Understanding Culture,

Society, and Politics

MODULE 14:
Religion and
Belief Systems
 MODULE 14:
Religion and Belief Systems

 Functions of Religion
 Kinds of Religious patterns
 Institutionalized Religion
 Types of Religious Practitioners
 Various forms of Religious Activities
 Religious Organizations
 Types of Cults
RELIGION
According to Anthropologists,
Religion is “a set of attitudes, beliefs,
and practices, pertaining to
supernatural beings and forces. Such
beliefs may vary within a culture as
well as among societies, and they may
change over time” (Ember, Ember,
and Peregrine,2010)
 RELIGIOUS AND
NON-RELIGIOUS PHENOMENA

Kikuyu of Kenya In most societies

Vomiting is a religious Vomiting is not
practice as it eliminates considered religious, as
all the evil in a person’s it is understood as a
body. typical biological event.
 SPIRITUAL AND NATURAL WORLD

Nyoro (Uganda) Christians

Believe that the two Believe that there is a
worlds are not separate spiritual world
and that they coexist in (i.e.,heaven/hell) that is
one space. separated from the
natural world (ie., Earth).
RELIGION
 Religions are different in terms of
perspectives and practices.

 Religion can be found in all human

societies which makes it cultural
universal.
 RELIGION DURING
THE ANCIENT PERIODS

 Early societies (Egyptians, Greeks,

and Sumerians used religious
symbols and practiced ritualistic
ceremonies, which made religion
one of the central parts of the
development of human societies.
 RELIGION DURING
THE ANCIENT PERIODS

EVIDENCES:
 Cave wall carvings - Evidence of the ealiest record on
the existence of religion that dates to 60 000 years ago
The Sorcerer of Les Gabillou in
Dordogne, France
The Sorcerer is one name for an
enigmatic cave painting found in the cavern
known as 'The Sanctuary' at the Cave of the
Trois-Frères, Ariège, France, made around
13,000 BC. The figure's significance is
unknown, but it is usually interpreted as some
kind of great spirit or master of animals. The
unusual nature of The Sanctuary's decoration
may also reflect the practice of magical
ceremonies in the chamber.
 RELIGION DURING
THE ANCIENT PERIODS

EVIDENCES:
 Religion and mythology of Ancient Greece
 RELIGION DURING
THE ANCIENT PERIODS
 Religion affects us and our way of thinking in
the existing world. It serves as a pattern for
the actions we take in day-to-day existence.
Religion is seen not only as a social belief but
also as a social institution that continues to
develop over time.
 Sociologists study religion while considering
diverse societal factors such as gender, age,
race, and education, that also tap other social
institutions and the concept of social change.
 FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION

Major Sociological Theories and

Their Major Assumptions Concerning Religion
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE MAJOR ASSUMPTIONS

Functionalism Emile Durkheim

Religion serves several functions for society.
1. Giving meaning and purpose to life.
2. Reinforcing social unity and stability
3. Serving as an agent of social control of
behavior.
4. Promoting physical and psychological
well-being
5. Motivating people to work for positive
social change
 FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION

Conflict Theory Major Sociological

Karl Marx Theories and
Religion reinforces
Their Major Assumptions Concerningand promotes
Religionsocial
inequality and social conflict. It helps
convince the poor to accept their lot in life,
and it leads to hostility and violence
motivated by religious differences.
Symbolic Interactionism Max Weber
This perspective focuses on the ways in
which individuals interpret their religious
experiences. It emphasizes that beliefs and
practices are not sacred unless people regard
them as such. Once they are regarded as
sacred, they take on special significance and
give meaning to people’s lives.
Source: Barkan, Steven. “Sociological Perspectives on Religion.” In Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World,
comprehensive edition.
 RELIGIOUS PATTERNS

ANIMISM POLYTHEISM MONOTHEISM

ANIMISM
 Belief that the natural world, as a whole or
in parts, has a soul or spirit.
As a whole = World Spirit, Mother Earth, Gaia
In parts = rocks, trees, springs, and animals.

