts of time, money and embarrassment.
Metal expands when heated and contracts when cooled. Distortion Notes
occurs when unbalanced stresses are created during this expansion
and contraction. Hardfacing always creates some degree of distortion.
Controlling this distortion might only require holding the weldment
with a clamp.
2. Balance the stresses. You can control distortion in weldments that cannot
be straightened after welding by balancing the stresses during welding.
Weld or clamp two similar parts back to back or to a strongback, a
fixture or a fabrication table. Then balance welding with an alternating
welding sequence.
3. Do not overheat the part. There are several ways to control the
temperature to reduce the chances of high rigidity. Use a low current
and promote even cooling by using a fan, blasting with compressed air
or circulating water through the part if it is water jacketed. Weld in two
separate areas, allowing the first to cool while you weld the second.
Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
13. Which hardfacing pattern protects the base metal while trapping dirt
and sand?
a. waffle pattern
b. parallel line pattern
c. button pattern
d. oscillating pattern
P4-8
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-8
Outcomes
Grey cast iron has special characteristics that require procedures different from those for
welding low-carbon steel.
When you have completed the Learning Tasks in this Theory Competency, you should be
able to describe:
Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in module P4, you will take a
written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions
that are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-8:
Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.
Optional: The following resources are optional and are NOT required to complete this
Theory Competency. The optional resources provide further information on a specific
topic. If you want more information on these resources, please see your instructor.
Grey cast iron is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon. It has properties quite
different from those of low-carbon steel. The high carbon content (minimum
1.5%) makes grey cast iron much less ductile with lower tensile strength
than low-carbon steel.
The carbon is present in two forms: a combined form with the iron,
and a free form called “graphite.” The graphite flakes give the metal its
characteristic grey colour on fractured surfaces.
The best way to control the cooling rate is to preheat the casting. If the mass
of the casting around the weld area is cool, it will draw the heat away from
the weld area. This causes the weld area to cool too quickly. If you preheat
the whole casting, the warmed mass surrounding the weld cannot rapidly
draw away the heat. The heat of welding is retained longer in the weld area,
and cooling can take place slowly and evenly.
Cracking and hard spots are also a problem when casting an original
product during manufacturing. Castings are often designed with cooling
in mind. They are made thicker in areas even though the thickness is not
required for strength. The extra material is there to retain heat while the
remainder of the casting is cooling in the sand mould. If the casting design
is incorrect and one area of a casting cools too quickly, a casting will crack.
This would require redesign, not for strength, but for thickness and shape so
that cooling is even in the mould.
When you preheat a casting before welding, imagine how it will expand and
Notes contract. Apply the heat evenly so that the casting will expand evenly and
not build up any internal stresses. Once the casting has been repaired, it
must be post-heated and cooled evenly. Uneven cooling causes uncontrolled
contraction, which will develop into shrinkage stresses within the casting
and lead to cracking.
Planning
If you choose to do a repair using the hot method, make sure you
have all your materials at hand. Planning a repair is more than half
the secret to success.
Deoxidized, ground or polished cast iron or iron carbon alloy steel will
oxidize when heated, showing colours that indicate its temperature Notes
(Figure 140). This is another method that can be used to judge the
approximate temperature of metal. When preheating metal, this method is
not as accurate as temperature-controlled methods or Tempilstiks°, but it is
very useful because it is convenient.
Avoid strong drafts and cold air. Do the repair away from open doors
and breezeways. A strong breeze or cold air could chill your casting and
cause your repair to crack and fail.
Insulating
Two very effective products for controlling cooling and keeping the heat in
the casting are Kaowool® and vermiculite. Other commonly used products
are dry sand, lime, absorbent clay (floor dry) and firebrick.
Kaowool®
Kaowool® is a mineral wool batting material. It comes in many sizes. A
common thickness is 2.5 cm (1 in.). It is used to line furnaces and as high-
temperature insulation.
On large casting repairs, you can preheat your casting, then have a helper
Notes continue keeping the casting warm while you weld up the fracture. Once
the repair is done, evenly post-heat the complete casting. Cover with
Kaowool® and let it cool as slowly as possible.
