Agujeros Negros de Masa Mediana - Tesis

Tesis Doctoral
Agujeros negros de masa intermedia:

efectos sobre su entorno y
detectabilidad
Pepe, Carolina
2013
Este documento forma parte de la colección de tesis doctorales y de maestría de la Biblioteca

Central Dr. Luis Federico Leloir, disponible en digital.bl.fcen.uba.ar. Su utilización debe ser
acompañada por la cita bibliográfica con reconocimiento de la fuente.
This document is part of the doctoral theses collection of the Central Library Dr. Luis Federico
Leloir, available in digital.bl.fcen.uba.ar. It should be used accompanied by the corresponding
citation acknowledging the source.
Cita tipo APA:

Pepe, Carolina. (2013). Agujeros negros de masa intermedia: efectos sobre su entorno y
detectabilidad. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Universidad de Buenos Aires.
Cita tipo Chicago:

Pepe, Carolina. "Agujeros negros de masa intermedia: efectos sobre su entorno y
detectabilidad". Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Universidad de Buenos Aires. 2013.
Di recci ón: Biblioteca Central Dr. Luis F. Leloir, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires. Contacto: digital@bl.fcen.uba.ar
Intendente Güiraldes 2160 - C1428EGA - Tel. (++54 +11) 4789-9293
UNIVERSIDAD DE BUENOS AIRES
Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales
Departamento de Fı́sica
Agujeros negros de masa intermedia: efectos

sobre su entorno y detectabilidad
Tesis presentada para optar al tı́tulo de

Doctor de la Universidad de Buenos Aires en el área Ciencias
Fı́sicas
Carolina Pepe
Director de Tesis: Dr. Leonardo J. Pellizza

Consejero de estudios: Dra. Cristina Caputo
Lugar de Trabajo: Instituto de Astronomı́a y Fı́sica del Espacio

(CONICET-UBA)
Buenos Aires, 2013

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p2x K2 T`2;mMi`QM Ƕ*ƦKQ p2Mőb\Ƕ- HQb [m2 K2 b+`QM Tb2`- HQb [m2
K2 ?B+B2`QM `2B`X iQ/Qb- ;`+BbX LQ Tm2/Q 2pBi` K2M+BQM` 2H TQvQ
/2 :`B v o2`Q 2M 2biQ ȹHiBKQ iB2KTQ- +QKTìB2M/Q H Tì2 Kb bBM@
mQb /2H +KBMQX :`B- bQv BM}MBiK2Mi2 72HBx [m2 v +bB 2bib /2 pm2Hi5
J`+2 v .- TQ` T`2Q+mT`b2- TQ` 2bi` i2Mib iQ/b Hb 2iTb-
TQ` H2;``b2 +QMKB;Q- TQ` ?bi T`2M/2`b2 2H MQK#`2 /2 KB /B`2+iQ` v
HQb i`KBi2b [m2 imp2 [m2 `2HBx`5 SQ` #M+`b2 +2M` +QMKB;Q v 2M+QM@
i``K2 K2/BQ /Q`KB/ vfQ ?#HM/Q bB2KT`2 /2 HQ KBbKQX Gb /Q`QX
iQ/Qb KBb +QKTƢ2`Qb v KB;Qb /2H A61X SQ` HKm2`xQb- +2@

Mb- i`;Qb- T//H2- +QKT`b 2M H p2`/mH2`ő- v pBD2b 2M #B+B+H2i vfQ
TiBM2bX SQ` H2pMi`K2 2H MBKQ +mM/Q [m2`ő `QKT2` iQ/QX SQ` BM@
}MBib v pHBQbőbBKb +?`HbX .2}MBiBpK2Mi2 2H /ő /ő 2b Kb 72HBx
+mM/Q mMQ b2 +`mx +QM ;2Mi2 bő5
*`BbiBM- KB T`BK2` 2Mi`2M/Q` /2 pQH2v- [mB2M bBM /`b2 +m2Mi

v DmMiQ +QM [m2H 2[mBTQ [m2 bmTBKQb 7Q`K`- K2 2Mb2ƢQ +bB iQ/Q HQ
[m2 bû bQ#`2 2H i`#DQ 2M 2[mBTQ- 2H b2MiB/Q /2 ;`mTQX *`Bb- MQ i2 /b
mM B/2 HQ pHBQbQ [m2 2b 2bQ ?Qv T` KB5
.MB- KB +QKTƢ2`QX AǶp2 ;Qi M M;2H- ?2 /Q2bMǶi r2` Mv rBM;bX

.2}MBiBpK2Mi2 im T`2b2M+B 7m2 7m2Mi2 /2 BMbTB`+BƦM 2M HQb 8 ƢQb [m2
/m`Ʀ 2bi2 i`#DQX :`+Bb- TQ` 2bQ- v TQ` mM KQMiƦM /2 +Qbb KbX
tBB
AMi`Q/m++BƦM
1
GQb ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb bQM mMQb /2 HQb Q#D2iQb bi`Q7őbB+Qb Kb 7b+B@
MMi2b [m2 Tm2/2M 2M+QMi``b2 2M 2H lMBp2`bQX ./ H BMi2MbB// /2
bm +KTQ ;`pBiiQ`BQ- [m2 ?+2 [m2 H p2HQ+B// /2 2b+T2 B;mH2
H /2 H Hmx- 2bim/B` +ƦKQ b2 7Q`KM- 2pQHm+BQMM 2 BMi2`+iȹM +QM
bm 2MiQ`MQ T2`KBi2 BMp2biB;` T`Q+2bQb 7őbB+Qb [m2 MQ b2 2M+m2Mi`M 2M
Qi`Qb 2b+2M`BQb /2 H Mim`H2xX SQ` 2bi `xƦM- bQM +QMbB/2`/Qb H#Q@
ìQ`BQb Mim`H2b T` TQM2` T`m2# H 7őbB+ 2M +QM/B+BQM2b 2ti`2KbX
aB #B2M HQb ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb T`2+2`őM- TQ` /2}MB+BƦM- BM/2i2+i#H2b- bB

2tBbi2 Ki2`B +v2M/Q bQ#`2 2HHQb- ûbi b2 +2H2`- +QKT`BK2 v +HB2Mi-
H+MxM/Q i2KT2ìm`b /2 p`BQb KBHHQM2b /2 ;`/Qb- v T`QpQ+M/Q
H +QMb2+m2Mi2 2KBbBƦM /2 `/B+BƦM 2H2+i`QK;MûiB+ /2 Hi 2M2`;ő
UmHi`pBQH2i- `vQb s- `vQb γVX J2/BMi2 2bi2 T`Q+2bQ- HHK/Q +`2@
R
k
+BƦM- +QM HQb BMbi`mK2MiQb /2+m/Qb- HQb ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb Tm2/2M b2`
/2i2+i/Qb BM/B`2+iK2Mi2X hK#BûM 2b TQbB#H2 /2i2`KBM` bm T`2b2M+B
K2/BMi2 bm BM~m2M+B ;`pBiiQ`B bQ#`2 Hb 2bi`2HHb +2`+MbX
GQb ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb Tm2/2M +HbB}+`b2 b2;ȹM bmb i`2b ȹMB+b T`QTB2//2b,
+`;- KQK2MiQ M;mH` v KbX aB #B2M 2M H +imHB// MQ 2tBbi2 T`+@
iB+K2Mi2 7Q`K /2 K2/B` H T`BK2` T`QTB2//- bő 2b TQbB#H2 K2/B` Hb
ȹHiBKb /QbR X aBM 2K#`;Q- +`; v KQK2MiQ M;mH` MQ bQM `2H2pMi2b
HQb }M2b /2 2bi2 i`#DQ /2 h2bBb TQ` HQ +mH K2 HBKBiQ /2b+`B#B`@
HQb b2;ȹM bm KbX 1M HQb bBbi2Kb bi`Q7őbB+Qb HQb ?v bmT2`KbBpQb
UaJ">bV v /2 Kb 2bi2H`X
GQb ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb /2 Kb 2bi2H` MQ bQM Kb [m2 HQb 7ƦbBH2b [m2 Hb
2bi`2HHb KbBpb ?M /2D/QX lM p2x [m2 ûbib ;QiM bm +QK#mbiB#H2
2tTHQiM +QKQ bmT2`MQpb- +QHTbM/Q bm Mȹ+H2Q ;`pBi+BQMHK2Mi2 v
/M/Q Hm;` /BbiBMiQb Q#D2iQb +QKT+iQb, 2bi`2HHb /2 M2mi`QM2b Q ;m@
D2`Qb M2;`QbX 1biQb ȹHiBKQb b2 7Q`K`M +mM/Q H Kb `2KM2Mi2 2M
2H Mȹ+H2Q 2bi2H` b2 bmT2`BQ` ∼kĜj M⊙ U2X;X "iiM2`- RNN8VX 1M H
oő G+i2 ?M bB/Q 2M+QMi`/Qb ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb /2 Kb 2bi2H` /2
?bi ky M⊙ UJ+*HBMiQ+F 2i HX- kyyRVX SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- 2tBbi2 2pB/2M+B
/2 H 2tBbi2M+B /2 ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb bmT2`KbBpQb U105 − 109 M⊙ V 2M HQb
+2Mi`Qb /2 Hb ;HtBb U2X;X J;Q``BM 2i HX- RNN3VX a2 +`22 [m2 2biQb
Q#D2iQb 7m2`QM 7Q`K/Qb 2M HQb +QKB2MxQb /2H lMBp2`bQ- DmMiQ Qi`b
2bi`m+im`b +ƦbKB+b U2X;X >`rBii- kyyeVX aBM 2K#`;Q- ȹM MQ 2tBbi2
mM /2b+`BT+BƦM +QKTH2i /2H T`Q+2bQ /2 bm 7Q`K+BƦM +QKQ bő /2 H
2pQHm+BƦM /2 2biQb Q#D2iQbX
.BbiBMib Q#b2`p+BQM2b v /2b``QHHQb i2Ʀ`B+Qb- 2M HQb ȹHiBKQb ƢQb-

?M bm;2`B/Q H 2tBbi2M+B /2 Q#D2iQb +QM Kbb BMi2`K2/Bb 2Mi`2 2biQb
SQ` mM `2pB2r bQ#`2 +ƦKQ K2/B` 2H KQK2MiQ M;mH` /2 mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q p2`
R
L`vM Ukyy8VX
k
RX AMi`Q/m++BƦM j
pHQ`2b U102 Ĝ 105 M⊙ V- [m2 ?M `2+B#B/Q 2H MQK#`2 /2 ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb

/2 Kb BMi2`K2/B UAJ">b- /2 bm MQK#`2 2M BM;Hûb BMi2`K2/Bi2 Kbb
#H+F ?QH2bVX .B+?Qb i`#DQb v 2H 2bi/Q +imH /2 Hb BMp2biB;+BQM2b
bQM /2b+`BTiQb /2iHH/K2Mi2 2M HQb T``7Qb bm#bB;mB2Mi2bX
1M T`BK2` Hm;`- H 2ti`TQH+BƦM /2 H `2H+BƦM 2Mi`2 H Kb /2H #mH@

#Q /2 Hb ;HtBb v H Kb /2 bmb ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb +2Mi`H2b UJ;Q``BM
2i HX- RNN3V HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b- bm;B2`2 H 2tBbi2M+B 2M HQb +2Mi`Qb
/2 2biQb ȹHiBKQb- /2 ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb /2 Kbb 2Mi`2 103 Ĝ 104 M⊙ X
T2b` [m2 H KvQ`ő /2 Hb ;HtBb v bmb aJ">b bB;m2M H `2H+BƦM T`2@
pBK2Mi2 /B+?- 2tBbi2 2pB/2M+B /2 +B2ì /BbT2`bBƦMk 2M 2H HőKBi2 /2 Hb
Kbb Kb Hib UM"> ∼ 109−10 M⊙ - :2#?`/i 2i HX- kyRR- J+*QMM2HH
2i HX- kyRR- pM /2M "Qb+? 2i HX- kyRkVX ./Q 2bi2 +QKTQìKB2MiQ 2M
2H 2ti`2KQ /2 Kbb Kb Hib- b2 ?M HH2p/Q +#Q BMi2MiQb /2 K2/B`
H Kb /2 HQb ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb +2Mi`H2b 2M ;HtBb 2MMb U"ì? 2i
HX- kyy9- 6BHBTT2MFQ >Q- kyyj- sBQ 2i HX- kyRRV [m2 TQ#H`QM 2H
HőKBi2 /2 Kbb #Db /2 H `2H+BƦM +QM +B2ì /BbT2`bBƦMX aBM 2K#`@
;Q- Hb Kbb KőMBKb H+Mx/b 2M Hb ;HtBb 2MMb bQM /2H Q`/2M
/2 105 M⊙ X Jbb Kb #Db b2`őM- 2MiQM+2b- 2M+QMi`/b 2M bBbi2Kb
2bi2H`2b K2MQb KbBpQbX SQ` 2bi `xƦM- HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b bQM HQb
T`BM+BTH2b +M/B/iQb H#2`;` AJ">bX
SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- b2 ?M /2i2+i/Q 7m2Mi2b /2 `vQb s mHi`HmKBMQbb