 Natural phenomena and environmental

destructions are understood as
repercussions of the interaction between
humans and spirits.
ANIMISM
 In animism, Spirits can be in either good or bad
form which can make interactions and influences
on humans in various ways and forms
*Bad spirits = negative energies, possessions, demonic
disturbances and cases of insanity.
*Good spirits = attributes that aid humans in acquiring
their needs and addressing their issues.
 Native Americans try to gain favors through
festivals, ceremonies, and prayers.
Ex: Lakota Sioux War Dance
- performed by the Lakota Sioux.
POLYTHEISM
 Belief in more than one deity which is
characterized by the worship of many deities
that illustrate the ways of life including beliefs,
practices and traditions.
 Rooted from the words: poly, which means
“many”, and theism which means “god”.
 Polytheistic deities consist of variants such as:
Sky god, Death deity , Mother goddess ,
Love goddess, Creator deity, Trickster deity , Life-
death-rebirth deity, Culture hero
POLYTHEISM
 David Hume in The Natural History of
Religion (1755) argued that polytheism was the
earliest form of religion among several
societies. The ideas of religion are said to be
rooted in the “events of life including hopes
and fears which actuate the human mind.”
(Launay, 2005)
Ex: Polytheistic societies ( Greeks, Romans,
Indians , Aztecs)
Hinduism
POLYTHEISM
Hinduism
Considered as the world's oldest
religion still being practiced today.
There is only one supreme
god in Hinduism, Brahma, and all
other deities are his aspects and
reflections. Since Brahma is too
immense a concept for the human
mind to comprehend, he presents
himself in the many different
versions of himself which people
recognize as deities such as Vishnu,
Shiva, and the many others.
POLYTHEISM
Ganesh (Ganapati)
*One of the Hindu gods - an elephant-headed
god.
*god of wisdom and learning, as well as the
remover of obstacles, and consequently the
sign of auspiciousness.
*said to have written down the Mahabharata
from the dictation of Vyasa. He is the lord
(Isa) of the Ganas or troops of inferior deities,
but more well-known as the son of Shiva and
Parvati.
*in the most common representations of
Ganesh, he appears as a pot-bellied figure,
usually but not always yellow in color. In his
four hands, he holds a shell, a discus, a club,
and a water lily; his elephant head has only
one tusk.
MONOTHEISM
 Belief in one god, which is accountable for all
the things happening in the world including
the world’s creation and existence.
 Scholars argue that as human societies affiliate
with a few of the gods in the pantheon, they
have come to practice exclusive worship of
several deities that was promoted with the
ascension of a singular chosen deity to
supremacy.
MONOTHEISM
 Hume (2015) believed that the differences
between polytheism and monotheism led to
the changes of the human mind, wherein
rationality is more associated with
monotheism while tolerance is to polytheism.

 Ex: Christians and Muslims

 INSTITUTIONALIZED RELIGION

 Also called as Organized Religion, is

religion in which belief systems and
rituals are systematically arranged and
formally established.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
INSTITUTIONALIZED RELIGION:

1. Wide-scale religious clout

The number of individuals affiliated with this religious
institution is immense that it crosses political and
international borders and cuts across social status.

2. Hierarchical leadership and membership

Followers of this type of faith system are relegated to
socio-political posts within the system, which provides
ranking and status. This implies that access to the divine may
not be given to every member but is a privilege of a select few.
The decisions for the welfare of the religious group are also
made by those who hold power while members are expected
to follow them.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
INSTITUTIONALIZED RELIGION:

3. Codified Rituals
Processes of interacting with the divine and
with fellow members are guided by written rules and
regulations that have the power of the law , such that
a member’s inability to comply results in the
imposition of sanctions.
 INSTITUTIONALIZED RELIGION

 Growth of neolithic societies = rise of

institutionalized religions.
 As the societies grow more complex, the
systems of worshipping the divine became
more structured.
 The declaration of a country’s official
religion is premier example of how a
religion is institutionalized.
 SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE

 The 1987 Philippine Constitution Article III Section 6

states that “The separation of Church and state shall be
inviolable”
Article III Section 5:
No law shall be made respecting an establishment of
religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. The free exercise
and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without
discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious
test shall be required for the exercise of civil or political rights.

 However, despite such provisions, the religious culture of

the Filipinos have oftentimes empower the religious
sectors to influence the political affairs of the country.
 SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE

 *In ancient Societies, the church and state are

synonymous as the leaders of the church are also the
political elite which, also referred to as Theocracy or the
rule of divine.
Ex: Japanese society believed that their emperor was the
direct descendant of a god.
*Ancient Egyptians and Sumerians regarded their
pharaohs and kings as god-kings, as they were believed to be
earthly incarnations of the divine.

 As states developed into more complex political units, the

church is regarded as a separate entity from the state.
 TYPES OF RELIGIOUS
PRACTITIONERS

 Religious practices are performed by the individuals in

varying capacities.

Four main types of religious practitioners:

Shaman Sorcerer Priest

and witch
Medium
 SHAMAN
 also known as a community healer
 position usually occupied by a male who has
fairly high status in his community.
 also involved in other nonreligious activities
in his community, making his religious
function an occasional preoccupation.
 Shamanism was observed in most parts of
Asia . In the Philippines, it has been
practiced in the province of Siquijor.
SORCERER AND WITCH

 poorly regarded in their societies due to the

perceived malevolence that they inflict on
individuals
 have very low social and economic status and
often ostracized by members of the society.
 sorcerer uses “materials, objects and
medicines to invoke supernatural malevolence”
 witch can accomplish malevolence by means of
“thoughts and emotions alone”
 MEDIUM
 well favoured by the members of his\her
community as he\she is involved in healing
rituals while in a possessed trance.
 capable of performing divination to predict
future courses of action.
 most mediums tend to be females who
perform other roles when not in religious
practice.
 PRIEST
 tends to be a male whose sole
preoccupation is to officiate religious
ceremonies and rituals.
 due to his status in religious hierarchy,
he is highly regarded by community
members.
TYPES OF RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES

 Humans interact with the divine in various

forms.