Vermiculite
Vermiculite is commonly used to insulate hollow concrete block walls and to
condition soil. It is a lightweight, granular material that can be purchased at
most garden supply stores. Vermiculite is also called “perlite.” Vermiculite is
light and clean. It can be reused many times.
Dry sand and lime can be used to control cooling on casting repairs.
But they are not the best insulator, since they will absorb a great deal
of heat.
Dry sand, lime and absorbent clay are used in the same way as vermiculite.
Remember, the barrel containing the hot casting must be marked “HOT.”
Firebrick
Firebrick can be stacked into the shape of a custom-made furnace for heating
your casting. Although the firebrick keeps the outside air from cooling what
is inside, it does not insulate well. However, firebrick does retain heat, acting
as a heat reservoir to slow the cooling of the casting.
• The nickel alloy weld deposit is relatively soft, allowing the casting to
be machined or drilled after welding.
• A 36% nickel iron alloy contracts much less than both carbon steel and
cast iron. You create a 36% nickel iron alloy like this when the nickel
filler metal mixes with the cast iron during welding. The less shrinkage
there is, the less chance there is for cracks to develop.
The main problem with using nickel alloys is that they cost five to ten times
as much as regular low-carbon steel electrodes. It is common for people
to argue about spending an extra $50 on the repair of a $1000 casting. In
reality, nickel electrodes are cost effective because they increase your chance
of success. Notes
In all cases, you must use minimum amperage when welding. The electrode
must fuse to the surface of the cast iron. You do not want deep penetration,
which dilutes the weld deposit alloy, increases the carbon content of the
filler and reduces its ductility.
Buttering
In a large weld joint on cast iron you can reduce the cost by limiting the
amount of nickel filler metal you use. This is done by a procedure called
“buttering.” “Buttering” means surfacing the weld joint with a nickel alloy,
then completing the weld with a less-expensive filler metal. The layer of
nickel filler metal is compatible with the cast iron base metal and provides a
base for the secondary filler metal. The secondary filler metal can be a lower
nickel alloy or low-carbon steel electrode.
Stop-hole drilling
If you are welding a crack, it is a good idea to drill a stop hole. This is a hole
3.2 mm (1⁄8 in.) in diameter drilled just beyond where the crack ends. The
aim is that if the crack spreads, it will stop at the hole. An alternative to stop-
hole drilling is to run a small weld bead at 90° across the end of the crack.
Welding procedures
Hot welding
When the casting has been preheated, the procedure is called “hot welding.”
Ideally, the entire casting should be preheated so that expansion and
contraction will be even throughout the structure. Small castings such as
sprockets or levers can be preheated using an oxy-fuel gas flame. A preheat of
about 260 ºC (500 ºF) is usually recommended to control distortion and slow
the cooling rate. Preheating also cleans the casting by burning off oily residue.
Once you have preheated a casting, complete the welding without delay
and without interruption.
For larger castings such as housings and machine frames, you should always
try to preheat the entire casting in a furnace or firebrick oven. Preheat to
about 510 ºC (950 ºF).
If the casting is cooled very slowly, you can use cast iron cored electrodes. To
promote slow, even cooling, reheat the casting in the oven, then bury it in
an insulating material.
Cold welding
Many small castings can be welded successfully without preheat, although
slow cooling is always essential. With cold welding, the aim is to keep the
casting as cool as possible. You should use a minimum of current and small-
diameter electrodes.
Apply just enough heat to ensure fusion. Large castings require extreme
Notes care, because the metal must not be heated in any one spot for longer
than necessary. Too much heat in one area causes uneven expansion and
contraction in the surrounding metal, which might lead to cracks or fractures.
One way to counteract bead shrinkage is to lightly peen each bead segment as
it cools (Figure 141). This highly recommended approach stretches the weld
metal, preventing (or at least reducing) bead shrinkage as the weld cools.
50 mm (2")
Repair time
If you will be using the cold welding procedure, take your time doing the
job. The common procedure is to start the job in the morning and do one
25 mm (1 in.) long weld bead at a time. Do not do the next weld until you Notes
can put your hand on the first weld and feel no discomfort.
