DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

OF LOW POWER MONOPHONIC

FM TRANSMITTER

A MINI PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENT FOR THEAWARD OFMASTERS OF SCIENCE (M.Sc.)
DEGREE IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
(COMMUNICATION OPTION)
UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

JANUARY 2016

CERTIFICATION

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 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to the glory of the all mighty God, who has made it possible to complete

this project.

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 ABSTRACT

Generally, telecast and broadcast signals are carried by electromagnetic waves. Radio transmitter

is used mostly as a public medium for sending commercial broadcasts from a transmitter to

anyone with a radio receiver within its range, so it is known as a point-to-multipoint medium.

However, radio can also be used for private point-to-point transmissions. Radio transmitters are

said to be electronic units which accepts the information signal to be transmitted and converts it

into radio frequency signal capable of being transmitted over long distances. This project

presents a Frequency Modulated (FM) transmitter, a Very High Frequency (VHF) oscillator

capable of transmitting sound or music to any standard FM receiver. The circuit works on a

regulated 9Volts D.C power supply and consist of the oscillation circuit, the amplifier circuit and

a low pass filter circuit all designed using transistors and other component such resistor, inductor

and capacitors. The input to the transmitter is monophonic, a standard that has been around for a

long time making it compatible with millions of mono receivers in use. FM broadcasting was

originally monophonic, and the FCC standards were established for mono. This project transmits

on a frequency of 106.8MHz ± 5% and a transmitting distance of about 300metres in open air.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certification ii

Dedication iii

Acknowledgement iv

Abstract v

Table of Contents vi

List of Figures viii

List of Abbreviations and Symbols ix

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study 1

1.2 Statement of Problem 2

1.3 Aim and Objectives 3

1.4 Significance of the project 3

1.5 Methodology 3

1.6 Scope of Work 4

1.7 Operational Definition of Terms 4

1.8 Outline of Thesis 5

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Introduction 6

2.2 Literature Review 9

2.3 Theoretical Framework 9

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Design Consideration 12

3.2 Circuit Design 12

3.2.1 Power Supply Unit 12

3.2.2 Intermediate Frequency Section 14

3.2.2.1 Triangle Wave Generator 14

3.2.2.2 Noise Generator Circuit 15

3.2.2.3 Mixer 16

3.2.2.4 Clamper Circuit 17

3.2.3 Radio Frequency Section 18

3.2.3.1 Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) 18

3.2.3.2 Power Amplifier 19

3.2.3.3 Antenna 19

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1 Introduction 22

4.2 Results 22

4.3 Discussion of Results 23

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary of Findings 26

5.2 Conclusion 26

5.3.1 Future Studies 27

5.3.2 Recommendations 27
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REFERENCES 28

APPENDIX: List of components 30

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.0: Block diagram of a Jammer/ Signal blocker 6

Figure 3.1: Circuit Diagram of the Power Supply Unit 11

Figure 3.2: Schematic diagram of the IF section 13

Figure 3.3: Circuit of triangle wave generator 14

Figure 3.4: Circuit of the Noise Generator 15

Figure 3.5: The Mixer (Summer) Circuit 15

Figure 3.6: The Clamper circuit 16

Figure 3.7: The Intermediate Frequency (IF) Section 16

Figure 3.8: VCO Circuit diagram 18

Figure 3.9: Antenna 19

Figure 3.10: Schematic of the Radio Frequency Section 20

Figure 3.11: The project in a suitable package 23

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

FM Frequency Modulation

VHF Very High Frequency

MHz Mega Hertz, a unit of measuring frequency

DC Direct Current

RF Radio Frequency

R Resistor

C Capacitor

L Inductor

Ω Ohms, a unit of measuring resistance

μF Micro-Farad, a unit of measuring capacitance

dB Decibel

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Information transmission is very vital to human life just as the early men used sticks to produce

sound which indicates the location of each other as they wander about, the use of town criers in

the middle age era prepared the ground for the same information to be transmitted from one point

to another with the aid of radio frequency in modern day communication. This has necessitated

the design and application of radio transmitters and receivers.