UlGsbc /2 bm MQK#`2 2M BM;Hûb mHi`HmKBMQmb s `v bQm`+2bV 2M ;Ht@
Bb +2`+Mb U6##BMQ- kyyeV- H;mMb +QBM+B/2Mi2b +QM +ȹKmHQb ;HQ@
#mH`2b UM;2HBMB 2i HX- kyyRV- [m2 TQ/`őM BM/B+` H 2tBbi2M+B /2
Q#D2iQb +`2iMi2b +mvb Kbb b2 2M+m2Mi`M 2M 2H `M;Q /2 BMi2`ûbX
1bib 7m2Mi2b TQb22M HmKBMQbB//2b bmT2`BQ`2b H 2bi#H2+B/ TQ` 2H
HőKBi2 /2 1//BM;iQM T` ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb /2 Kb 2bi2H`- bm;B`B2M/Q
bő H TQbB#BHB// /2 2bi` 2M T`2b2M+B /2 Q#D2iQb +`2iMi2b +mv Kb
k
P mM +m`pim` ?+B ``B#
j
9
b2 KvQ`- /2H Q`/2M /2 Hb /2 HQb AJ">bX lM /2 Hb 2tTHB++BQM2b
Hi2`MiBpb H 2tBbi2M+B /2 HQb AJ">b 2b H Q`B;BMHK2Mi2 T`QTm2bi
TQ` _2vMQH/b 2i HX URNNdVX úbi2 2b mM KQ/2HQ 2M 2H [m2 H 7m2Mi2 2b mM
;mD2`Q M2;`Q /2 Kb 2bi2H` [m2 T`Q/m+2 jets `2HiBpBbib- ;2M2`M/Q
mM ~mDQ 2M H /B`2++BƦM /2 Q#b2`p+BƦM KvQ` [m2 2H ~mDQ T`QK2/BQ v-
+QM/m+B2M/Q bő mM 2``ƦM2 2biBK+BƦM /2 H HmKBMQbB//X aBM 2K@
#`;Q- bBbi2Kb bBKBH`2b 2M Mm2bi` ;HtB- +QKQ *v; s@R- T`2b2MiM
mM 2bT2+i`Q +QM p`B#BHB// `TB/ U?bi Ryy >x T`QtBK/K2Mi2V-
KB2Mi`b [m2 2M Hb lGsb MQ b2 ? Q#b2`p/Q 2bi2 +QKTQìKB2MiQ-
HQ [m2 /2#BHBi 2bi ?BTƦi2bBbX Pi`Q KQ/2HQ Hi2`MiBpQ T` Hb lGsb
2b H 2KBbBƦM bmT2`@1//BM;iQM TQ` Tì2 /2 2bib 7m2Mi2bX *#2 `2+Q`@
/` [m2- iû+MB+K2Mi2- 2H HőKBi2 /2 1//BM;iQM bƦHQ pH2 +mM/Q URV H
2KBbBƦM v +`2+BƦM bQM +mbB@BbƦi`QTb- v UkV H QT+B// /QKBMMi2 2b
2H scattering /2 h?QKbQMX aB 2H +KTQ K;MûiB+Q 2b HQ bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2
7m2ì2- B ! 1013 :- 2H scattering /2 h?QKbQM 2b 2HBKBM/Q v 2H HőKBi2 /2
1//BM;iQM Tm2/2 b2` H+Mx/Q Uh?QKTbQM .mM+M- RNN8VX AM+HmbQ
T` +KTQb K2MQ`2b UB ∼ 1012 :- "`/i J+*HBMiQ+F- RN3jV- bB
H +`2+BƦM b2 T`Q/m+2 bQ#`2 mM +QHmKM- TQ/`ő ;2M2`` MBbQi`QTőb
[m2 +QM/mx+M mM 2KBbBƦM TQ` 2M+BK /2H HőKBi2 /2 1//BM;iQMX aBM
2K#`;Q- HQb ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb MQ T`2b2MiM +KTQb K;MûiB+Qb v MQ 2b@
i +H`Q [m2 HQb /Bb+Qb /2 +`2+BƦM H+M+2M HQb pHQ`2b `2[m2`B/Qb T`
2tTHB+` Hb lGsbX /2Kb- 2biQb KQ/2HQb Hi2`MiBpQb H ?BTƦi2bBb
/2 mM AJ"> T`Q/m+B2M/Q H 2KBbBƦM mHi`HmKBMQb 2M `vQb s ?M
7HH/Q T` 2tTHB+` Hb lGsb Kb HmKBMQbb UL > 1040 erg s−1 V- Hb
[m2 iQ/pő `2[mB2`2M /2 H T`2b2M+B /2 mM AJ"> U62M; aQ`B- kyRRVX
h`#DQb i2Ʀ`B+Qb ?M bm;2`B/Q [m2 HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b Tm2/2M

i2M2` ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb 2M bmb +2Mi`Qb- +mvb Kbb bQM /2H Q`/2M /2
10−3 p2+2b H Kb 2bi2H` +QMi2MB/ 2M 2H +ȹKmHQ- +QKQ +QMb2+m2M+B
/2 H 7mbBƦM /2 ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb Kb T2[m2ƢQbj - /M/Q Hm;` ;m@
j
./Q [m2 H Kb iQiH /2 mM +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` 2b ∼ 105 − 106 M⊙ - H Kb /2H
9
RX AMi`Q/m++BƦM 8
D2`Qb M2;`Qb +mvb Kbb `2bmHiM /2H Q`/2M /2 H Kb /2 mM AJ">

UJBHH2` >KBHiQM- kyykVX bBKBbKQ- b2 ?M 2bim/B/Q /BbiBMiQb 2b+2@
M`BQb T` H 7Q`K+BƦM /2 HQb AJ">bX 1M 2H +bQ /2 +ȹKmHQb 2bi2H`2b
DƦp2M2b v /2MbQb- [m2 b2`őM HQb T`Q;2MBiQ`2b /2 HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH@
`2b- Hb 2bi`2HHb Kb KbBpb b2 2M+m2Mi`M- iQ/pő- 2M H b2+m2M+B
T`BM+BTHX amb iKƢQb bQM bB;MB}+iBpQb v Tm2/2M +QHBbBQM` 2- BM+HmbQ-
7mbBQM`b2X 1#BbmxFB 2i HX UkyyRV v SQì2;B2b wrì 2i HX UkyykV T`Q@
TmbB2`QM [m2 2H +QHTbQ /2H Mȹ+H2Q /2H +ȹKmHQ Tm2/2 BM/m+B` 7mbBQM2b
/2 2bi`2HHb- T`Q/m+B2M/Q mM Mm2p 2bi`2HH Kmv KbBp [m2 i2`KBM`
2M mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q /2 p`BQb +B2MiQb /2 Kbb bQH`2b +mM/Q 2H +QK@
#mbiB#H2 /2 H 2bi`2HH b2 +#2X 1M TìB+mH`- SQì2;B2b wrì 2i HX
UkyykV /2`Bp`QM mM ib /2 +mKmH+BƦM /2 Kb Ṁ ⋍ 10−4 M+mK /t`2H -
/QM/2 M+mK 2b H Kb /2H +ȹKmHQ 2bi2H` v t`2H 2b 2H iB2KTQ /2 `2H@
D+BƦM /2 H KBi/ /2 H KbX aBM 2K#`;Q- b2 `2[mB2`2 [m2 2H iB2KTQ
BMB+BH /2 `2HD+BƦM /2H +ȹKmHQ b2 K2MQ` ∼ 30 Jv` bBMQ Hb 2bi`2@
HHb Kb KbBpb [m2 /QKBMM 2bi2 T`Q+2bQ 2tTHQiM +QKQ bmT2`MQpb
Mi2b [m2 2H +ȹKmHQ bm7` 2H +QHTbQ /2H Mȹ+H2QX ȹM T` 2bi`2HHb KbB@
pb 2tBbi2M K2+MBbKQb [m2 Tm2/2M /2i2M2` H 7Q`K+BƦM /2 mM AJ">X
SQ` 2D2KTHQ- b2 +`22 [m2 H T`2bBƦM /2 `/B+BƦM v Hb BM2bi#BHB//2b
TmHb+BQMH2b 2tTmHbM Ki2`B Kb `TB/Q /2 HQ [m2 2b +`2i/- bB H
2bi`2HH iB2M2 mM Kb M ! 100 M⊙ UG`bQM 2i HX- RNdRVX /2Kb-
H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q [m2 b2 7Q`K 2M 2biQb +bQb Tm2/2 b2` K2MQ`
[m2 H /2 H 2bi`2HH /2#B/Q H Tû`/B/ /2 Kb /2#B/ HQb pB2MiQb
2bi2H`2b U6`v2` EHQ;2`- kyyRVX 1bib +m2biBQM2b Tm2/2M 2Hm/B`b2
bB b2 +QMbB/2` [m2 H 2bi`2HH KbBp [m2 / Hm;` H 7Q`K+BƦM /2H
AJ"> 2b mM 2bi`2HH /2 SQ#H+BƦM AAA- +mv K2iHB+B// 2b bm}+B2Mi2@
K2Mi2 #D /2 KQ/Q [m2 Hb BM2bi#BHB//2b TmHb+BQMH2b v HQb pB2MiQb
2bi2H`2b- [m2 bQM /QKBM/Qb TQ` Hb 7m2`xb /2 `/B+BƦM /2 Hb HőM2b
K2iHB+b- `2bmHiM BMbB;MB}+Mi2b U6`v2` 2i HX- kyyRVX /2Kb- LF@
Km` lK2Km` UkyyRV BMp2biB;`QM bQ#`2 2H /2biBMQ /2 Hb 2bi`2HHb
bmTm2biQ ;mD2`Q M2;`Q b2`ő /2 ∼ 102 − 103 M⊙
8
e
/2 SQ#H+BƦM AAAX 1M+QMi``QM [m2 H Kb /2H `2KM2Mi2 +QKT+iQ

/2T2M/2 /2 H Kb /2 H 2bi`2HH /2 mM KM2` #biMi2 /B`2+i v [m2
bQHQ +mM/Q M⋆ ! 250 M⊙ H Kb /2H `2KM2Mi2 2b bBKBH` H /2 H
2bi`2HHX
J2/B+BQM2b /2 HQb T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB// v H /BMKB+ 2bi2H` 2M Hb

`2;BQM2b +2Mi`H2b /2 H;mMQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b ;H+iB+Qb bm;B2`2M H
2tBbi2M+B /2 Q#D2iQb +2Mi`H2b +QM Kbb /2H Q`/2M /2 K;MBim/ /2 Hb
/2 HQb AJ">bX "mK;`/i- JFBMQ 1#BbmxFB Ukyy9-#V miBHBx`QM-
TQ` T`BK2` p2x- KQ/2HQb /2 L +m2`TQb U/2 Kb ȹMB+ v KmHiBKbV
T` 2bim/B` H 2pQHm+BƦM /BMKB+ /2 +ȹKmHQb iőTB+QbX 1M+m2Mi`M
T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB// 2bi2H` +`2+B2Mi2b ?+B 2H +2Mi`Q H BM+HmB` 2H AJ">
2M 2H KQ/2HQX .2b/2 2MiQM+2b- Qi`Qb miQ`2b ?M /2b``QHH/Q KQ/2@
HQb /BMKB+Qb 2bi2H`2b TìB` /2 HQb +mH2b ?M TQ/B/Q 2bim/B` H
+QKTiB#BHB// /2 Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b +QM H T`2b2M+B /2 mM AJ"> 2M
2H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQ 2- BM+HmbQ- Q#i2M2` 2biBK+BQM2b /2 H Kb /2 iH
Q#D2iQX JBQ++?B UkyydV /2b``QHHƦ mM KQ/2HQ T` H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2bi2@
H` 2M 2H +ȹKmHQ [m2 BM+Hmv2 mM AJ"> 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2H KBbKQ v [m2
T2`KBi2 T`2/2+B` 2H T2`}H /2 #`BHHQ bmT2`}+BHX 1bi2 KQ/2HQ 2b THB+/Q
mM HBbi /2 jN +ȹKmHQb v +QKT`/Q +QM Q#b2`p+BQM2b `2HBx/b
+QM >m##H2 TQ` LQvQH :2#?`/i UkyyeVX 1H miQ` 2M+m2Mi` [m2
L:* k3y3- L:* ej33- J 3y- J Rj- J ek- J 89 v : R U2M H ;HtB
J jRV bQM #m2MQb +M/B/iQb H#2`;` mM AJ">X Jb i`/2- 2H KBbKQ
miQ` 2bim/B 2H +bQ /2 ω *2M v 2M+m2Mi` [m2 H Kb /2H AJ"> b2
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H/Q- lK#`2Bi 2i HX UkyRkV BKTH2K2Mi`QM bBKmH+BQM2b JQMi2 *`HQ
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bmT2`BQ` T` H Kb /2H AJ"> /2 1000 M⊙ - mM[m2 /2+H`M [m2 H
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H Kb /2H AJ"> 2M 5 × 104 M⊙ X *#2 +H`` [m2 HQb +ȹKmHQb J R8
v L:* 8eN9 MQ bQM #m2MQb +M/B/iQb H#2`;` mM AJ"> b2;ȹM 2H
i`#DQ /2 JBQ++?B UkyydVX aBM 2K#`;Q 2H miQ` +H` [m2 MQ Tm2/2
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HQb T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB// /2 #`BHHQ ?+B 2H +2Mi`QX LQ Q#biMi2- /2#B/Q
HQb 272+iQb /2 b2;`2;+BƦM /2 Kb- 2biQ MQ BKTHB+ 2H KBbKQ 272+iQ
2M 2H T2`}H /2 /2MbB// /2 KbX .2 ?2+?Q- "mK;`/i- JFBMQ >mi
Ukyy8V v LQvQH "mK;`/i UkyRRV 2M+QMi``QM- TìB` /2 KQ/2HQb
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Kb BM+Hmv2M/Q H AJ"> 2M H bBKmH+BƦMX
Pi`Q KûiQ/Q [m2 ? bB/Q miBHBx/Q T` BMp2biB;` H T`2b2M+B /2