Using the cold welding procedure, a 150-mm (6-in.) repair might take
all day to complete. You can do a small weld, peen it, then go work on
something else. Although the repair has taken all day, you will have spent
less than half an hour actually working on the repair.
Both hot welding and cold welding grey cast iron take about the same
amount of time to complete the repair. With cold welding, time is spent
waiting for each short bead to cool. With hot welding, time is spent on
preheating and controlled cooling of the repair.
R = welding rod
E = electrode
The next letters identify the filler metal. For example, CI stands for cast iron
and NI stands for nickel.
ESt group
Notes The ESt electrodes are not widely used. This is because it is almost impossible
to prevent the formation of a hardened zone between the weld and the base
metal. ESt electrodes are generally used only for repairing small surface pits
and cracks. Occasionally they are used for repairing castings that do not
require machining.
Bead shrinkage is a major problem with steel electrodes. Since steel shrinks
more than cast iron, high stresses develop as the weld area cools. This might
lead to cracking.
Steel electrodes are particularly good for penetrating corners and other
hard-to-reach places. They are more effective at joining parts that cannot be
properly cleaned before welding.
ENI group
The ENI or nickel electrodes are the most widely used for welding cast iron.
Welds made with these electrodes are ductile and can be machined even
without preheating. Nickel is particularly effective because it keeps mixing of
the base and weld metal to a minimum.
As the weld cools and solidifies, the graphite from the cast iron is not held
in solution by the nickel, but remains as flakes. This gives the deposit its
ductility and makes it easy to machine. The graphite flakes also increase
weld size, reducing shrinkage stresses.
Castings with higher graphite content are difficult to weld. The deposit
tends to “ball up,” preventing fusion with the parent metal. For these welds,
you should use an electrode with a greater graphite flux action.
The disadvantage of nickel as a filler metal is that it can only be used on cast
iron that can be scrupulously cleaned. Preheating will often clean cast iron
sufficiently, but sometimes the casting must be ground, wire brushed or
soaked in solvent. This can greatly increase the cost of the repair.
The most widely used electrode size is 3.2 mm (1⁄8 in.), although most
electrodes are available in sizes ranging from 2.5 mm (3⁄32 in.) to 3.2 mm
(1⁄8 in.). Current settings are generally low, from 70 A to 90 A. Both AC and
DC can be used. AC is preferred, because it gives a smoother operation at
low current values and produces a less-penetrating arc.
Your weld joint design depends on the thickness of the cast iron. On castings
up to 38 mm (1 1⁄2 in.) thick, a single vee joint is usually appropriate. With
On vee joints, the included angle should be 60° to 90°. On U joints, the
bevel face should slope at a 20° to 25° angle, and the root radius should be
4.8 mm (3⁄16 in.) to 6.4 mm (1⁄4 in.) (Figure 143).
60º–90º 20º–25º
r = 4.8–6.4 mm
1.6–3.2 mm 1.6–3.2 mm
3.2 mm 3.2 mm
20º–25º
60º–90º r = 4.8–6.4 mm
1.6–3.2 mm 1.6–3.2 mm
3.2 mm 3.2 mm
Often it is not practical to make a root face and gap. The alternative is to leave
part of the fracture line on the mating surfaces to allow exact positioning of
the broken pieces. This is called a “fracture match.”
Full penetration might not be possible unless you back-gouge. In most cases,
back-gouging is not an option. The weld itself will be stronger than the cast
iron, so incomplete penetration would not be a concern.
On small castings, you can bevel with a grinding wheel. For castings thicker
than 25 mm (1 in.), you should use an carbon arc gouging torch or a
pneumatic bevelling machine. You could also use a pneumatic chipping
hammer to rough out the grooves and then finish them by grinding. The
disadvantage of chipping is that it can cover up critical defects in the castings.
After grinding a cast iron surface in preparation for welding, you can use
an oxidizing flame to burn off any trace amounts of graphite smeared over
the surface by the grinding wheel. Other ways to finish the ground surface
are to hand file or use a carbide burr on a die grinder. Repair literature often
suggests this extra step.
Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
1. Which of the following filler metals for welding grey cast iron has a nickel
base?
a. ESt
b. ENI
c. ECI
d. RCI
2. When hot welding large castings such as housings, you should preheat
the entire casting to
a. 200 °C (390 °F)
b. 250 °C (480 °F)
c. 390 °C (730 °F)
d. 510 °C (950 °F)
3. Low-carbon steel used to patch cast iron should not be more than
of the thickness of the cast iron.
a. 30%
b. 40%
c. 50%
d. 60%
5. The size of the electrode most commonly used for SMAW grey cast iron is
a. 1.6 mm (1⁄16 in.)
b. 2.5 mm (3⁄32 in.)
c. 3.2 mm (1⁄8 in.)
d. 4.0 mm (5⁄32 in.)
7. Which of the following helps to control weld bead shrinkage when cold
welding grey cast iron?
a. peening right after depositing each weld bead segment
b. machining right after depositing each weld bead segment
c. quenching after the weld is completed
d. post-heating the weldment
8. Which butt joint preparation should you use for very thick castings?
a. square butt
b. single vee butt
c. double U butt
d. double vee butt
11. The main reason to preheat a grey cast iron welding repair is
a. to reduce the rate of cooling of the repair
b. to increase the rate of cooling of the repair
c. to prevent the casting from shrinking
d. to prevent the casting from distorting
12. Which of the following is the most effective way to measure the
Answers temperature of your preheat?
a. temperature colour chart
b. ultraviolet temperature sensor
c. temperature crayon
d. rate of the heat waves rising from the surface of the casting
P4-9
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-9
Outcomes
This Theory Competency will introduce you to the welding of stainless steel alloys.
It includes information on the hazards associated with stainless steel and its proper
handling.
Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in Module P4, you will take
a written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions
that are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-9:
Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.
Optional: The following resources are optional and are NOT required to complete this
Theory Competency. The optional resources provide further information on a specific
topic. If you want more information on these resources, please see your instructor.
The majority of stainless steel is used to provide a clean and rust-free surface.
Stainless steel is commonly used in the medical equipment, bakery, dairy,
brewing, petrochemical and pulp and paper industries. Most consumers are
aware of the characteristics of stainless steel, because the alloy is so common
in food utensils and kitchenware.
Safety precautions
Radiation
You are already familiar with arc flash. When welding stainless steel, be
mindful that large areas of the material reflect light better than carbon
steels. It is common for Welders to be burned on the back of the neck or
ears when welding in an area panelled with stainless steel sheet. A cloth
hood worn under the welding helmet prevents this sort of injury.
Welding slag
The coating on a stainless steel weld bead remains on the surface of the
bead until it starts to cool. At that point, it pops off violently. It is common
to be hit in the face by hot-popping slag after welding. Caution and a pair of
safety glasses will prevent personal injury.
Hexavalent chromium
From the description above, it would seem that if the material is used in
food preparation, it must be safe. Although that is true of the finished
product, some forms of chromium can be hazardous.
We all have chromium in our bodies, and in fact we require chromium three.
One kind of chromium, called “chromium six” or “hexavalent chromium,”
can be dangerous. Hexavalent chromium particles can be created during
welding and grinding operations. These are a cancer risk to workers if inhaled.
For this reason, there must be active ventilation wherever any chromium
Notes alloy is being welded or ground. The workers are also wise to wear an
approved respirator.
Many of the paste compounds or solutions used for pickling and passivating
are highly corrosive. It is important to read the labels on the containers and
make sure that you are using rubber gloves and face protection. You must
consult the MSDS at your workplace. You are dealing with very powerful
acids, and being too careful is better than being not careful enough.
These alloys are made from elemental iron, chromium and nickel. Their
carbon content is very low, 0.15% to as little as 0.03%.
If carbon steels make contact with stainless alloys, they will cause
a rust stain to appear on the surface of the stainless steel. The stain
often appears weeks or months later when the piece is put into
service. If you inspect scrap stainless steel in a salvage bin, you will
often see evidence of carbon steel contamination.
