Ramachandra College of Engineering

NH-5 Bypass Road, Vatluru(V), Eluru-534007, West Godavari Dt., A.P.

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Teaching Notes
Subject:Non conventional Energy Sources Faculty:K.Rajesh Babu

Branch & year :ECE- IV(A&B)

UNIT-1 Principles of Solar Radiation

Syllabus: Role & potential of new renewable source, the solar option, environmental
impact of solar power, physics of sun, the solar constant, extra terrestrial & terrestrial
solar radiation, Solar Radiation on titled surface, Instruments for measuring solar
radiation and sunshine, solar radiation data

Introduction:

The aim of this text is to analyze the full range of renewable energy supplies
available for modern economies. Such renewable are recognized as vital inputs for
sustainability and so encouraging their growth is significant. Subjects will include
power from wind, water, biomass, sunshine and other such continuing sources,
including wastes. Although the scale of local application ranges from tens to many
millions of watts, and the totality is a global resource, four questions are asked for
practical application:

1 How much energy is available in the immediate environment – what is the resource?

2 For what purposes can this energy be used – what is the end-use?

3 What is the environmental impact of the technology – is it sustainable?

4 What is the cost of the energy – is it cost-effective?

For all practical purposes energy supplies can be divided into two classes:

1. Renewable energy: „Energy obtained from natural and persistent flows of energy
occurring in the immediate environment‟. An obvious example is solar (sunshine)
energy, where „repetitive‟ refers to the 24-hour major period. Note that the energy is
already passing through the environment as a current or flow , irrespective of there
being a device to intercept and harness this power. Such energy may also be called
Green Energy or Sustainable Energy.

2 Non-renewable energy: „Energy obtained from static stores of energy that remain
underground unless released by human interaction‟. Examples are nuclear fuels and
fossil fuels of coal, oil and natural gas. Note that the energy is initially an isolated
energy potential, and external action is required to initiate the supply of energy for
practical purposes. To avoid using the ungainly word „non-renewable‟, such energy
supplies are called finite supplies or Brown Energy.

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Necessity of Renewable energy sources:

Many nations count on coal, oil and natural gas to supply most of their
energy needs, but reliance on fossil fuels presents a big problem. Fossil fuels are a
finite resource. Eventually, the world will run out of fossil fuels, or it will become too
expensive to retrieve those that remain. Fossil fuels also cause air, water and soil
pollution, and produce greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.

Renewable energy resources, such as wind, solar and hydropower, offer clean
alternatives to fossil fuels. They produce little or no pollution or greenhouse gases, and
they will never run out.

Advantages & disadvantages of Nonconventional/renewable energy sources:

Advantages:

1. Available free of cost

2. Cause no or very little pollution
3. Environment-friendly
4. Inexhaustible
5.Have low gestation period
6. Do not deplete natural resources
7. Can sustain energy supply for many generations.
Disadvantages:
1. available in dilute form in nature
2. Cost of harnessing energy is very high
3. Availability is uncertain
4. Difficulty in transporting such resources

Types of Non conventional Energy Sources:

 Solar Energy (energy from sun)

 Wind energy
 Energy from Bio Mass
 Geothermal Energy
 Energy from Oceans
 OTEC
 Tidal Energy
 Small Scale Hydro electric (Mini & Micro)
 Chemical energy sources
 Hydrogen energy
 Magneto hydro dynamics

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Potential of NCES:

 The non-conventional sources of energy in the country are available in abundance

and their potential is need to be utilized particularly in a country like India where
the basic economy of the majority of the people about 73 percent is based on
agriculture and the demand of energy of rural population is less as compared to
urban settlements. In a scenario of increasing urbanization and increasing demands
on commercial energy there is an urgent need to utilize the non-conventional source
of energy which has a large potential in the country.
 Our coastal areas have a large potential of wind energy while the potential of solar
energy in the country is of 20 MW / Km2. “Bio-gas” is another source of energy
which also has a big potential as we have a bulk of live stock. Majority of our rural
population still depends upon the locally available non-conventional sources of
energy based on animal dung, crop waste and full wood etc.
 In order to ensure the efficient use of conventional energy in an environment
friendly manner, it is important to promote the programmers for use of non-
conventional energy sources. So far, our national effort in development and
application of renewable energy has not yielded it any result of significance.