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H Kb /2 HQb KBbKQb- 2b 2H 2bim/BQ /2 H +BM2KiB+ +2Mi`H /2H +ȹ@
KmHQX :2#?`/i- _B+? >Q UkyykV MHBx`QM BK;2M2b 2M `vQb s
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amTQMB2M/Q mM KQ/2HQ /BMKB+Q tBbBKûi`B+Q- Q#impB2`QM 2H T2`}H /2
/BbT2`bBƦM /2 p2HQ+B//2b v 2M+QMi``QM [m2 2H K2DQ` Dmbi2 Hb Q#@
b2`p+BQM2b +Q``2bTQM/2 mM AJ"> /2 4,7 × 104 M⊙ 2M 2H +bQ /2 : R
v /2 500M⊙ 2M J R8X LQvQH- :2#?`/ "2`;KMM Ukyy3V `2HBx`QM
mM i`#DQ b2K2DMi2 2M ω *2M TìB` /2 Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2 H Hmx BM@
i2;`/ `2HBx/b +QM :2KBMBX amb `2bmHi/Qb Km2bi`M mM +`2+BKB2MiQ
?+B 2H +2Mi`Q [m2 2b +QKTiB#H2 +QM mM Q#D2iQ UQ +QH2++BƦM /2 Q#D2@
iQbV +mv Kb 2b /2 4 × 104 M⊙ 9 X "bM/Qb2 2M 2biQb i`#DQb- Qi`Qb
9
bmKB2M/Q mM KQ/2HQ /BMKB+Q BbQi`ƦTB+Q T` 2H +ȹKmHQX
d
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HQ+B//2b TìB` /2 /iQb 2bT2+i`Qb+ƦTB+Qb /2 o2`v G`;2 h2H2b+QT2
UoGhVX LQvQH 2i HX UkyRyV pm2Hp2M 2bim/B` ω *2M v 2M+m2Mi`M
mM pHQ` T` H Kb /2H AJ"> /2 4,7 × 104 M⊙ X bBKBbKQ- Gmix@
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KmHQb L:* ej33- L:* k3y3 v L:* 8k3e- `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X liBHBxM/Q
KQ/2HQb /2 C2Mb T` H /BMKB+ /2H +ȹKmHQ- iMiQ BbƦi`QTQb +QKQ
tBbBKûi`B+Qb- 2biBKM H Kb /2H AJ">- TìB` /2H K2DQ` Dmbi2 /2
H /BbT2`bBƦM /2 p2HQ+B//2b- 2M 1,7 × 104 M⊙ T` L:* ej33 v 2M@
+m2Mi`M mM +Qi bmT2`BQ` /2 104 M⊙ T` L:* k3y3X 1M 2H +bQ /2
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HBx/Qb8 X SQ` ȹHiBKQ- Gmix;2M/Q`7 2i HX UkyRjV miBHBxM 2H KBbKQ KûiQ/Q
T` 2bim/B` HQb +ȹKmHQb L:* R38R- L:* RNy9 UJ dNV- L:* 8eN9-
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1M 2H +bQ /2 L:* R38R- L:* 8eN9- L:* 83k9 v J 3y- bƦHQ `2TQìM
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`2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X 1b M2+2b`BQ +H`` [m2 H T`BM+BTH /2}+B2M+B /2 2b@
iQb 2bim/BQb /BMKB+Qb 2b [m2 MQ T2`KBi2M /BbiBM;mB` 2Mi`2 mM ȹMB+Q
Q#D2+iQ +QKT+iQ +mv Kb b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M 2H `M;Q /2 BMi2`ûb v mM
+QH2++BƦM /2 Q#D2iQb +QKT+iQb Kb T2[m2ƢQbX
*QKQ 2M Qi`Qb bBbi2Kb [m2 +QMiB2M2M Q#D2iQb +QKT+iQb- H /2i2+@

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+B /2 mM AJ"> 2M *:bX /2Kb- 2bi2 KûiQ/Q T2`KBi2 /BbiBM;mB` 2Mi`2
mMQ Q Kb Q#D2iQb +`2iMi2be X ./Q [m2 mM AJ"> iK#BûM TQ/`ő b2`
/2i2+i/Q TQ` bm 2KBbBƦM 2M `vQb s /2#B/ H +`2+BƦM /2H K2/BQ
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2i HX Ukyy3V /2i2+i`QM mM 7m2Mi2 /2 `vQb s 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQ
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AJ"> 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2 2bi2 +ȹKmHQX a2`pBHHi 2i HX Ukyy3V Q#b2`p`QM 2H
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[m2 H HmKBMQbB// Tm2/2 Q#i2M2`b2 TìB` /2H KQ/2HQ /2 "QM/B
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/2H AJ"> /2 140 M⊙ X /2Kb- EQM; 2i HX UkyRyV Q#b2`p`QM 2H +ȹ@
KmHQ 2ti`;H+iB+Q : R +QM *?M/`- >m##H2 v *M/@6`M+2@>rBB
h2H2b+QT2 U*6>hVX*QK#BMM/Q 2bib Q#b2`p+BQM2b +QM Hb 2tBbi2Mi2b
2M `/BQ 2biBKM H Kb /2H AJ"> 2M 2 × 104 M⊙ X aBM 2K#`;Q- MQ iQ@
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aBM 2K#`;Q- /2 +m2`/Q H i`#DQ /2 J++`QM2 Ukyy9V- Hb Q#b2`p@

+BQM2b /2 AJ">b b2`őM Kb b2MbB#H2b 2M `/BQ [m2 2M `vQb sX 1H miQ`
#b bmb +QM+HmbBQM2b 2M /Qb i`#DQb BM/2T2M/B2Mi2bX 1H T`BK2`Q- /2
:HHQ 2i HX UkyyjV- Km2bi` [m2 mM[m2 Hb HmKBMQbB//2b 2M `vQb s
v 2M `/BQ /2 ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb 2M 2H 2bi/Q HQrf?`/ 2biM HiK2Mi2
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+ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH`c
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v `2MHBx`QM Hb Q#i2MB/b +QM oG Uo2`v G`;2 ``vV T` J R8-
Tm#HB+/b TQ` EmHF`MB 2iX H URNNyV T` 2biBK` H Kb /2H AJ">X
1M 2H +bQ /2 J R8 Q#iB2M2M mM +Qi bmT2`BQ` /2 eyy M⊙ KB2Mi`b
[m2 2M ω *2M MQ b2 /2i2+iM 7m2Mi2b +2Mi`H2b /2 `/BQX .2 _BD+F2-
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ejNd iQK/b iK#BûM +QM h* v Q#impB2`QM +Qib bmT2`BQ`2b /2
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TQ` J++`QM2- 62M/2` hxBQmKBb Ukyy8VX GQb `2bmHi/Qb Q#i2MB/Qb
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ω *2M- J R8- L:* ejNd- 9d hm+- J 3y- L:* ekee- SH k- L:* R38R-
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J R8- J RN v J kk v Q#iB2M2M +Qib bmT2`BQ`2b /2 N3y- djy v jey M⊙ -
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HQb AJ">b TQ/`őM b2` Hb b2KBHHb /2 ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb bmT2`KbBpQb-
HBpBM/Q HQb T`Q#H2Kb T` +QMb2;mB` 2H `TB/Q +`2+BKB2MiQ M2+2b`BQ
T` 2tTHB+` HQb [mb`2b KbBpQb HiQ `2/b?B7i UhMF >BKM-
kyyNVX SQ` ȹHiBKQ- T2`KBiB`ő 2tTHB+` 2H K2+MBbKQ /2 2KBbBƦM /2 Hb
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2M HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b- +QKQ +QMb2+m2M+B /2 H /Bb`mT+BƦM /2 Hb
2bi`2HHb +2`+Mb H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q TQ` Hb 7m2`xb /2 K`2 UJBQ++?B-
kyydVX
*QKQ b2 /2bT`2M/2 /2 HQb T``7Qb T`2+2/2Mi2b- 2H 2bi/Q +imH /2

H BMp2biB;+BƦM 2b +QKTH2DQX aB #B2M HQb KQ/2HQb i2Ʀ`B+Qb v H;mMb Q#@
b2`p+BQM2b bm;B2`2M H 2tBbi2M+B /2 HQb AJ">b- Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b [m2
BMi2MiM /2i2`KBM` bmb Kbb ``QDM `2bmHi/Qb /Bp2`bQb- BM+HmbBp2
T` mM KBbKQ +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH`X 1bib /Bb+`2TM+Bb b2 /2#2M- TQ` mM
H/Q- Hb /B72`2M+Bb T`QTBb /2 HQb KûiQ/QbX GQb KûiQ/Qb /BMKB+Qb
bQM Kb b2MbB#H2b H Kb /2H Q#D2iQ +2Mi`Q v- // H `2bQHm+BƦM
2bT+BH /2 HQb i2H2bQ+TBQb- Tm2/2M 2bi` KB/B2M/Q H Kb /2 mM +QM@
;HQK2`/Q /2 Q#D2iQb- MQ bQHQ /2H AJ">X SQ` Qi` Tì2- HQb KûiQ/Qb
[m2 mbM H +`2+BƦM bQM b2MbB#H2b Hb ?BTƦi2bBb bQ#`2 H 7Q`K 2M
Rk
RX AMi`Q/m++BƦM Rj
[m2 2bi2 T`Q+2bQ QT2``ő bQ#`2 HQb AJ">bX _2bmHi- 2MiQM+2b- 2pB/2Mi2
[m2 Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b `2HBx/b H /ő /2 ?Qv MQ bQM bm}+B2Mi2b T`
+QM}`K` MB /2b+ì` H 2tBbi2M+B /2 HQb AJ">bX 1M TìB+mH`- Hb
+QM+HmbBQM2b Uv b2M 2M 7pQ` Q 2M +QMi` /2 H T`2b2M+B /2H AJ"> 2M
2H +ȹKmHQ #DQ 2bim/BQV /2T2M/2M /2H KQ/2HQ v mM KBbK Q#b2`p+BƦM
? ``QD/Q /BbiBMiQb `2bmHi/QbX ./ 2bi /2T2M/2M+B- v b2 +QM 2H
KQ/2HQ /2 +`2+BƦM- /2 2KBbBƦM Q 2H KQ/2HQ /BMKB+Q- `2bmHi `2H2pMi2
/2b``QHH` KQ/2HQb [m2 /2b+`B#M HQb T`Q+2bQb 7őbB+Qb BMpQHm+`/Qb /2
mM KM2` HQ Kb `2HBbi TQbB#H2- /2 KM2` /2 Q#i2M2` BMi2`T`2i@
+BQM2b Kb T`2+Bbb /2 Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2bX 1bi 2b H T`BM+BTH KQiBp+BƦM
/2 2bi2 i`#DQ /2 h2bBbX
1M 2bi h2bBb b2 2bim/B 2H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 mM AJ"> 2M 2H