Frequency modulation (FM) is a technique for wireless transmission of information where the

frequency of a carrier signal is changed in proportion to message signal which contains the

information (Chen, 2002). FM was invented and developed by Edwin Armstrong in the 1920’s

and 30’s. Frequency modulation was demonstrated to the Federal Communications Commission

(FCC) for the first time in 1940, and the first commercial FM radio station began broadcasting in

1945 (Mohn, 2007).

A radio transmitter is device whose major function is to send information (intelligence) from one

point to another in most cases the information to be transmitted are voice music and code signals.

However the transmission of radio signal is done with the aid of electrical resonance this is when

the frequency of the receiver is equal to the incoming one from the transmitter resonance is

observed which is the totality of radio communication, frequency modulation (FM) transmitter is

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less distorted than other wave bands like amplitude modulation and short wave band. The

frequency on the tuning dial ranges from 88MHZ to 108MHZ (Louis, 2008).

In telecommunications and signal processing, frequency modulation (FM) is the encoding of

information in a carrier wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave. This contrasts

with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier wave varies, while the

frequency remains constant. In analog frequency modulation, such as FM radio broadcasting of

an audio signal representing voice or music, the instantaneous frequency deviation, the

difference between the frequency of the carrier and its center frequency, is proportional to the

modulating signal. In radio transmission, an advantage of frequency modulation is that it has a

larger signal-to-noise ratio and therefore rejects radio frequency interference better than an equal

power amplitude modulation (AM) signal, though it has its disadvantage as it uses excessive

amount of spectrum space. In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant, while the carrier

frequency is varied by modulating signal. For this reason, most music is broadcast over FM

radio. However, the concept of FM is essential to a wide gamut of radio frequency wireless

devices and is therefore worth studying (“The Future of Radio”, 2008).

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The comparatively low cost of equipment for an FM broadcasting station, resulted in rapid

growth over the years due to nature of components such as valves used and the inability of

standard AM receivers to eliminate noise, poor audio fidelity and overcrowding in the AM

broadcast band. FM does not have these drawbacks and therefore can be used to transmit music,

reproducing the original performance with a degree of fidelity that cannot be reached on AM.

FM stereophonic broadcasting has drawn increasing numbers of listeners to popular as well as

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classical music, so that commercial FM stations draw higher audience ratings than AM stations.

Transistors and integrated chips have also played vital role in the wide proliferation of FM

receivers, as circuits got smaller it became easier to make a modular electronic device called the

“MP3 players”, which enables the portability of a music players and an AM/FM radio receivers.

This has resulted in the portability of a miniature FM receiver, which is carried by most people

when travelling on long trips. Listeners are most interested in easily being able to select radio

stations to have better sound quality and audibility and to increase accessibility for people with

auditory impairments. Listeners also want a wider range of radio channels over the whole

country. Consumers’ needs must be met hence the need for advancements in the field of radio

broadcast is important. There is a need to design and construct an FM transmitter with high

fidelity and a large coverage using discrete components unlike valves used in 18th century.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of the project is to design and construct a low power monophonic FM transmitter to

provide for the transmission of information from one point to the other. The main objectives of

this project include:

 To show the design of the individual stages of the FM transmitter.

 To show the design and construction of a monophonic FM transmitter.

 To tune the monophonic FM transmitter to the desired frequency of operation.

 To determine the monophonic FM transmitter coverage radius.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF PROJECT

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The major significance of this in communication is the ability to reach many people at the same

time with the same information using a low power transmitter with high sound fidelity and large

coverage. This will be achieved using discrete and non bulky components.

1.5 METHODOLOGY

This project work presents an operational frequency jammer. Three sections will be designed and

integrated to form a complete circuit. The circuit will consist of the IF section, the RF section

and power supply unit. The RF section which will consist of the Voltage Controlled Oscillator

(VCO) using the ATMEGA328P microcontroller, the RF power amplifier and the antenna. The

IF section will generate the tuning signal for the VCO in the RF section which will sweep the

desired range of frequencies. The tuning signal will be generated by a triangle wave generator

along with a noise generator and then offset by a proper amount so as to sweep the VCO output

from the minimum desired frequency to a maximum. The jammer will be designed for fixed use

thus taking its power from the regular 220V AC wall outlet. A 5 volt power supply will be

designed as the jammer requires different DC input voltages. These components will be selected

according to the desired specification such that the frequency range (1800MHz band) and

coverage range (10m) is achieved. The circuit simulation will be done using Proteus 8

professional software and optimized for desired output before implementation is carried out.