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 SOLAR POWER
What is solar Energy: so·lar en·er·gy (Noun) :Radiant energy Emitted by the sun

Solar power is energy from the sun. "Solar" is the Latin word for "sun" and
it's a powerful source of energy. Without it, there will be no life. Solar energy is
considered as a serious source of energy for many years because of the vast amounts of
energy that is made freely available, if harnessed by modern technology.
Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by
humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy
technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaic‟s, solar thermal electricity, solar
architecture and artificial photosynthesis, which can make considerable contributions
to solving some of the most urgent energy problems the world now faces. [1][2]
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active
solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active
solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to
harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun,
selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and
designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of
affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-
term benefits. It will increase countries‟ energy security through reliance on an
indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource,
enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change,
and keep fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the
additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning
investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared
Environmental Impact of solar power
Solar energy has the potential to dramatically change the way the world gets its
power. Enough solar energy falls on a 100-square-mile area of the southwestern United
States to power the entire nation. While solar is among the world's cleanest forms of
energy, plans to develop utility scale solar farms have raised concerns about potential
environmental impacts.
Climate Change
The burning of fossil fuels for energy remains the world's No. 1 source of carbon
dioxide emissions. Solar power is sometimes described as a zero emissions or
emissions-free form of energy, and it is true that greenhouse gas emissions from solar
are negligible . However, the construction of new utility scale solar energy projects is
bound to result in some greenhouse gas emissions. This fact is acknowledged in the
Final Environmental Impact Statement for one proposed solar farm in California.
Water
Creating energy is a water intensive process. In the U.S., electricity production
accounts for more than 40 percent of all daily freshwater withdrawals. Solar
photovoltaic systems do not require any water to generate electricity. Some solar
thermal systems use water, but this water can be reused. Utility scale parabolic and
central tower solar energy systems use steam plants to produce power, often relying on
water for cooling . There is some concern that these types of systems, when located in
arid environments, could put a strain on local water resources.

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 Land
When placed on existing structured, such as the rooftop of a home or office
building, solar energy systems require negligible amount of land space. Utility scale
solar farms, on the other hand, do require large amounts of land to produce electricity
on a commercial scale. This fact raises concerns about the potential impact of such
projects on natural habitats, concerns the EPA is working to address by siting
renewable energy projects on contaminated lands and mine sites.
Hazardous Waste
Solar photovoltaic panels may contain hazardous materials that could be
released when a panel is damaged or disposed of improperly . Concentrating solar
energy systems may also use potentially hazardous materials like oils and molten salts,
creating the potential for spills.
Visual
One person's beauty is another person's eyesore. For some, solar panels evoke
positive feelings, even when set in a natural landscape. For others, the sight of a solar
panel invading a pristine desert environment is gut wrenching. It's largely a matter of
opinion.
Solar Constant:
The solar constant, a measure of flux density, is the amount of
incoming solar electromagnetic radiation per unit area that would be incident on a
plane perpendicular to the rays, at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) (roughly
the mean distance from the Sun to the Earth). When solar irradiance is measured on
the outer surface of Earth's atmosphere, the measurements can be adjusted using
the inverse square law to infer the magnitude of solar irradiance at one AU and deduce
the solar constant.