+2Mi`Q /2 mM +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH`X lM /2 Hb ?BTƦi2bBb Kb 7m2ì2b- `2bT2+@
iQ /2 H +`2+BƦM- 2M HQb i`#DQb T`2pBK2Mi2 +Bi/Qb- 2b [m2 bmTQM2M
[m2 H +`2+BƦM `2bTQM/2 H KQ/2HQ /2 "QM/B@>QvH2 U"QM/B >QvH2-
RN99VX 1bi2 KQ/2HQ bmTQM2 [m2 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q 2bi BbH/Q v +`2i
/2 mM K2/BQ 2biiB+Q H2DQb /2H KBbKQ- v [m2 H Kb /2H ~mB/Q b2 +QMb2`@
p- KB2Mi`b [m2 2M mM +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` Hb 2bi`2HHb T`Qp22M mM +KTQ
;`pBi+BQMH 2ti` [m2 7pQ`2+2 H +`2+BƦM v H Kb /2H K2/BQ BMi2`@
2bi2H` b2 BM+`2K2Mi TQ` HQb K2+MBbKQb /2 Tû`/B/ /2 Kb 2bi2H`X
/2Kb- 2H Ki2`BH BMv2+i/Q H K2/BQ TQ` Hb 2bi`2HHb /2 H b2+m2M+B
T`BM+BTH 2b iK#BûM mM 7m2Mi2 /2 2M2`;őX 1biQ TQ/`ő +K#B` +QM@
bB/2`#H2K2Mi2 H /BMKB+ /2H Ki2`BH +`2i/Q- v TQ` +QMbB;mB2Mi2
HQb `2bmHi/Qb bQ#`2 H 2KBbBƦM s v /2 `/BQX *QKQ Q#D2iBpQ TìB+m@
H`- b2 #mb+ mM +Q``2H+BƦM 2Mi`2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM v HQb T`K2i`Qb
2bi`m+im`H2b /2 HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b [m2 T2`KBi ?+2` T`2/B++BQM2b
`2bT2+iQ /2 H T`2b2M+B v /2i2+i#BHB// /2 HQb AJ">bX /2Kb- b2
#mb+M Mm2pQb Q#b2`p#H2b [m2 i`+2M H T`2b2M+B /2 2biQb Q#D2iQb 2M
HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2bX
Rj
R9
1bi h2bBb 2bi Q`;MBx/ /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`X 1M 2H *TőimHQ k

b2 /2b+`B#2 2H 2MiQ`MQ /2 HQb AJ">bc HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2bX /2Kb-
b2 /2b+`B#2M #`2p2K2Mi2 Hb MQ+BQM2b 2H2KMiH2b `272`B/b H T`Q+2bQ
/2 +`2+BƦM- iMiQ /2b/2 2H 2M7Q[m2 M2riQMBMQ +QKQ /2b/2 2H 2M7Q[m2
`2HiBpBbiX 1M 2H *TőimHQ j b2 T`2b2Mi 2H KQ/2HQ `2HiBpBbi /2b``Q@
HH/Q [m2 T2`KBi2 2bim/B` H +`2+BƦM /2 ~mB/Qb +QbKQHƦ;B+Qb TQ` Tì2
/2H AJ">X 1H KQ/2HQ M2riQMBMQ [m2 /2b+`B#2 H +`2+BƦM /2H K2/BQ
;b2QbQ BMi2`2bi2H` 2b T`2b2Mi/Q 2M 2H *TőimHQ 9X HHő iK#BûM b2
/Bb+mi2M HQb /BbiBMiQb KQ/2HQb 2tBbi2Mi2b T` H 2KBbBƦMX 1H *TőimHQ
8 T`2b2Mi /Qb THB++BQM2b /2 HQb KQ/2HQb /2b``QHH/Qb [m2 T`Qp22M
T`2/B++BQM2b +QMi`bi#H2bX SQ` mM H/Q- b2 +QM72++BQMM KTb /2 H
2tiBM+BƦM TQ` 2H TQHpQ- +mv /Bbi`B#m+BƦM b2 2bT2` bB; H /2 ;bX SQ`
Qi`Q- b2 2bim/B H +QKTiB#BHB// /2 HQb T2`}H2b /2 ;b Q#i2MB/Qb +QM
Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2 H K2/B/ /2 /BbT2`bBƦM /2 TȹHb`2b /2 KBHBb2;mM@
/QX SQ` ȹHiBKQ- Hb +QM+HmbBQM2b ;2M2`H2b v Hb T2`bT2+iBpb /2 i`#DQ
7mim`Q bQM T`2b2Mi/b 2M 2H *TőimHQ eX
R9
*QMbB/2`+BQM2b ;2M2`H2b
2
1H 2bim/BQ /2 iQ/Q 72MƦK2MQ bi`Q7őbB+Q `2[mB2`2 /2 mM /Bp2`b ;K
/2 +QMQ+BKB2MiQbX 1biQb #`+M- MQ bƦHQ Hb 2+m+BQM2b #bB+b [m2
`B;2M 2H +QKTQìKB2MiQ 7őbB+Q /2H Q#D2iQ #DQ 2bim/BQ- bBMQ iK#BûM
/2b+`BT+BQM2b 2KTő`B+b /2 HQb /BbiBMiQb +QKTQM2Mi2b BMpQHm+`/Qb v Hb
`2H+BQM2b 2Mi`2 2HHQbX
1M 2bi2 +TőimHQ b2 T`2b2Mi mM /2b+`BT+BƦM /2iHH/ /2 iQ/Qb HQb 2H2@
K2MiQb BMpQHm+`/Qb 2M 2H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 mM AJ">X Gb
T`BK2`b b2++BQM2b bQM /2/B+/b H /2b+`BT+BƦM /2 HQb bBbi2Kb 2b@
i2H`2b [m2 H#2`;M 2biQb ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qbc HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2bX
1H H2+iQ` 2M+QMi`` mM `2b2Ƣ bQ#`2 bm TQ#H+BƦM v /BMKB+ 2bi2H`-
+QKQ bő iK#BûM bQ#`2 2H +QMi2MB/Q /2H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹKmHQX Gb ȹHiB@
Kb b2++BQM2b 2biM /2/B+/b H 2tTHB++BƦM /2iHH/ /2H T`Q+2bQ /2
+`2+BƦM bQ#`2 mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q iMiQ /2b/2 2H K`+Q /2 H K2+MB+
R8
Re kXRX 1H 2MiQ`MQ, +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
M2riQMBM +QKQ /2b/2 H K2+MB+ `2HiBpBbi- [m2 +QMbiBimv2 H #b2

T` HQb /2b``QHHQb TQbi2`BQ`2b /2 2bi h2bBbX
kXRX 1H 2MiQ`MQ, +ȳKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
GQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b U6B;X kXRXRV bQM bBbi2Kb 2bi2H`2b bQ+B/Qb

Hb ;HtBb- +QKTm2biQb TQ` p`BQb +B2MiQb /2 KBH2b /2 2bi`2HHbX amb
Kbb bQM /2H Q`/2M /2 105 106 M⊙ - v bmb iKƢQb /2 T`b2+b Q
H;mMb /2+2Mb /2 T`b2+bX H /ő /2 ?Qv b2 +QMQ+2M TQ+Q K2MQb /2
R8y +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b 2M H oő G+i2 U>``Bb- RNNeV- [m2 b2 2M+m2M@
i`M /Bbi`B#mB/Qb /2 KM2` T`QtBK/K2Mi2 2b7û`B+ +QM /BbiM+Bb
H +2Mi`Q /2 H;mMQb p`Bb /2+2Mb /2 FBHQT`b2+b UmM[m2 H;mMQb-
Kb /BbiMi2b- H+MxM /BbiM+Bb ∼ 100 FT+VX 1biQb bBbi2Kb Q`#BiM
H :HtB 2M 2b+Hb /2 iB2KTQ /2H Q`/2M /2 108 v` UP/2MFB`+?2M 2i HX-
RNNdV- i`p2bM/Q /Qb p2+2b 2H /Bb+Q :H+iB+Q 2M +/ Ʀ`#BiX .m`Mi2
HQb ∼ 1010 ƢQb i`Mb+m``B/Qb /2b/2 H 7Q`K+BƦM /2 HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ@
#mH`2b- Hb 2bi`2HHb Kb KbBpb ?M 2pQHm+BQM/Q ?bi HH2;` Hb
2iTb }MH2b /2 bmb pB/b- +QMpBìBûM/Qb2 2M `2KM2Mi2b +QKT+iQb-
KB2Mi`b [m2 Hb K2MQb KbBpb ȹM b2 2M+m2Mi`M 2M 2iTb Kb i2K@
T`MbX
Gb 2bi`2HHb [m2 +QKTQM2M HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b b2 7Q`K`QM /m@

`Mi2 mM BMi2`pHQ /2 iB2KTQ Km+?Q K2MQ` bm 2// +imH- TQ` HQ
[m2 bmb 2//2b iB2M2M TQ+ /BbT2`bBƦM U2X;X "iiM2`- RNN8- J+*HBMiQ+F
_2KBHH`/- kyyjVX Gb KBbKb bQM iőTB+K2Mi2 /2 SQ#H+BƦM AA, 2b@
i`2HHb Kmv pB2Db- /2}+B2Mi2b 2M 2H2K2MiQb Kb T2b/Qb [m2 2H ?2HBQ-
+`+i2`Bx/b TQ` b2` KvQ`K2Mi2 `QDbX lM /B;`K +QHQ`@K;MBim/
Up2` 6B;X kXRXkV- Km2bi` HQb /BbiBMiQb iBTQb /2 2bi`2HHb 2M mM +ȹKmHQ
;HQ#mH` b2;ȹM bm HmKBMQbB// v bm i2KT2ìm` 272+iBpX a2 Q#b2`pM
2bi`2HHb 7`őb- `QDb v /2 #D Kb ȹM 2M H b2+m2M+B T`BM+BTH UaS
Re
kX *QMbB/2`+BQM2b ;2M2`H2b Rd
6B;m` kXRXR, AK;2M /2H +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` L:* ej33X
2M H 6B;X kXRXkV- v ;B;Mi2b `QDb U:_V v /2 Hb `Kb ?Q`BxQMiH U_>V

v bBMiƦiB+ U_V- [m2 `2bmHi`QM /2 H 2pQHm+BƦM /2 2bi`2HHb +QM Kbb
H2p2K2Mi2 K2MQ`2b H /2H aQHX Gb :_ v 2bi`2HHb /2 H _ v _> /QKB@
MM H HmKBMQbB// /2H +ȹKmHQ T2b` /2 b2` mM 7`++BƦM T2[m2Ƣ 2M
MȹK2`Q U/2H Q`/2M /2 yXR WVX /2Kb 2bib 2bi`2HHb TB2`/2M Ki2`B
ibb `2HiBpK2Mi2 Hib- +imM/Q +QKQ 7m2Mi2b /2H K2/BQ BMi2`2bi2H`
/2H +ȹKmHQ Up2` a2++BƦM kXRXkV X
Rd
R3 kXRX 1H 2MiQ`MQ, +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
6B;m` kXRXk, 1b[m2K /2H /B;`K +QHQ`@K;MBim/ T` 2H +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH`

J 88X
kXRXRX .BM{KB+ 2bi2H`
1H TQi2M+BH ;`pBiiQ`BQ /2 HQb bBbi2Kb 2bi2H`2b- [m2 bm p2x /2}M2

H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2bT+BH /2 Hb 2bi`2HHb- 2b 2H ;2M2`/Q TQ` Hb 2bi`2HHb
KBbKbX 1M+QMi`` mM bQHm+BƦM miQ+QMbBbi2Mi2 T` 2H TQi2M+BH 2b
mM T`Q#H2K MQ HBM2H +QKTHB+/Q- /2#B/Q H `M;Q /2 ++BƦM BM}MBiQ /2
H 7m2`x ;`pBiiQ`BX S` `2bQHp2`HQ- b2 Tm2/2 +QMbB/2`` H +QMDmMiQ
/2 2bi`2HHb +QKQ mM bBbi2K K2+MB+Q@2bi/őbiB+Q- bB2M/Q H 7mM+BƦM /2
/Bbi`B#m+BƦM mM 2H2K2MiQ +Hp2 2M 2bi2 /2b``QHHQX .2 2bi KM2`- bB f
2b H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 Kb 2M 2H 2bT+BQ /2 7b2b- /2 KQ/Q [m2
R3
kX *QMbB/2`+BQM2b ;2M2`H2b RN
f ($r, $v ) d3$r d3$v 2b H Kb /2 Hb 2bi`2HHb 2M 2H pQHmK2M d3$r H`2/2/Q`