Both outcomes will be compared to ensure they meet theoretical results.

1.6 SCOPE OF WORK

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This thesis focuses on design and construction of a low power monophonic FM transmitter. This

research work involves component selection, simulation, construction and testing of the FM

transmitter. The result of this work would help to broadcast signal at a selected frequency from a

point to many receiving stations tuned to that frequency within its coverage radius.

1.7 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

Frequency Modulation (FM): FM is the encoding of information in a carrier wave by varying

the instantaneous frequency of the wave. This contrasts with amplitude modulation, in which

the amplitude of the carrier wave varies, while the frequency remains constant.

Amplitude Modulation (AM): AM is a modulation technique used in electronic

communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. In

amplitude modulation, the amplitude (signal strength) of the carrier wave is varied in proportion

to the waveform being transmitted.

Modulation: Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a

periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal that typically contains

information to be transmitted.

Frequency: Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time.

Frequency is an important parameter used in science and engineering to specify the rate

of oscillatory and vibratory phenomena, such as mechanical vibrations, audio (sound)

signals, radio waves, and light.

Amplifier: An amplifier or electronic amplifier is an electronic device that can increase

the power of a signal (a time-varying voltage or current). An amplifier uses electric power from
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a power supply to increase the amplitude of a signal. The amount of amplification provided by

an amplifier is measured by its gain.

Transmitter: Radio transmitter is an electronic device which generates a radio frequency

(alternating current). When a connected antenna is excited by this alternating current, the antenna

emits radio waves.

1.8 OUTLINE OF THESIS

This report is structured into five chapters for better understanding of how the aim of the project

was achieved. Chapter one gives an introduction to the report stating the significance of the

project, aim, objectives, the proposed procedure for carrying out this project work and the way

the report is generally presented. Chapter two presents the literature review and the theoretical

framework. Chapter three presents the methodology and equations used in the design, simulation

and construction. Chapter four presents the results of the design. The findings and conclusion are

presented in chapter five.

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LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Introduction

There has been the need to send information over a long distance and quickly too. Overtime,

various attempts have been made not only to justify this need, but to accomplish it with ease.

Both for the sender (or the source) and the receiver (or the destination) these attempt have

include those of the town criers and their local drums from the beginning of human history then

the wired telephone in the eighteen forties (1840s) and some decades later at the dawn of the 21st

century the use of radio waves (Electromagnetic waves) in the wireless communication system.

Among other things, it enables the human voice to be sent to great distances using the carrier

wave at a modulated frequency of 88MHZ – 108MHZ and received on a suitable FM receiver.

The FM transmitter according to Jersey (1992) is an electromagnetic circuit designed with input

and output transducer which convert, amplify, and transmit audio signals to the receiver’s

destination.

The transmitter modulates a carrier wave by intelligence and radiates the modulated signals

through an antenna and demodulates it to obtain or receive the original intelligence.

2.2 Literature Review

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A radio transmitter is an electronic device which, when connected to an antenna,

produces an electromagnetic signal such as in radio and television broadcasting,

two way communications or radar. In designing a radio transmitter, A radio

transmitter design has to meet certain requirements. These include the frequency of

operation, the type of modulation, the stability and purity of the resulting signal,

the efficiency of power use, and the power level required to meet the system design

objectives. High-power transmitters may have additional constraints with respect

to radiation safety, generation of X-rays, and protection from high voltages [Rudolf

F et al].

Typically a transmitter design includes generation of a carrier signal, which is

normally sinusoidal, optionally one or more frequency multiplication stages, a

modulator, a power amplifier, and a filter and matching network to connect to an

antenna [Ronald K et al]. A very simple transmitter might contain only a

continuously running oscillator coupled to some antenna system. More elaborate

transmitters allow better control over the modulation of the emitted signal and

improve the stability of the transmitted frequency. For example the Master

Oscillator-Power Amplifier (MOPA) configuration inserts an amplifier stage

between the oscillator and the antenna. This prevents changes in the loading

presented by the antenna from altering the frequency of the oscillator [Joseph J].