Solar radiation reaches the Earth‟s surface at a maximum flux density of about
1.0kWm−2 in a wavelength band between 0.3 and 2.5 µm. This is called short wave
radiation and includes the visible spectrum. For inhabited areas, this flux varies from
about 3 to 30MJm−2 day−1, depending on place, time and weather. The spectral
distribution is determined by the 6000 K surface temperature of the Sun. This is an
energy flux of very high thermodynamic quality, from an accessible source of
temperature very much greater than from conventional engineering sources. The flux
can be used both thermally (e.g. for heat engines) or, more importantly, for
photochemical and photo physical processes (e.g. photovoltaic power and
photosynthesis).The temperatures of the Earth‟s atmosphere, at about 230 K, and the
Earth‟s surfaces, at about 260–300 K, remain in equilibrium at much less than the
6000 K temperature of the Sun. Therefore the outward radiant energy fluxes emitted by
the Earth‟s atmosphere and surfaces are also of the order of 1kW m−2, but occur in an
infrared wavelength band between about 5 and 25 µm, called long wave radiation ,
peaking at about 10 µm Consequently, the short and long wave radiation regions can
be treated as quite distinct from each other, which is a powerful analytical method in
environmental science

For this equation the P of the sun is 3.9x10^26 W. the radius from the earth to the sun
is given as 1.5x10^11 m. I = P/4πr² = 3.9x10^26/4π (1.5x10^11)²

I = (3.9/4*2.25π) x10^ (26-22) = 1.38x10³ W/m² = 1.38 kW/m²

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Solar Radiation at Earth’s Surface

The solar radiation that penetrates the earth‟s atmosphere and reaches the
surface differs in both amount and character from radiation at the top of the
atmosphere. The radiation entering the atmosphere is partly absorbed by molecules,
and a part of the radiation is reflected back into the space by clouds. Part of the solar
radiation is scattered by droplets in clouds by atmospheric molecules and dust
particles. Oxygen and ozone absorb nearly all the ultraviolet radiation where as CO2
and H2O vapor absorbs some energy from infrared range.

1. Part of the radiation is reflected back into the space, especially by clouds.

2. Oxygen and ozone absorbs nearly all the ultraviolet radiation and water vapour and
CO2 absorb some of the energy in the infrared range.

3. Some part of the solar energy radiation is scatted by droplets in the clouds by
atmospheric molecules, and by dust particles.

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Extra terrestrial & terrestrial solar radiation :
Nuclear fusion reactions in the active core of the Sun produce inner
temperatures of about 107K and an inner radiation flux of uneven spectral
Distribution. This internal radiation is absorbed in the outer passive layers
which are heated to about 5800 K and so become a source of radiation with a
relatively continuous spectral distribution. The radiant flux (W/m 2)

From the Sun at the Earth‟s distance varies through the year by ±4%
because of the slightly non-circular path of the Earth around the Sun The
radiance also varies by perhaps ±0.3 per cent per year due to sunspots; over the
life of the Earth, there has been probably a natural slow decline of very much
less annual significance. None of these variations are significant for solar energy
applications, for which we consider extra-terrestrial solar irradiance to be
constant.

Some Basic Definitions:

Local Solar time: It is a reckoning of the passage of time based on the Sun's position in
the sky. The fundamental unit of solar time is the day. Two types of solar time
are apparent solar time (sundial time) and mean solar time (clock time).

Apparent solar time or true solar time is based on the apparent motion of the
actual Sun. It is based on the apparent solar day, the interval between two successive
returns of the Sun to the local meridian.[4][5] Solar time can be crudely measured by
a sundial.
The length of a solar day varies through the year, and the accumulated effect produces
seasonal deviations of up to 16 minutes from the mean. The effect has two main
causes. First, Earth's orbitis an ellipse, not a circle, so the Earth moves faster when it
is nearest the Sun (perihelion) and slower when it is farthest from the Sun (aphelion)
(see Kepler's laws of planetary motion). Second, due to Earth's axial tilt (known as
the obliquity of the ecliptic), the Sun's annual motion is along a great circle (the ecliptic)
that is tilted to Earth's celestial equator. When the Sun crosses the equator at
both equinoxes, the Sun's daily shift (relative to the background stars) is at an angle to
the equator, so the projection of this shift onto the equator is less than its average for

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the year; when the Sun is farthest from the equator at both solstices, the Sun's shift in
position from one day to the next is parallel to the equator, so the projection onto the
equator of this shift is larger than the average for the year (see tropical year). Also, in
June and December when the sun is farthest from the celestial equator a given shift
along the ecliptic corresponds to a larger shift on the equator. So apparent solar days
are shorter in March and September than in June or December.