Major forms of religious activities

1. Magic
2. Divination
3. Sorcery and Witchcraft
4. Prayers, Feasts, and Sacrifices
 MAGIC
 constitutes the “manipulation of supernatural
forces for the purpose of intervening in a wide
range of human activities and natural events”
 deals with solving a current problem by seeking
the intervention of the divine through the
performance and offering of gifts

Ex: the Native American practice of rain

dance to invoke deities to release rain
DIVINATION
 intends to gain from the divine practical
answers for any concern that may range from
war plans to marriage choices.

Ex: I-ching
- a Chinese numerical system that is
believed to predict future occurences.
- highly popular during the Warring States
Period of China as military leaders utilized it
to strategize campaigns.
SORCERY AND WITCHCRAFT

 popularized by modern literature (Harry

Potter novels), it have been depicted by
media as a socially accepted activity.

 usually marginalized and ostracized as they

perceived to be bringers of malevolence and
misfortune.
SORCERY AND WITCHCRAFT
 Sorcerer – inflicts harm on individuals by the use
of materials such as dolls, wands and medicines.
Ex: Voodoo – use materials related to the victim
(hair, pieces of clothing) to cast sickness and
pain to them.
 Witchcraft – promotes the same effect as the
sorcerer with a mere difference in method as the
witch craft only uses emotions and words of the
practitioner to impact its victim.
Ex: Kulam sa hangin – a Filipino belief which
inflicts harm on the victim through curses
uttered by a practitioner.
PRAYERS, FEASTS AND SACRIFICES

 promote a direct interaction with the

divine, as individuals or groups
communicate their thoughts and desires
to the supernatural through uttered
requests (prayers), celebrations (feasts),
and gifts (sacrifices).
 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS

 Human groups create various

religious organizations depending on
the political and economic norms of
their society.
 Anthropologists associate religious
organizations to the concept of cult.
 CULT
 A small group of individuals who have extreme religious
beliefs and practices.

“Cult is not a group of people, rather it is an organized

system associated with cultural beliefs and practices which
also make it a social structure”
– Anthony Wallace, an anthropologist

Four types of Cults:

1.Individualistic Cults
2.Shamanistic Cults
3.Communal Cults
4.Ecclesiastical Cults
 CULT
FOUR TYPES OF CULTS:

Individualistic Shamanistic
Communal Ecclesiastical
Cults Cults Cults Cults
CULT

 The degree of complexity of the organizations is

related to the extent by which labor
specialization is enforced in the society.
CULT
COMPLEXITY

RELIGIOUS STRUCTURE

I- Individualistic Cults
SOCIETY
S- Shamanistic Cults
C- Communal Cults
E- Ecclesiastical Cults
INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTS

 Practiced in food-collecting societies where equality is

central to the group’s culture
 Individuals are able to access the divine without
restrictions or need for an intercessor.
 Practice no role specialization further foster the capacity
of individual to communicate with the supernatural.
 Not an exclusive organization as it can be merged with
other form of cults.

Ex: Crow Indian practice of vision quest – a Crow Indian

male goes on a solitary journey to gain a divine relation to
his nature and identity.
SHAMANISTIC CULTS
 Similar to the structure of individualist cults except that this
type believes in shaman or medicine man.
 Present in most egalitarian societies that are based on
economies focused on foraging, horticulture, and
pastoralism.
 Functions of shaman includes:
*healing, intercession and punishment
 Authority is based on the participant’s belief on the
shaman’s religious experiences.
 Capacity to heal is gained through training from older
shamans
 Legitimacy of power is temporary depending on his
perceived efficiency.
COMMUNAL CULTS
 Similar to shamanistic cults, it allows a group direct
access to the divine except for situations that needs
shaman and witch’s expertise.
 Often present in societies with labor specialization
wherein, group of individuals has direct access to scarce
values and resources based on their economic
contribution.

Ex: Pastoral Societies – favour men as they are the ones

involved in animal herding. Wherein, men are also given
more access to religious activities and rituals.
ECCLESIASTICAL CULTS

 Have full time religious practitioners – Priests

 Often present in highly stratified societies where

individuals have unequal access to values and
resources.
 The belief in the supernatural is a cultural
universal as the need by humans to understand
their environment and self persists. Due to
economic and political differentiation, humans
tend to create varying religious norms and
practices. Religion is a mirror f one’s society as it
reflects the social dynamics experienced y its
members. An understanding of the variance of
religion promotes tolerance and acceptance
across societies.
 Understanding Culture,
Society, and Politics

GROUP 1
Aguas, Francis E.
Pantaleon, Rovic C.
De Leon, Coleen D.
Del Rosario, Mariez D.
Malabay, Marry Rose M.
Pineda, Wendy D.

Mr. Ariel Sobrevilla

Subject Teacher