For this reason, you must prevent stainless steel from coming into contact
with carbon steel. Follow these guidelines:
Be aware that distortion problems are greater when welding stainless
steels compared to carbon steels. The same measures taken to
control distortion with carbon steels can be used with stainless steels.
• Use a high nickel content filler metal (E309, E312). Otherwise, the
fusion zone of the weld bead could become extremely hard and
brittle, resulting in cracking and failure during service.
• Corrosion resistance is greatly reduced in the area of the weld deposit
next to the carbon steel.
• A carbon steel part completely covered in stainless steel weld beads
would be protected from corrosion. A common practice is to build a
carbon steel tank or container, then line the inside with stainless steel
weld beads. This might be cheaper than building the tank out of solid
stainless steel or using carbon steel plate clad with a layer of stainless
steel on one side.
Notes
Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
3. You should wear safety glasses all the time when welding stainless steel,
even under your welding helmet, because
a. you need the extra protection from the reflection of light
b. you need the protection from fumes reaching your eyes
c. you need protection because arc strikes are more dangerous
d. hot slag pops off the weld beads without warning
4. The post-weld treatment for stainless steel that places a thin layer of
chromium oxide on the surface is called
a. anodizing
b. pickling
c. passivating
d. acid etching
P4-10
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-10
Outcomes
This Theory Competency will introduce you to guided bend tests.
When you have completed the Learning Tasks in this Theory Competency, you should be
able to describe:
• the three types of guided bend tests and the equipment used
• the preparation of bend test coupons
• the requirements for determining whether a bend test is successful
Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in Module P4, you will take
a written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions
that are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-10:
Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.
This is the most common procedure used to evaluate welds and qualify
Welders. You should expect to repeat similar exercises throughout your career.
Always consult the welding inspector and your supervisor to confirm the exact
methods required. A simple misunderstanding can result in a failure.
The bend test coupon is then placed in a guided bend test jig (Figure 144).
As the punch is lowered (usually by hydraulic pressure), the coupon bends to
take the shape of the die. The size and shape of the test jig will depend on the
welding code requirement and the size and strength of the test weldment.
Guided bend test jigs can be of an alternate design using rollers, but regardless
of their design, the weld test coupon must be bent to a specific radius to meet
specific welding code requirements.
Punch
(Plunger)
Coupon
Die
The bend test coupon is then removed from the jig and the weld area is
Notes examined for cracks or other defects. Welds that display cracks or open
discontinuities measuring more than 3 mm (1⁄8 in.) in any direction are
considered defective. Cracks occurring at the corners of the coupon are
not considered unless there is definite evidence of slag inclusion or other
discontinuity.
Punch
Root
Weld face
Face
Punch
Notes
Face
Weld root
Root
As the punch is lowered, the tensile stress tends to pull the weld metal away
from the base metal through the depth of the weld.
Punch
Coupon
Die
Failure on bend tests can also result from poor ductility in the electrode or
Notes using an electrode that is not compatible with the base metal.
Some metals, such as high-alloy steel, do not bend easily. They will fail a bend
test even though the weld is sound. Bend tests are not particularly appropriate
for evaluating weld quality on weld joints of high-alloy steels or on weld joints
in which the electrode characteristics do not match those of the base metal.
Notes
Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.
2. A weld bend test coupon will fail the bend test if an open discontinuity
appears that is greater than
a. 1.6 mm (1⁄16 in.)
b. 3.0 mm (1⁄8 in.)
c. 4.0 mm (5⁄32 in.)
d. 5.0 mm (3⁄16 in.)
3. Face and root bend tests are used for material with a thickness of
or less.
a. 6 mm (1⁄4 in.)
b. 13 mm (3⁄8 in.)
c. 20 mm (3⁄4 in.)
d. 25 mm (1 in.)
4. Side bends are normally performed when the material thickness is over
a. 6 mm (1⁄4 in.)
b. 13 mm (3⁄8 in.)
c. 20 mm (3⁄4 in.)
d. 25 mm (1 in.)