/2 $r v +QM p2HQ+B//2b +QMi2MB/b 2M d3$v H`2/2/Q` /2 $v - 2H TQi2M+BH
;`pBiiQ`BQ Φ /2H bBbi2K Q#2/2+2 H 2+m+BƦM /2 SQBbbQM
#
2
∇ Φ = 4πG f d3$v , UkXRV
/QM/2 : 2b H +QMbiMi2 /2 ;`pBi+BƦM mMBp2`bHX ./Q [m2 mM +ȹKmHQ

Tm2/2- T`BK2` Q`/2M- b2` +QMbB/2`/Q 2b7û`B+K2Mi2 bBKûi`B+Q- `2bmHi
! "
1 d 2 dΦ
#
r = 4πG f d3$v , UkXkV
r dr dr
/QM/2 r 2b H +QQ`/2M/ `/BH 2b7û`B+X úbi 2b H 2+m+BƦM 7mM/K2M@
iH [m2 `B;2 HQb bBbi2Kb 2bi2H`2b 2M 2[mBHB#`BQ +QM bBK2i`ő 2b7û`B+X 1b
BKTQìMi2 MQi` [m2 b2 ? miBHBx/Q H /2MbB// /2 Kb 2M Hm;` /2 H
/2MbB// MmKû`B+- /2#B/Q [m2 b2 bmTmbQ [m2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 Kbb
2bi2H`2b MQ /2T2M/2 /2 H TQbB+BƦM MB /2 H p2HQ+B// /2 Hb 2bi`2HHbX
aB #B2M 2bi ?BTƦi2bBb MQ 2b 2bi`B+iK2Mi2 +B2ì T` `2KM2Mi2b +QK@
T+iQbR - HQb KBbKQb MQ TQìM bB;MB}+iBpK2Mi2 H Kb iQiH /2H
bBbi2K TQ` HQ [m2 H /2b+`BT+BƦM /2H TQi2M+BH ;`pBiiQ`BQ K2/BMi2 H
2+X kXk +QMiBMȹ bB2M/Q pHB/X
1H 2bim/BQ /2 H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 +ȹKmHQb +QM ;mD2`Qb

M2;`Qb KbBpQb 2M mM `û;BK2M +mbB@2bi+BQM`BQ 2b mM iƦTB+Q +HbB+Q
2M /BMKB+ 2bi2H` v ? bB/Q 2bim/B/Q TQ` p`BQb miQ`2b /2b/2 HQb
+QKB2MxQb /2 HQb ƢQb dy U"?+HH qQH7- RNde- *Q?M EmHb`m/- RNd3-
GB;?iKM a?TB`Q- RNdd- S22#H2b- RNdk- a?TB`Q GB;?iKM- RNdeVX
S` iB2KTQb Kb H`;Qb [m2 2H iB2KTQ /2 `2HD+BƦM /BMKB+Q /2H +ȹ@
KmHQk b2 H+Mx mM 2bi/Q /2 2[mBHB#`BQ /BMKB+Q v iû`KB+Q v /2#2`ő
2bi#H2+2`b2 mM 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM Jtr2HHBM f ∼ exp(E/σ 2 )-
/QM/2 E 2b H 2M2`;ő iQiH v σ 2H T`K2i`Q /2 /BbT2`bBƦM /2 p2HQ+B@
R
úbiQb TQ` b2;`2;+BƦM /2 Kbb /2 m#B+M 2M Hb xQMb +2Mi`H2b /2H +ȹKmHQX
k
1bi2 iB2KTQ 2b K2/B/Q /2b/2 H 7Q`K+BƦM /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX
RN
ky kXRX 1H 2MiQ`MQ, +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
//2bX aBM 2K#`;Q- 2H 2b+2M`BQ +K#B 2M Hb `2;BQM2b H2/Ƣb H

;mD2`Q M2;`Q /QM/2 Hb 2bi`2HHb Tm2/2M b2` /Bb;`2;/b +QKQ +QMb2@
+m2M+B /2 Hb 7m2`xb /2 K`2 Q BM+HmbQ +`2i/b TQ` 2H Q#D2iQ +QK@
T+iQX .2 2bi KM2` b2 ;2M2` mM ~mDQ /2 2M2`;ő [m2- 2M +QM/B+BQM2b
2bi+BQM`Bb- /2#2 b2` +QMbiMi2 v mMB7Q`K2 2M 2bi `2;BƦM +2Mi`H- Mm@
HM/Q bő H TQbB#BHB// /2 [m2 mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM Jtr2HHBM b2 pHB/
2M Hb xQMb +2`+Mb H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX
1M HQb bB;mB2Mi2b Tì/Qb b2 /Bb+mi2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2bi2H` /2 mM

bBbi2K 2b7û`B+Q 2M 2bi/Q 2bi+BQM`BQX 1M T`BK2` Hm;`- b2 iì` H
bBbi2K 2bi2H` ȹMB+K2Mi2X Gm2;Q- b2 BM+HmB` mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q 2M 2H
+2Mi`Q /2H bBbi2K v b2 2bim/B`M bmb 272+iQb bQ#`2 H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bb@
i`B#m+BƦM v- 2M +QMb2+m2M+B- 2H TQi2M+BH ;`pBiiQ`BQX
JQ/2HQ /2 EBM;
1M HQ [m2 bB;m2- b2 T`2b2MiM 2H KQ/2HQ /2b``QHH/Q TQ` EBM; URNeeV

[m2 /2b+`B#2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2bi2H` 2M 2[mBHB#`BQ /2 HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#m@
H`2bX G /2b+`BT+BƦM bB;m2 2H 2M7Q[m2 miBHBx/Q TQ` "BMM2v h`2KBM2
URN3dVX *QM 2H }M /2 HBpBM` H MQi+BƦM `2bmHi +QMp2MB2Mi2 /2}MB`
mM Mm2pQ TQi2M+BH v mM Mm2p 2M2`;őX aB Φ0 2b H;mM +QMbiMi2-
/2}MBKQb 2H TQi2M+BH `2HiBpQ Ψ v H 2M2`;ő `2HiBp ε +QKQ
1
Ψ ≡ −Φ + Φ0 v ε ≡ −E + Φ0 = Ψ − v 2 , UkXjV
2
`2bT2+iBpK2Mi2- /QM/2 v = |$v | v E 2b H 2M2`;őX 1M H T`+iB+- 2H2;B@

KQb Φ0 /2 KQ/Q [m2 f > 0 T` ε > 0 v f = 0 T` ε $ 0X G ȹHiBK /2
Hb +QM/B+BQM2b BKTQM2 mM +Qì2 2M 2H TQi2M+BH ;`pBiiQ`BQ [m2 BM/B+
2H #Q`/2 /2H +ȹKmHQ- /B72`2M+BM/QHQ /2 TQi2M+BH2b [m2 iB2M/2M bBM@
iƦiB+K2Mi2 +2`QX aB #B2M 2H KQ/2HQ /2 EBM; MQ Tm2/2 /2`Bp`b2 /2
ky
kX *QMbB/2`+BQM2b ;2M2`H2b kR
2+m+BQM2b 7mM/K2MiH2b /2 H 7őbB+- 2b +2Ti/Q v miBHBx/Q // bm

+QM+Q`/M+B +QM Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2bX .B+?Q KQ/2HQ b2 #b 2M bmTQM2`
mM 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 Kb // TQ`

ρ (2πσ 2 ) 23 (eε/σ2 − 1) bB ε > 0
1
fK (ε) = .
0 bB ε < 0
[mő ρ1 2b mM +QMbiMi2 v b2 /2}M2 2H `/BQ /2 EBM;- [m2 `2T`2b2Mi

2H `/BQ T` 2H +mH H /2MbB// T`Qv2+i/ +2 T`QtBK/K2Mi2 H
KBi/ /2 bm pHQ` +2Mi`H- +QKQ
'
9σ 2
r0 ≡ , UkX9V
4πGρ0
/QM/2 ρ0 2b H /2MbB// +2Mi`HX AMi2;`M/Q H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM

bQ#`2 iQ/b Hb p2HQ+B//2b b2 Q#iB2M2- T` ε > 0-
√
Ψ − 12 v 2
2Ψ (
" ) !
4π
#
ρk (Ψ) = 3 exp 2
− 1 v 2 dv UkX8V
2
(2πσ ) 0
2 σ
* +√ , - ! ".
2 Ψ 4Ψ 2Ψ
= ρ1 eΨ/σ erf − 1+ 2 , UkXeV
σ πσ 2 3σ
/QM/2 erf(x) 2b H 7mM+BƦM 2``Q`X G 2+m+BƦM /2 SQBbbQM T` Φ- 2M

iû`KBMQb /2H TQi2M+BH `2HiBpQ Ψ- b2 2b+`B#2 2MiQM+2b
! " * +√ , - ! ".
1 d 2 dΨ 2 Ψ/σ 2 Ψ 4Ψ 2Ψ
r = −4πGρ1 r e erf − 1+ 2 .
r dr dr σ πσ 2 3σ
UkXdV
G 2+X kXd 2b mM 2+m+BƦM /B72`2M+BH Q`/BM`B [m2 Tm2/2 b2` BMi2;`@
/ MȹK2`B+K2Mi2 mM p2x [m2 b2 ?vM 2bi#H2+B/Q Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2
+QMiQ`MQ /2+m/bX 1M r = 0 i2M2KQb H +QM/B+BƦM mbmH (dΨ/dr) = 0
kR
kk kXRX 1H 2MiQ`MQ, +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
//Q [m2 H 7m2`x /2#2 b2` MmH TQ` H bBK2i`ő 2b7û`B+ /2H bBbi2KX G
b2;mM/ +QM/B+BƦM 2b 2H pHQ` /2 Ψ 2M r = 0X 1H pHQ` /2 Ψ(0) > 0 Tm2/2
2H2;B`b2 HB#`2K2Mi2 /M/Q Hm;` mM 7KBHB /2 KQ/2HQbX Ψ(0) /2i2`KB@
M 2H pHQ` /2H TQi2M+BH +2Mi`H Φ(0), v [m2 BMB+BHK2Mi2 (dΨ/dr) = 0
v (d2 Ψ/dr2 ) < 0- Ψ /2+`2+2 K2/B/ [m2 MQb H2DKQb /2H +2Mi`QX bő-
√
2H `M;Q Uy- 2ΨV 2M 2H [m2 /2#2 +2` H p2HQ+B// /2 Hb 2bi`2HHb b2
+?B+- v H /2MbB// /2 2bi`2HHb 2M 2b2 `/BQ- +2X 1p2MimHK2Mi2 b2
?` +2`Q T` H;ȹM `/BQ rt - HHK/Q `/BQ /2 K`2X ./ H Kb
+QMi2MB/ 2M rt - M (rt )- TQ/2KQb /2i2`KBM` Φ(rt ) +QKQ
GM (rt )
Φ(rt ) = − . UkX3V
rt
*H`K2Mi2- Φ(0) = Φ(rt ) − Ψ(0)- [m2/M/Q 2MiQM+2b /2i2`KBM/ TQ`
Mm2bi` 2H2++BƦM T` Ψ(0)- bB2M/Q ûbi2 mM T`K2i`Q [m2 /2T2M/2 /2 Hb
T`QTB2//2b /2H +ȹKmHQX .2 2bi KM2`- HQb KQ/2HQb /2 EBM; +QMbiBim@
v2M mM 7KBHB BM}MBi /2 KQ/2HQb +QM i`2b T`K2i`Qb UΨ(0) v /Qb 2M@
i`2 ρ0 - r0 v σV [m2 T2`KBi2M /2b+`B#B` +ȹKmHQb +QM /BbiBMib T`QTB2//2b
UiKƢQ- Kb- /2MbB// +2Mi`H- 2i+XVX 1bi2 KQ/2HQ- v TQbi2`BQ`2b p2`@
bBQM2b /2H KBbKQ [m2 BM+Hmv2M mM 2bT2+i`Q /2 Kbb T` Hb 2bi`2HHb-
?M bB/Q miBHBx/Qb HQ H`;Q /2 HQb ƢQb T` 2H 2bim/BQ /2 HQb +ȹKmHQb
;HQ#mH`2b v +QMbiBimv2M H #b2 /2H KQ/2HQ [m2 BM+Hmv2 mM Q#D2iQ +QK@
T+iQ 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQ- iH +QKQ 2b T`2b2Mi/Q 2M H bB;mB2Mi2
b2++BƦMX
.Bbi`B#m+BƠM 2bi2H` 2M T`2b2M+B /2 mM AJ">
1H 272+iQ /2 mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q +2Mi`H 2M mM bBbi2K 2bi2H` 2b7û`B+Q