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Frequency modulation is used in a wide variety or radio communications

applications from broadcasting to two way radio communications links as well

as mobile radio communications. It possesses many advantages over

amplitude modulation and this is the reason for its widespread use.

Nowadays, many digital forms of radio communications are being introduced,

but despite this the use of frequency modulation, FM will undoubtedly

continue for many years to come in many areas of radio communications.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

An FM transmitter consists of the oscillator, modulator, RF amplifier, antenna, DC

power supply and the microphone ( source or audio line input).

OSCILLATION STAGE: An oscillator is a circuit which generates an AC output signal without

requiring any external applied input signal.

The main functions of all oscillators in this work it to produce sinusoidal wave shapes of a

specific frequency and amplitude. In doing so, the stability of an oscillator is very

important.Moreover, the frequency of the output is determined by the passive components used

in the oscillator and can be varied at will. Electronic oscillators may be broadly divided into two

groups namely: sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal oscillators.

Sinusoidal or Harmonic Oscillators

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These are oscillators which can produce an output having sine wave forms and produce any of

the following oscillations; damped or un-damped oscillations.

Non-Sinusoidal or Relaxation Oscillators

These are oscillators which produce an output which has square, rectangular or saw-tooth wave

form. Oscillations whose amplitudes keeps decreasing or decaying with time are called damped

oscillations. Ultimately, the amplitude of the oscillations decays to zero when there is not enough

to supply circuit losses or if there is no regeneration. However, the frequency or time-period

remains constant because it is determined by the circuit parameters.

MODULATION

A modulator is an object that converts the information in a signal into another code. It can either

be digital or analogue. The main reason for doing this is that transmission of the signal is usually

more optimum in the coded form than the non-encoded form. The main function of the

modulator in this work is that it converts the audio output of low frequency to very high

frequency.

Modulation is a process of superimposing information contained in a lower frequency electronic

signal into higher frequency signal. The higher frequency is called the carrier signal. In the

process of modulation, some characteristics are varied in accordance with the instantaneous

value of modulating signal such as sine wave which may be represented by the following

equation.

Where:

e = the instantaneous value of the sine wave called the carrier

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ɛ = the maximum amplitude

ωt = the angular velocity with respect to time

ϕ = the phase relation is with respect to some reference value. Any of this last three

characteristics or parameters (e,ωt, ϕ) of the carrier may be varied by the modulating signal,

giving rise to amplitude, frequency or phase modulation respectively in this project, frequency

modulation is considered.

BUFFER-DRIVER AMPLIFIER STAGE:

The buffer amplifier (sometimes simply called a buffer) is one that provides electrical impedance

transformation from one circuit to another, with the aim of the signal source being unaffected by

("buffered from") whatever currents (or voltages, for a current buffer) that the load may produce.

RF AMPLIFIER: This frequency modulated signal is further amplified to a higher frequency

before it is coupled to the Antenna for transmission.The class – C amplifier is used as it is the

most suitable type of the amplifier for high power output at radio frequency. The function of RF

amplifier in this work is that it improves selectivity (i.e. rejection of unwanted signal).

ANTENNA: Antenna is a device that radiates radio frequency energy in responses to an applied

voltage and the associated alternating electric circuit in it and a voltage between its terminals.

The main function of the antenna in this work is to radiate electromagnetic energy into space.

DC POWER SUPPLY: A DC power supply is an electric circuit that is used to convert an input

AC voltage into a stable output voltage in the form of DC.The function of a DC power supply in

this work is that it provides direct current voltage supply to the transmitter unit.

MICROPHONE (AUDIO LINE INPUT): A microphone is a form of an electromechanical

transducer, it convert sound wave of varying air pressure into electric audio signal and voice

(sound) is coupled into the system by the microphone. The function of a microphone here is to

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convert the pressure waves coursed by sound into vibrations within a coil which transforms the

vibration. The audio line input (RCA jack for line input), provides input from any audio source

such as an iPod, iPhone or MP3 player to broadcast the audio signal.