Solar Angles

1 Solar Altitude Solar altitude (b ) is the angle ROQ (Figure 1) on a vertical plane
between the sun's rays and the horizontal plane on the earth's surface.

2 Solar Azimuth Solar azimuth (f ) is the angle SOQ (Figure 1) on a horizontal plane
between the due-south direction line and the horizontal projection of the sun's rays.

3. Surface-solar Azimuth Surface-solar azimuth (g) is the angle POQ (Figure 1) on a

horizontal plane between the normal to a vertical surface and the horizontal projection
of the sun's rays.

Figure 1.Solar Angle with Respect to the Horizontal and Vertical Surfaces

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 Figure 2 Solar Intensity and Angle of Incidence

4. Surface Azimuth

Surface azimuth ( ) is the angle POS (Figure 1) on a horizontal plane between the
normal to a vertical surface and the north-south direction line.

5. Hour Angle

Hour angle (H) is the angle SPD (Figure 1) on a horizontal plane between the local
solar noon (meridian which contains the south-north line) PS and the horizontal
projection of the sun's rays PD. The hour angle is given by:

degree (1) where T = solar time

In the morning, the hour angle is positive. At noon the hour angle is zero. In the
afternoon, the hour angle is negative.

6.Angle of Incidence

The angle of incidence () is the angle between the sun's rays irradiated on a
surface and the line normal to this surface. In Figure 3, the angle of incidence q H for a
horizontal surface is ROV; for vertical surface, the angle of incidence q V is ROP. In
Figure 2, the angle of incidence between the sun's rays and a tilted surface is q S ,
where q S is given by:

(2)

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7. Solar Intensity

The solar intensity at a direction normal to the title surface (I  ) is the vector sum
of the components along the line normal of the titled surface.

(3)

where IDN = the solar intensity irradiated on a surface normal to the sun's rays,For
a horizontal surface S = 0o, the solar intensity normal to the horizontal surface is:

(4)

For a vertical surface S = 90 o, the solar intensity normal to the vertical surface is:

(5)

Figure 3. Solar Spectra Compared with The 600K Black Body Emission Spectrum

Instruments for measuring Solar Radiation:

The two basic types of instruments are employed for solar radiation measurement is: 1.
Pyrheliometer 2.phyranometer

1. Pyrheliometer:

A pyrheliometer is an instrument for direct measurement of solar irradiance.

Sunlight enters the instrument through a window and is directed onto a
thermopile which converts heat to an electrical signal that can be recorded. The signal
voltage is converted via a formula to measure watts per square metre. It is used with a
solar tracking system to keep the instrument aimed at the sun. A pyrheliometer is often
used in the same setup with a pyranometer.

Three pyrheliometers have been in wide spread use to measure normal indecent beam
radiation

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 The Angstrom pyrheliometer
 The abbot silver disc pyrheliometer
 Eppley pyrheliometer