? bB/Q 2bim/B/Q TQ` p`BQb miQ`2bX "BMM2v h`2KBM2 URN3dV mb`QM
`;mK2MiQb bBKTH2b /2 2b+H T` /2i2`KBM` [m2 H /2MbB// 2b T`Q@
TQ`+BQMH ∼ r−7/4 +2`+ /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- 6`2Bi; 2i HX
UkyyeV HH2;`QM H KBbKQ `2bmHi/Q #bM/Qb2 2M 2+m+BQM2b /2 i`Mb72`@
kk
kX *QMbB/2`+BQM2b ;2M2`H2b kj
2M+B /2 +HQ`X hH H2v /2 TQi2M+Bb T` H /2MbB// +Q``2bTQM/2 mM

7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM f ∼ (−E)−1/4 X 1bi2 `2bmHi/Q 7m2 Q#i2MB/Q TQ`
T`BK2` p2x TQ` "?+HH qQH7 URNdeV- T`QtBKM/Q Hb bQHm+BQM2b
H 2+m+BƦM /2 6QFF2`@SHM+FX JûiQ/Qb Kb T`2+BbQb [m2 BM+Hmv2M 272+@
iQb /2 `2HD+BƦM T2`KBiB2`QM- Hm2;Q- +QM}`K` 2bi2 `2bmHi/Q miBHBxM/Q
+Ʀ/B;Qb JQMi2 *`HQ U6`2Bi; "2Mx- kyyk- a?TB`Q- RN38V- KûiQ/Qb
Tm`K2Mi2 ?B/`Q/BMKB+Qb UK`Q@a2QM2 2i HX- kyy9V v bBKmH+BQM2b
/2 L +m2`TQb U"mK;`/i- JFBMQ 1#BbmxFB- kyy9- S`2iQ 2i HX-
kyy9VX
JBQ++?B UkyydV /2b``QHHƦ mM KQ/2HQ miQ+QMbBbi2Mi2 T` bBbi2Kb

2bi2H`2b 2b7û`B+Qb [m2 T2`KBi2 2biBK`j - /2Kb- H Kb /2 mM TQbB#H2
AJ"> 2M mM +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH`X GQb bB;mB2Mi2b T``7Qb b2`M /2/B+/Qb
H /2b+`BT+BƦM /2 /B+?Q KQ/2HQX S` 2HHQ- `2bmHi T`+iB+Q /2}MB`
Hb bB;mB2Mi2b p`B#H2b /BK2MbBQMH2b, 2H `/BQ x ≡ r/r0 - H p2HQ+B//
ω ≡ v/σ- 2H TQi2M+BH iQiH K2/BQ W (x) ≡ −Ψ(x)/σ 2 - H 2M2`;ő UTQ`
mMB// /2 KbV E ≡ ω 2 /2 − W - H /2MbB// ν(x) ≡ ρ(x)/ρ0 - H Kb
/2H +ȹKmHQ +QMi2MB/ 2M mM `/BQ t M ∗ (x) ≡ M (x)/ρ0 r03 v H Kb /2H
;mD2`Q M2;`Q µ ≡ M/ρ0 r03 X
1M 2bib /2}MB+BQM2b b2 ?M 2H2;B/Q +QKQ T`K2i`Qb /2 2b+H T`

2H `/BQ- H p2HQ+B// v H /2MbB//- HQb T`K2i`Qb +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b /2H
KQ/2HQ /2 EBM; T`2b2Mi/Q 2M H b2++BƦM Mi2`BQ`- r0 - σ v ρ0 - `2bT2+iB@
pK2Mi2X
lM 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM [m2 ;2M2`HBx [m2HH Q#i2MB/ TQ` EBM;

URNeeV /2 KQ/Q /2 BM+HmB` H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 "?+HH qQH7
URNdeV- 7m2 /2b``QHH/ TQ` JBQ++?B UkyydV-
j
liBHBxM/Q Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2 H /2MbB// bmT2`}+BH /2 #`BHHQX
kj
k9 kXRX 1H 2MiQ`MQ, +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b



 c(−E)1/4 bB E < −W">

f (E) = (2π)3/2 (e−E − 1) bB −W"> < E < 0 ,


0 bB E ≥ 0

−1/4
/QM/2 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 c ≡ (2π)−3/2 (exp(W"> ) − 1)W"> b2;m` H +QM@
iBMmB// /2 f v W b2 /2}M2 /2 KQ/Q [m2 W (xt ) = 0- /QM/2 xt 2b 2H
`/BQ /2 K`2 /2H +ȹKmHQX 1H TQi2M+BH W"> ≡ W (x"> ) 2b 2H TQi2M+BH
2pHm/Q 2M 2H `/BQ +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 H 2b72` /2 BM~m2M+B /2H ;mD2`Q
M2;`QX úbi- b2 /2}M2 +QKQ H 2b72` Kb ;`M/2 +2Mi`/ 2M 2H ;mD2`Q
M2;`Q- /2Mi`Q /2 H +mH 2H KQpBKB2MiQ /2 Hb 2bi`2HHb 2b /QKBM/Q TQ`
2H +KTQ ;`pBi+BQMH /2H Q#D2iQ +QKT+iQX 1bi /2}MB+BƦM `2bmHi +Q@
?2`2Mi2 +QM H ?BTƦi2bBb /2 +QKTQìKB2MiQ Jtr2HHBMQ T2Mb 7m2`
/2 2bi `2;BƦMX .2 2bi KM2`- mM +QM/B+BƦM `xQM#H2 T` x"> 2b
[m2 H Kb 2M+2``/ /2 2bi`2HHb b2 mM 7`++BƦM T2[m2Ƣ /2 H Kb
/2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q- 2b /2+B`-
M ∗ (x"> ) = 0,1µ, UkXNV
ȹM +mM/Q 2biQ BKTHB[m2 `2bQHp2` mM 2+m+BƦM BKTHő+Bi [m2 BM+Hmv2 mM
T2`}H /2 Kb [m2 2b bƦHQ +QMQ+B/Q TQbi2`BQ`BX G 7Ʀ`KmH mbmH T`
x"> ∼ GM/σ 2 r0 MQ `2bmHi +QKTiB#H2- 2M T`BM+BTBQ- +QM H /2}MB+BƦM
kXN- Tm2b `2bmHi 2M pHQ`2b /2H Q`/2M /2 M ∗ (x"> ) % 10−4 µX .2 ?2+?Q-
ȹM +mM/Q x"> iB2M2 [m2 b2` HQ bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 T2[m2ƢQ /2 KM2` [m2
2H +KTQ ;`pBi+BQMH /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q /QKBM2 H /BMKB+ /2Mi`Q /2
2bi2 `/BQ- iB2M2 [m2- /2Kb- b2` HQ bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 ;`M/2 +QKQ T`
[m2 H ?BTƦi2bBb /2 mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM BbQiû`KB+ 7m2` /2 ûH- b2 THmbB@
#H29 X
G /B72`2M+B T`BM+BTH `2bT2+iQ /2H KQ/2HQ mbmH /2b``QHH/Q TQ`

úbi ȹHiBK +QM/B+BƦM MQ 2b /2H iQ/Q `2HBbi bB 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q BM~m2M+B
9
7m2ì2K2Mi2 H /BMKB+X
k9
kX *QMbB/2`+BQM2b ;2M2`H2b k8
EBM; URNeeV 2b [m2 2bi 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM `2bmHi +QKTiB#H2 +QM

H T`2b2M+B /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2H bBbi2K 2bi2H`X ./Q [m2
/B+?Q ;mD2`Q M2;`Q b2 bmTQM2 2M `2TQbQ- H BM/2T2M/2M+B i2KTQ`H
b2 T`2b2`p v H 7mM+BƦM /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM kXRXR `2bmHi mM bQHm+BƦM /2
2[mBHB#`BQ pHB/X .2 2bi KM2`- b2 Tm2/2 T`Q+2/2` /2 B;mH KM2`
[m2 +QM HQb KQ/2HQb /2 EBM; URNeeVc 2b /2+B`- `2bQHp2` H 2+m+BƦM /2
SQBbbQM T` W (t)-
d2 W 2 dW
2
+ = −(4πGρ0 r2 σ −2 )ν(W ), x > 0; UkXRyV
dx x dx
/QM/2 b2 ? 2t+Hmő/Q 2H Q`B;2M T` 2pBi` H bBM;mH`B// /2H ;mD2`Q

M2;`Q v H /2MbB// 2bi2H` 2b 2tT`2b/ 2M 7mM+BƦM /2H TQi2M+BH W /2
+m2`/Q
√

2W ν , bB W ≤ W">
#
1
ν(W ) = 4π f (E)ω 2 dω = ,
0 ν ,
2 bB W > W">
/QM/2 ν1 v ν2 bQM 7mM+BQM2b [m2 /2T2M/2M ȹMB+K2Mi2 /2H TQi2M+BH W X
*QKQ b2 T`Q+2/2 2M HQb KQ/2HQb i`/B+BQMH2b /2 EBM; URNeeV- b2

BKTQM2 H `2H+BƦM
9σ 2
r0 = . UkXRRV
4πGρ0
.2 2bi KM2`- H 2+X kXRy `2bmHi
d2 W 2 dW
2
+ = −9ν(W ), bB x > 0, UkXRkV
dx x dx
H +mH TQb22 mM 7KBHB /2 bQHm+BQM2b [m2- iH +QKQ 2M H b2++BƦM

Mi2`BQ`- /2T2M/2M ȹMB+K2Mi2 /2 Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ Ux0 > 0V-
k8
ke kXRX 1H 2MiQ`MQ, +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
dW
(x0 ) = W0′ , UkXRjV
dx
W (x0 ) = W0 . UkXR9V
.2 2bi KM2`- 2HB;B2M/Q x0 = x"> - 2bib +QM/B+BQM2b /2}M2M mM +QM@

DmMiQ /2 KQ/2HQb /2T2M/B2Mi2b /2 /Qb T`K2i`Qb UW"> ′
- W"> V v HQb
`2biMi2b `2bmHiM bBKTH2K2Mi2 T`K2i`Qb /2 2b+HX
.2 H /2}MB+BƦM /2 H 2b72` /2 BM~m2M+B /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q b2 Tm2/2
2b+`B#B` H `2H+BƦM
dψ GM Gµ
(x"> ) = = 2 ρ0 r 0 , UkXR8V
dr (xBH r0 )2 x">
[m2- mbM/Q H 2+X kXRR- `2bmHi 2M
9µ
Wx′ "> = − . UkXReV
4πx2">
.2 2bi KM2`- iQ/Q 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 KQ/2HQb Tm2/2 b2` /2b+`BTiQ 2M
iû`KBMQb /2H T` (µ, W"> )X G bQHm+BƦM /2Mi`Q /2 H 2b72` /2 BM~m2M+B
/2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q Tm2/2 Q#i2M2`b2 TìB` /2 H BMi2;`+BƦM ?+B i`b
/2 H 2+X kXRk ?bi mM `/BQ KőMBKQ- 2M ;2M2`H /2H Q`/2M /2 0,1 x"> X
SQ` ȹHiBKQ- x"> /2#2 biBb7+2` H 2+X kXN- +QM M ∗ (x) //Q /2 KM2`
miQ+QMbBbi2Mi2 TQ` 2H KQ/2HQ [m2 mb H KBbKQ x"> +QKQ 2H `/BQ /2
H 2b72` /2 BM~m2M+B /2H AJ">X bő- 2bi2 `/BQ 2b 2M+QMi`/Q Bi2ìB@
pK2Mi2, 2H T`Q+2bQ /2 BMi2;`+BƦM /2 H 2+X kXRk +QKB2Mx +QM mM pHQ`
BMB+BH x"> = GM/3σ 2 r0 v b2 /2iB2M2 +mM/Q H /B72`2M+B 2Mi`2 /Qb p@
HQ`2b +QMb2+miBpQb b2 KMiB2M2 /2Mi`Q /2 +B2ìQ `M;Q /2 iQH2`M+BX 1M
H };m` kXRXj b2 Km2bi` 2H TQi2M+BH T` /BbiBMiQb pHQ`2b /2 H Kb
/2H AJ"> UM"> = 0, 100, 1000, 4000 M⊙ V T` mM +ȹKmHQ /2 W0 ∼ 8X
Sm2/2 p2`b2 [m2 H /B72`2M+B 2Mi`2 2H TQi2M+BH i`/B+BQMH /2 EBM; UbBM
AJ">V v [m2H `2bmHiMi2 /2H KQ/2HQ /2 JBQ++?B- bQHQ b2 Q#b2`p 2M Hb
ke
kX *QMbB/2`+BQM2b ;2M2`H2b kd
`2;BQM2b +2Mi`H2b /2H +ȹKmHQ- BX2X- T` r < r0 X 1bi2 KQ/2HQ 2b 2H miB@
HBx/Q 2M 2bi h2bBb T` /2b+`B#B` H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2bi2H` /2 HQb +ȹKmHQb
;HQ#mH`2b v T` 2HHQ- b2 ? /2b``QHH/Q 2H +Ʀ/B;Q [m2 BMi2;` H 2+X
kXRk T` +mH[mB2` pHQ` /2 HQb T`K2i`Qb /2H +ȹKmHQX
sin IMBH
100 M = 100 M#
M = 1000 M#
M = 4000 M#
1
2
!/"
0.01
0.0001
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

r/r0
6B;m` kXRXj, SQi2M+BH T` /BbiBMib Kbb /2H AJ"> b2;ȹM 2H KQ/2HQ /2
JBQ++?B UkyydV T` mM +ȹKmHQ /2 W0 ∼ 8X
kXRXkX J2/BQ BMi2`2bi2H`
G Ki2`B BMi2`2bi2H` 2bi +QKTm2bi TQ` HQb iQKQb- KQHû+mHb v