Figure 148
Notes
3. a. coated electrode
8. b. voltage
9. c. arc voltage
Self-Test 2
1. b. avoid touching the victim if he or she is still in contact with the
source of power
2. a. metal container
5. c. 12 m (40 ft.)
7. b. No. 12
9. a. dark
Practical Exercise
Answer to Part A
3. b. Doubling the length of leads will double the resistance and double
the voltage loss (3.72 V).
3. c. Doubling the amperage will double the resistance and double the
voltage loss (3.72 V).
3. d. Doubling both the length of leads and the amperage will quadruple
the resistance and quadruple the voltage loss. (7.44 V)
Answer to Part B
0.25 Ω/km = 0.000 25 Ω/m
Cable length = 100 m × 2 = 200 m (allow for both the electrode and
workpiece leads)
The voltage drop is excessive. Use larger welding leads or reduce the distance.
Self-Test 1
1. a. amperage
2. c. resistance
3. c. greater
4. a. E = I × R
5. c. increase
6. c. a magnetic field
8. b. windings
9. b. lower
Self-Test 2
1. d. all of the above Notes
2. c. Electrons flow consistently from the negative pole to the positive pole.
6. a. in the electrode
8. d. DC current
Self-Test 3
1. a. arc voltage increases and amperage decreases
2. c. volt-amp curve
3. b. after the welding power source is turned on and before the arc is struck
4. a. arc voltage
5. c. maintain stable amperage levels even when the arc voltage fluctuates
Self-Test 4
1. b. lower voltage and higher current than the line supply
2. a. AC only
7. b. an engine-driven generator
10. d. inverter
14. d. should be used for home repair projects needing less than 20% duty
cycle operation
Self-Test 5
1. b. twist-head type
4. d. magnetic clamp
6. a. greater flexibility
8. d. mechanical
6. b. cellulose
7. c. potassium
9. b. electromagnetic
Self-Test 2
1. b. filler metal and coating type
2. a. megapascals
3. c. welding position
4. a. last digit
Self-Test 3
1. b. coating ingredients
2. c. a smaller diameter
3. a. deeper penetration
4. c. E4310 (E6010)
5. b. AC and DC
6. a. E4313 (E6013)
7. d. E4924 (E7024)
9. b. is low in hydrogen
Self-Test 4
1. c. porosity
3. c. crack
4. b. discarded
5. d. 7%
6. c. 2 to 4 hours
2. d. lap
5. d. open
6. a. 1:2.5
7. a. sheet metal
8. d. butt
9. b. single bevel
10. a. single U
Self-Test 2
1. 1. e. groove weld, 2. b. fillet weld, 3. d. surfacing weld, 4. c. tack weld,
5. a. plug weld
2. c. fillet weld
9. b. convex
Self-Test 3
1. a. flat
2. a. flat
3. b. horizontal
4. a. flat
5. d. overhead
6. c. vertical
10. b. vertical
2. c. porosity
3. b. lack of fusion
4. a. slag inclusion
5. d. undercut
7. b. high-alloy steel
9. a. cleaning all slag from the surface of the previous weld bead
Notes
10. d. improper electrode manipulation
Self-Test 2
1. Distortion is a change in shape of the weldment. Too much distortion
results in a weldment that exceeds dimensional tolerances.
2. Residual stress is the buildup of internal stresses within the weld metal
or base metal.
4. a. 1, 3
5. d. longitudinal
6. a. transverse
7. b. angular
14. c. intermittent
15. b. pre-bending
2. b. the same as
3. a. 10° to 20°
5. d. crackling sound
2. b. impact
3. b. tungsten carbide
5. a. spalling
6. c. preheating
7. a. peening
8. b. EFeCr-A1
9. d. EWC-20/30
10. d. ENiCr-A
3. d. 60%
4. a. 90°
6. b. 20°
8. c. double U butt
9. b. ESt
10. c. graphite
4. c. passivating
3. c. 20 mm (3⁄4 in.)
4. c. 20 mm (3⁄4 in.)
5. d. high-alloy steel
6. punch
8. die