2.phyranometer:
A pyranometer is a type of actinometer used to measure broadband solar
irradiance on a planar surface and is a sensor that is designed to measure the solar
radiation flux density (in watts per metre square) from a field of view of 180 degrees.
The name pyranometer stems from Greek, "pyr - πῦ ρ" meaning "fire" and "ano - ἄ νω"
meaning "above, sky". A typical pyranometer does not require any power to operate.
The solar radiation spectrum extends approximately from 300 to 2,800 nm.
Pyranometers usually cover that spectrum with a spectral sensitivity that is as “flat” as
possible.To make a measurement of irradiance, it is required by definition that the
response to “beam” radiation varies with the cosine of the angle of incidence, so that
there will be a full response when the solar radiation hits the sensor perpendicularly
(normal to the surface, sun at zenith, 0 degrees angle of incidence), zero response when
the sun is at the horizon (90 degrees angle of incidence, 90 degrees zenith angle), and
0.5 at 60 degrees angle of incidence. It follows that a pyranometer should have a so-
called “directional response” or “cosine response” that is close to the ideal cosine
characteristic.
The following are the types of pyranometers:
 Eppley pyranometers
 Yellot solarimeter
 Moll-Gorczyheski solarimeter
 Bimetallic Actino graphs of the rabitzsch type
 Velochme pyranometers
 Thermo electric pyranometers

Sunshine Recorders:
A sunshine recorder is a device that records the amount of sunshine at a given
location. The results provide information about the weather and climate of geo
graphical area.
This information is useful in meteorology, science, agriculture, tourism, and other
fields. There are two basic types of sunshine recorders. One type uses the sun itself as
a times scale for the sunshine readings. The other type uses some form of clock for the
time scale.

A Jordan sunshine recorder (left). The other instrument is a Marvin sunshine recorder.

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 Older recorders required a human observer to interpret the results; recorded
results might differ among observers. Modern sunshine recorders use electronics and
computers for precise data that do not depend on a human interpreter. Newer recorders
can also measure the global and diffuse radiation

Solar Radiation Data:

1. Solar radiation data are available in several forms and should include the following
information.

Whether they are instantaneous measurements or values integrated over some

period of time
The time or time period of the measurements
Whether the measurements are of beam, diffuse or total radiation and the
instrument used.
The receiving surface orientation
If averaged, the period over which they averaged.

2. Solar radiation received on the surface of the earth are measured by solar meter,
which give readings for instantaneous measurement at rate throughout the day for
total radiation on a horizontal surface.

3. 1 langley =1 cal/cm2

4. In Calcutta =680 langleys = 680 cal/cm2/day

Solar radiation incident on the atmosphere from the direction of the Sun is
the solar extraterrestrial beam radiation. Beneath the atmosphere, at the Earth‟s
surface, the radiation will be observable from the direction of the Sun‟s disc in the
direct beam, and also from other directions as diffuse radiation. Figure 1 is a sketch of
how this happens. Note that even on a cloudless, clear day, there is always at least 10%
diffuse irradiance from the molecules in the atmosphere. The practical distinction
between the two components is that only the beam radiation can be focused. The ratio
between the beam irradiance and the total irradiance thus varies from about 0.9 on a
clear day to zero on a completely overcast day. It is important to identify the various
components of solar radiation and to clarify the plane on which the irradiance is being
measured. We use subscripts as illustrated in Figure 2: b for beam, d for diffuse, t for
total, h for the horizontal plane and c for the plane of a collector. The asterisk∗ denotes
the plane perpendicular to the beam. Subscript 0 denotes values outside the
atmosphere in space. Subscripts and t are assumed if no subscripts are given, so that
Gno subscript ≡ Gtc

Figure 1: origin of direct beam & diffuse radiation

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Fig:2 Techniques to measure various components of solar radiation. The detector is
assumed to be a black surface of unit area with a filter to exclude long wave radiation.
(a) Diffuse blocked. (b) Beam blocked. (c) Total.

Figure 2 shows that

Gbc= G∗bcos θ (1)

where θ is the angle between the beam and the normal to the collector face. In
particular,

Gbh= G∗bcos θz (2)

where θz is the (solar) zenith angle between the beam and the vertical. The total
irradiance on any plane is the sum of the beam and diffuse components so:

Gt= Gb+ Gd (3)

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