+QKTm2biQb [m2 b2 2M+m2Mi`M 2M 2H 2bT+BQ 2Mi`2 2bi`2HHb- 7Q`KM/Q
mM i2Mm2 ~mB/QX .B+? Ki2`B Tm2/2 +HbB}+`b2 2M /Qb ;`M/2b ;`mTQb
b2;ȹM bm /BMKB+ v bm 7Q`K /2 BMi2`+im` +QM H `/B+BƦM 2H2+@
i`QK;MûiB+ v- 2M +QMb2+m2M+B- bm 7Q`K /2 b2` /2i2+i/X 1H T`BK2`
;`mTQ- +QKTm2biQ TQ` iQKQb v KQHû+mHb bBKTH2b U>- >2- P- *P- 2Mi`2
kd
k3 kXRX 1H 2MiQ`MQ, +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
Qi`QbV 2b 2H /2H ;b BMi2`2bi2H`X úbi2 2b /2i2+i/Q K2/BMi2 iû+MB+b 2b@

T2+i`Qb+ƦTB+bX 1H b2;mM/Q ;`mTQ- 7Q`K/Q TQ` KQHû+mHb Kb ;`M/2b
v ;`2;/Qb bƦHB/Qb [m2 b2 7Q`KM 2M Hb iKƦb72`b /2 2bi`2HHb 7`őb-
2b 2H /2H TQHpQ BMi2`2bi2H`X aB #B2M MQ 2bi /2}MB/ /2 KM2` mMőpQ+
H +QKTQbB+BƦM /2 /B+?Q TQHpQ- b2 +2Ti H B/2 /2 [m2 2bi 7Q`K/Q
TQ` KQHû+mHb +QM p`Bb /2+2Mb /2 iQKQb /2 +`#QMQ- Tìő+mHb /2
;`}iQ Q +`#QMQ KQ`7Q v bBHB+iQb /2 K2iH2b +QKQ 2H K;M2bBQ- 2H
?B2``Q v 2H HmKBMBQX 1H TQHpQ 2b /2i2+i#H2 i`pûb /2 H 2tiBM+BƦM
v TQH`Bx+BƦM [m2 T`Q/m+2 2M H Hmx /2 Hb 2bi`2HHb v i`pûb /2 bm
2KBbBƦM iû`KB+ 2M 2H BM7```QDQX
a2;ȹM Hb i2Q`őb +imH2b /2 2pQHm+BƦM 2bi2H`- H 7m2Mi2 /2H K2/BQ

BMi2`2bi2H` /2 HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b b2`ő H 2v2++BƦM /2 ;b v TQHpQ
TQ` Hb 2bi`2HHb Kb 2pQHm+BQM/b /2H +ȹKmHQ U;B;Mi2b `QDb v /2 H
`K ?Q`BxQMiH v bBMiƦiB+VX 1pB/2M+B Q#b2`p+BQMH /B`2+i /2 2bi2
T`Q+2bQ 7m2 T`QpBbi TQ` Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b 2M 2H BM7```QDQ K2/BQ `2HB@
x/b +QM AaP v aTiBix2`X lM 2bi`2HH iőTB+ [m2 2M 2H TmMiQ /2 bHB/
/2 H aS iB2M2 mM Kb /2 ∼ 0,8M⊙ Tm2/2 T2`/2` ?bi mM jy W /2 bm
Kb, ∼ 0,2M⊙ /m`Mi2 H 7b2 /2 :_ v ∼ 0,1M⊙ /m`Mi2 bm 2bi/ő 2M
H `K bBMiƦiB+ U*HQB .ǶMiQM- kyy3VX 1M TìB+mH`- i`#DQb
2bi`B+iK2Mi2 Q#b2`p+BQMH2b ?M 2biBK/Q H ib 2bT2+ő}+ ;HQ#H /2
Tû`/B/ /2 Kb ;b2Qb 2M α;b ∼ 10−14 Ĝ 10−11 v`−1 U.mT`22 2i HX-
RNN9- 6mbB S2++B _2MxBMB- RNd8- Jmb 2i HX- kyye- a+Qii _Qb2-
RNd8VX SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- J+.QMH/ 2i HX UkyRRV- 2biBK`QM H ib /2 Tû`@
/B/ /2 Kb T` 2H TQHpQ ∼ 10−3 p2+2b K2MQ` [m2 [m2HH T` 2H ;bX
.2 2bi KM2`- HQb pB2MiQb 2bi2H`2b T`Qp22M Ki2`B [m2 HH2M 2H +ȹ@
KmHQ 2M 2b+Hb /2 iB2KTQ Km+?Q K2MQ`2b [m2 bm T2`őQ/Q Q`#BiHX úbi2
`2bmHi mM iB2KTQ +`+i2`őbiB+Q /2H bBbi2K Tm2b- 2H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹKmHQ
2b /BbT2`b/Q H i`p2b` 2H /Bb+Q :H+iB+Q- TQ` ++BƦM /2 H T`2bBƦM
2D2`+B/ TQ` 2H ;b /2 2bi2 ȹHiBKQ U_Q#2ìb- RN3NVX .2T2M/B2M/Q /2 H
Kb /2H +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH`- v /2b/2 mM TmMiQ /2 pBbi i2Ʀ`B+Q- b2 Tm2/2
k3
kX *QMbB/2`+BQM2b ;2M2`H2b kN
2bT2``- 2MiQM+2b- 2M+QMi`` 10Ĝ100M⊙ /2 Ki2`BH BMi`+ȹKmHQ 2Mi`2

bm+2bBpQb TbD2b i`pûb /2H /Bb+Q :H+iB+QX
.2b/2 }M2b /2 HQb Ƕ8yb b2 ?M HH2p/Q +#Q #ȹb[m2/b /2H K2/BQ
BMi2`2bi2H` ;b2QbQ 2M *:bX 1M HőM2b ;2M2`H2b- [m2HHQb 2bim/BQb [m2
MQ ?M 7HH/Q 2M H /2i2++BƦM /2 2bi2 K2/BQ ?M 2M+QMi`/Q mM Kb
/2 ;b ∼k Ʀ`/2M2b /2 K;MBim/ K2MQ` [m2 HQ 2bT2`/QX 1bim/BQb [m2
#mb+`QM ?B/`Ʀ;2MQ KQH2+mH` UpB *P- P> v H2 PV `2bmHi`QM 2M +Qib
bmT2`BQ`2b /2 yXR M⊙ Q- BM+HmbQ- 2M H MQ /2i2++BƦM /2H ?B/`Ʀ;2MQ U*Q?2M
JH+M- RNdN- 6`BH "2bH2v- RNN9- E2``- "Qr2`b EMTT- RNde-
EMTT E2``- RNdj- G2QM *QK#2b- RNNe- aKBi?- qQQ/brQ`?i >2b@
M2`- RNN8- pM GQQM 2i HX- kyyeVX "ȹb[m2/b /2 ?B/`Ʀ;2MQ BQMBx/Q Upő
>α v H 2KBbBƦM +QMiBMm 7`22@7`22V 2bi#H2+B2`QM +Qib bmT2`BQ`2b 2M 2H
`M;Q ∼ 0,1ĜR M⊙ U6mHFM2` 6`22KM- RNdd- EMTT- RNNe- aKBi?-
>2bb2` a?rH- RNdeVX lM 2bim/BQ +QKTH2K2Mi`BQ HH2p/Q +#Q TQ`
6`2B`2 2i HX UkyyRV bm;B2`2 mM TQ#H+BƦM /2 2H2+i`QM2b HB#`2b 2M 9d hm+
U/2`Bp/ /2 Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2 HQb TȹHb`2b /2 KBHBb2;mM/QV- BM/B+M@
/Q H 2tBbi2M+B /2 ∼ 0,1 M⊙ /2 ;b BQMBx/Q 2M 2H +ȹKmHQX SQ` Qi`Q
H/Q- iK#BûM b2 ?M HH2p/Q +#Q Q#b2`p+BQM2b bm#@KBHBKûi`B+b 2
BM7```QDb 2M7Q+/b 2M 2H TQHpQ U"`K#v 2i HX- kyyN- "Qv2` 2i HX-
kyy3- >QQTrQQ/ 2i HX- RNN3- RNNN- EMTT- :mMM *QMQHHv- RNN8-
JibmM; 2i HX- kyy3VX úbib +QM/mD2`QM +Qib bmT2`BQ`2b T` H
Kb /2 TQHpQ /2 ∼ 10−2 Ĝ10−5 M⊙ X JR8 2b 2H ȹMB+Q +ȹKmHQ /ƦM/2 b2
? /2i2+i/Q TQHpQ- bB2M/Q bm Kb /2 ∼ 5 × 10−4 M⊙ b2;ȹM 1pMb 2i
HX UkyyjV v /2 ∼ 9 × 10−4 M⊙ b2;ȹM "Qv2` 2i HX UkyyeVX
*H`K2Mi2- H;ȹM iBTQ /2 K2+MBbKQ `2Km2p2 2H K2/BQ BMi2`2bi2H`

/2H +ȹKmHQX Gb BMp2biB;+BQM2b i2Ʀ`B+b H `2bT2+iQ Tm2/2M /BpB/B`b2- H
/ő /2 ?Qv- 2M /Qb iBTQb /BbiBMiQb /2 2M7Q[m2b, K2+MBbKQb BMi`őMb2+Qb
/2H +ȹKmHQ v [m2HHQb [m2 T`QpB2M2M /2H K#B2Mi2 /2H +ȹKmHQX 1H H2+iQ`
2b `272`B/Q S`B2biH2v 2i HX UkyRRV T` mM /Bb+mbBƦM /2iHH/ H
kN
jy kXkX 1H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM
`2bT2+iQX 1M +mH[mB2` +bQ- Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b T`2+2M BM/B+` [m2 H

Kb /2H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹKmHQ 2b b2MbB#H2K2Mi2 K2MQ` [m2 H T`2/B+?
TQ` Hb i2Q`őb /2 2pQHm+BƦM 2bi2H`X 1biQ #`2- 2MiQM+2b- mM #MB+Q
/2 TQbB#BHB//2b bB2M/Q H +`2+BƦM /2H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹKmHQ TQ` Tì2 /2
mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q mM TQbB#H2 2b+2M`BQX 1M /B+?Q +bQ- 2H 72MƦK2MQ /2
+`2+BƦM TQ/`ő- /2Kb- +QMi`B#mB` H /2i2++BƦM /2 HQb AJ">bX
kXkX 1H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƠM
G 2ti`++BƦM /2 2M2`;ő TQi2M+BH ;`pBiiQ`B /2H Ki2`BH [m2 2b

+`2i/Q TQ` mM +m2`TQ ;`pBiMi2 2b H T`BM+BTH 7m2Mi2 /2 TQi2M+B
2M p`BQb iBTQb /2 bBbi2Kb bi`Q7őbB+QbX G +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 Q#D2iQb +QK@
T+iQb 2b mM K2+MBbKQ Mim`H v TQ/2`QbQ T` T`Q/m+B` `/B+BƦM /2
Hi 2M2`;őX
*QM 2H }M /2 i2M2` mM B/2 T`QtBK/ bQ#`2 Ʀ`/2M2b /2 K;MBim/-

b2 Tm2/2 ?+2` mM +QKT`+BƦM `TB/ 2Mi`2 H 2M2`;ő HB#2`/ TQ`
+`2+BƦM v [m2HH /2#B/ H +QMp2`bBƦM /2 ?B/`Ʀ;2MQ 2M ?2HBQX S`
mM +m2`TQ /2 Kb M v `/BQ R H 2M2`;ő TQi2M+BH HB#2`/ TQ` H
+`2+BƦM /2 mM Kb m m#B+/ 2M 2H BM}MBiQ 2b
∆Eacc = GM m/R, UkXRdV
/QM/2 : 2b H +QMbiMi2 /2 ;`pBi+BƦM mMBp2`bHX aB 2H +m2`TQ +`2iMi2