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1 Design Methodology

The overall method and steps involved during the design of this project are briefly explained

here. These can best be explained using the block diagram below.

FIG. x.x;Block diagram of 1W monophonic FM transmitter

There are several methods of generating Frequency Modulation as follows, but for the purpose

and success of this project, the Direct-method of Frequency Modulation generation was

implemented.

3.12 Circuit Design For Direct-Method of Frequency Modulation Generation

In this method crystals are not available to generate those frequencies directly; as a result of this

the carrier is usually generated at a frequency considerably lower than the final output frequency.

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To achieve the desired output frequency, one or more frequency multiplier stages are used.

Another method of direct FM generation is the use of a reactance modulator. This modulator is a

circuit in which a transistor is made to act like a variable reactance. The reactance modulator is

placed across the LC circuit of the oscillator and as the modulator’s reactance varies in response

to an applied audio signal, the oscillator frequency varies as well.

Others include the indirect-method of FMgeneration which involves the use of a stable crystal

oscillator to generate the carrier signal and the use of a buffer amplifier to isolate it from the

remainder of the circuitry. And the use of voltage controlled oscillator. The output frequency of

the voltage controlled oscillator is proportional to the voltage of the input signal; i.e. if audio

signal is applied to the input of a voltage controlled oscillator, the output is an FM signal.

The various components used in the construction of this project include: resistors, transistors,

capacitors, potentiometer and inductors.

The major sections that constitute this design are:

(i) Audio input unit (Pre-emphasis)

(ii) Oscillator/Modulator unit

(iii) Buffer-driver amplifier unit

(iv) RF power amplifier unit

(v) Antenna unit

(vi) Power supply unit

3.2.1 Audio preamplifier unit:

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The function of this stage is to pre-amplify the audio signal from the microphone which is very

weak so that it can be set for modulation. This stage consists of an active element(Transistor), in

a common emitter configuration, with collector feedback biasing, biasing resistors and

capacitors. The input to this state is from the base of the transistor while the output is from the

collector. The capacitors atthis unit serve as coupling circuits.

3.2.2 Oscillator/Modulatorunit:

This unit consists of a parallel resonant circuit or tank which is responsible for producing the

carrier wave upon which the intelligence signal (voice, music) is to be superimposed for

modulation.

3.2.3 Buffer-driver amplifier unit:

A buffer amplifier (sometimes simply called a buffer) is one that provides electrical impedance

transformation from one circuit to another, with the aim of the signal source being unaffected by

("buffered from") whatever currents (or voltages, for a current buffer) that the load may produce.

This stage ensures that the carrier signal coming from the oscillator stage is not “Damped” due to

loading of the power amplifier stage.

3.2.4 RF power amplifier unit:

A radio frequency power amplifier (RF power amplifier) is a type of electronic amplifier that

converts a low-power radio-frequencysignal into a higher power radio frequency signal.

Typically, RF power amplifiers drive the antenna of a transmitter. Design goals often include

gain, power output, bandwidth, power efficiency, linearity (low signal compression at rated

output), input and output impedance matching, and heat dissipation.This stage consists of
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NPN transistor, common emitter configuration with voltage divider biasing, biasing resistors.

The input to this stage is from the base of the transistor, while the output is from the collector,

which goes to the parallel resonant circuit or tank circuit.

3.2.5 Antenna unit:

The antenna is responsible for the transmission of the modulated signal through space or air in

form of electromagnetic waves. For this project, the antenna is 1.75ft. Single pole antenna, It

should be noted that extending the length of the antenna consequently extends the range of signal

transmission as observed during testing.

3.2.6 Power supply unit:

This unit consists of a 9 volts regulated dc supply .The power supply ensures the FM transmitter

circuit functions effectively.

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1 Introduction 22

4.2 Results 22

4.3 Discussion of Results 23

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

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5.1 Summary of Findings 26

5.2 Conclusion 26

5.3.1 Future Studies 27

5.3.2 Recommendations 27

REFERENCES

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