2b mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q /2 `/BQ R ∼ 3 FK v Kb M ∼ M⊙ - 2MiQM+2b
∆Eacc 2b T`QtBK/K2Mi2 5 × 1020 2`; TQ` ;`KQ +`2i/QX S` H
+QMp2`bBƦM /2 ?B/`Ʀ;2MQ 2M ?2HBQ- H 2M2`;ő HB#2`/ Tm2/2 2biBK`b2
b2;ȹM
∆Enuc = 0,007mc2 , UkXR3V
/QM/2 c 2b H p2HQ+B// /2 H Hmx- TQ` HQ [m2 Q#i2M2KQb ∆Enuc = 6×1018
jy
kX *QMbB/2`+BQM2b ;2M2`H2b jR
2`; g−1 c 2b /2+B` /Qb Ʀ`/2M2b /2 K;MBim/ Kb +?B+ [m2 H 2M2`;ő HB@
#2`/ TQ` +`2+BƦMX 1M K#Qb +bQb mM 7`++BƦM BKTQìMi2 /2 H
2M2`;ő 2b HB#2`/ 2M 7Q`K /2 `/B+BƦM 2H2+i`QK;MûiB+X
1bi +H`Q /2 H 2+X kXRd [m2 H 2}+B2M+B /2 +`2+BƦM U2M2`;ő HB#2@

`/ TQ` mMB// /2 Kb +`2i/V /2T2M/2 /2 +mM +QKT+iQ b2 2H
Q#D2iQ +`2iMi2, +mMiQ Kb ;`M/2 b2 2H +Q+B2Mi2 M /R Kb ;`M/2
b2` H 2}+B2M+BX aBM 2K#`;Q- T` mM pHQ` }DQ /2 M /R H HmKBMQbB@
// /2 mM bBbi2K +`2iMi2 /2T2M/2 /2 H ib Ṁ H +mH H Ki2`B
2b +`2i/X S` pHQ`2b HiQb /2 HmKBMQbB//- H ib /2 +`2+BƦM TQ@
/`ő b2` +QMi`QH/ TQ` H i`b72`2M+B /2 KQK2MiQ /2 H `/B+BƦM H
Ki2`BH +`2i/Q TQ` b+ii2`BM; v #bQ`+BƦMX aB 2H bBbi2K +`2iMi2 2b
2b7û`B+K2Mi2 bBKûi`B+Q v 2bi+BQM`BQ- 2tBbi2 mM +QKT2i2M+B 2Mi`2 H
7m2`x ;`pBiiQ`B [m2 T`Q/m+2 H +`2+BƦM v H 7m2`x 2D2`+B/ TQ` H
`/B+BƦM- [m2 BKTQM2 mM HőKBi2 H HmKBMQbB// T` [m2 2bi ȹHiBK
7m2`x MQ bmT2`2 H T`BK2` v b2 /2i2M; bő H +`2+BƦMX úbi2 HőKBi2
b2 +QMQ+2 +QKQ HmKBMQbB// /2 1//BM;iQM-
LEdd = 4πGM mp c/σT ∼

= 1,3 × 1038 (M/M⊙ )erg s−1 . UkXRNV
aB H HmKBMQbB// bmT2` 2bi2 pHQ`- H T`2bBƦM /2 `/B+BƦM 2t+2/2 H

i`++BƦM ;`pBi+BQMH v H +`2+BƦM 2b /2i2MB/X
GQ Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2 2tTm2biQ T2`KBi2 ?+2` mM 2biBK+BƦM /2 Ʀ`/2M2b

/2 K;MBim/ /2H `M;Q 2bT2+i`H /2 2KBbBƦM /2 mM Q#D2iQ +`2iMi2
2- BMp2`bK2Mi2- bm;2`B` H Kb /2H Q#D2iQ [m2 2b `2bTQMb#H2 /2 H
+`2+BƦM b2;ȹM 2H 2bT2+i`Q Q#b2`p/QX aB H 2KBbBƦM Tm2/2- 2M T`BK2`
T`QtBK+BƦM- bBKBH`b2 H /2 mM +m2`TQ M2;`Q- H i2KT2ìm` /2
H 7m2Mi2 U2H Ki2`BH [m2 2bi bB2M/Q +`2i/QV Tm2/2 /2i2`KBM`b2
jR
jk kXkX 1H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM
TìB` /2 H H2v /2 ai27M@"QHixKMM-
T = (Lacc /4πR2 σ)1/4 , UkXkyV
/QM/2 σ 2b H +QMbiMi2 /2 ai27M@"QHixKMMX S` 2H +bQ TìB+mH`

/2 mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q 2H `/BQ 2b 2H `/BQ /2 a+?r`xb+?BH/- [m2 Tm2/2
+H+mH`b2 +QKQ RSch = 2GM/c2 - /QM/2 M 2b H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX
aB +QMbB/2`KQb mM AJ"> /2 104 M⊙ v bmTQM2KQb HmKBMQbB//2b /2H
Q`/2M /2 H HmKBMQbB// /2 1//BM;iQM Q#i2M2KQb
! "1/4
LEdd
T = ∼ 3,8 × 106 K,
16πσG2 M 2
[m2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 2M2`;ő 2b kT ∼jXk3 F2oc TQ` HQ iMiQ b2 2bT2` [m2
H 2KBbBƦM TQ` +`2+BƦM /2 2biQb Q#D2iQb b2 2M 2H `M;Q 2bT2+i`H /2
HQb `vQb sX lM 2biBK+BƦM Kb T`2+Bb /2 H HmKBMQbB// `2[mB2`2 /2H
+QMQ+BKB2MiQ /2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 2H Q#D2iQ +QKT+iQX SQ` HQ
iMiQ- 2M Hb b2++BQM2b bB;mB2Mi2b b2 /2b+`B#2M #`2p2K2Mi2 HQb KQ/2HQb
[m2 T2`KBi2M +H+mH`HX
kXkXRX +`2+BƠM /2 "QM/B@>QvH2
.2 +m2`/Q HQ 2tTm2biQ 2M H a2++BƦM kXRXk- H +MiB// /BbTQMB#H2

/2 TQHpQ 2M mM +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` 2b b2MbB#H2K2Mi2 K2MQ` [m2 [m2HH /2
;bX .2 2bi KM2`- H /BMKB+ /2H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹKmHQ `2bmHi /QKB@
M/ TQ` 2H ;b v 2H K2/BQ +`2i/Q TQ/` b2` bB2KT`2 /2b+`BTiQ +QKQ
mM ~mB/QX 1M 2H +bQ /2 HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b H /2MbB// /2H K2/BQ
BMi2`2bi2H` 2b #D U∼ yXR +K−3 V TQ` HQ [m2 ûbi2 Tm2/2 b2` iì/Q +QKQ
mM ;b B/2HX 1biQ bB;MB}+ [m2 Hb Tìő+mHb BM/BpB/mH2b [m2 HQ +QMb@
iBimv2M bƦHQ BMi2`+iȹM /B`2+iK2Mi2 2Mi`2 bő i`pûb /2 +?Q[m2bX 1M
T`QK2/BQ- mM Tìő+mH /2 2bi2 ;b pBD` +B2ì /BbiM+B- 2H +KBMQ
HB#`2 K2/BQ- λ- Mi2b /2 +K#B` bm 2bi/Q /2 KQpBKB2MiQ +QKQ +QM@
b2+m2M+B /2H +?Q[m2 +QM Qi` Tìő+mHX aB 2b+Hb ;`M/2b 2H ;b 2b
jk
kX *QMbB/2`+BQM2b ;2M2`H2b jj
T`QtBK/K2Mi2 mMB7Q`K2- 2H 272+iQ /2 2biQb +?Q[m2b 2b /BbT2`b` Hb

p2HQ+B//2b /2 Hb Tìő+mHb H`2/Q` /2 mM pHQ` T`QK2/BQ- H p2HQ+B//
/2H ;b- $v X oBbib /2b/2 mM bBbi2K /2 `272`2M+B [m2 b2 Km2p2 +QM p2@
HQ+B// $v - Hb Tìő+mHb T`2b2MiM mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 p2HQ+B//2b /2
Jtr2HH@"QHixKMM v Tm2/2M b2` +`+i2`Bx/b TQ` mM i2KT2ìm`
T X aB2KT`2 [m2 i`#D2KQb 2b+Hb L ≫ λ TQ/2KQb +QMbB/2`` H ;b
+QKQ mM ~mB/Q +QMiBMmQ +QM p2HQ+B// $v - i2KT2ìm` T v /2MbB//
ρX bő- H /BMKB+ /2H Ki2`BH +`2i/Q b2 `B;2 TQ` Hb H2v2b /2 H
?B/`Q/BMKB+-
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρ$v ) = 0 UkXkRV
∂t
∂$v
ρ + ρ($v · ∇)$v = −∇P + f$ UkXkkV
∂t
∂ 1 2 1
( ρv + ρǫ) + ∇ · ( ρv 2 + ρǫ + P )$v = f$ · $v − ∇ · F$rad − ∇ · $q UkXkjV
∂t 2 2
bB2M/Q 2bib H 2+m+BƦM /2 +QMiBMmB//- 1mH2` v /2 2M2`;ő- `2bT2+iB@

pK2Mi2- /QM/2 P 2b H T`2bBƦM /2H ~mB/Q- f$ Hb 7m2`xb 2ti2`Mb TQ`
mMB// /2 pQHmK2M- $q 2H ~mDQ /2 +HQ` TQ` +QM/m++BƦM- ǫ H 2M2`;ő BMi2`@
M TQ` mMB// /2 Kb v F$rad 2H ~mDQ /2 `/B+BƦMX 1bi2 2b mM bBbi2K
/2 8 2+m+BQM2b +QM 8 BM+Ʀ;MBib- ρ- $v v T X G bQHm+BƦM 2bi2 bBbi2K
/2 2+m+BQM2b- 2M 2H +bQ TìB+mH` /2 +`2+BƦM 2bi+BQM`B /2H ~mB/Q
TQ` Tì2 /2 mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q- 7m2 ?HH/ TQ` "QM/B >QvH2 URN99VX
.B+?Q KQ/2HQ- [m2 /2b+`B#2 H +`2+BƦM /2 mM ~mB/Q BMB+BHK2Mi2 2M `2@
TQbQ v [m2 HH2M iQ/Q 2H 2bT+BQ- 2b /2b+`BTiQ 2M 2bi b2++BƦM bB;mB2M/Q
2H /2b``QHHQ /2 6`MF 2i HX UkyykV v bB`p2 +QKQ TmMiQ /2 TìB/ T`
/2b``QHH` Kb /2HMi2 H +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 mM AJ"> 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2 mM
+ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH`X
jj
j9 kXkX 1H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM
*QMbB/2`2KQb ?Q`- mM ~mDQ 2b7û`B+K2Mi2 bBKûi`B+QX ./ H bBK2i`ő

/2H T`Q#H2K 2b +QMp2MB2Mi2 miBHBx` +QQ`/2M/b 2b7û`B+b Ur- θ- φV T`
/2b+`B#B`HQ Ki2KiB+K2Mi2X bő- Hb p`B#H2b $v - T v ρ `2bmHiM BM/2@
T2M/B2Mi2b /2 θ v φ- v H p2HQ+B// /2H ;b bQHQ iB2M2 +QKTQM2Mi2 `/BH
v#r = vX amTQM2KQb- /2Kb- [m2 2H ~mDQ 2b 2bi+BQM`BQ- TQ` HQ [m2 H
2+X kXkR `2bmHi
1 d 2
(r ρv) = 0. UkXk9V
r2 dr
AMi2;`M/Q 2bi 2+m+BƦM b2 Q#iB2M2 r2 ρv4+i2X *QKQ ρ(−v) 2b 2H ~mDQ /2
Ki2`BH ?+B /2Mi`Q- H +QMbiMi2 2M +m2biBƦM /2#2 2bi` `2H+BQM/
+QM H ib /2 +`2+BƦM Ṁ U+QMbiMi2V-
4πr2 ρ(−v) = Ṁ . UkXk8V
1M H 2+m+BƦM /2 1mH2`- H ȹMB+ +QMi`B#m+BƦM H 7m2`x 2ti2`M f$

2b H 7m2`x ;`pBiiQ`B 2D2`+B/ TQ` 2H Q#D2iQ +`2iMi2- [m2 iB2M2 bQHQ
+QKTQM2Mi2 `/BH
fr = −GM ρ/r2
TQ` HQ [m2 H 2+X 9Xj b2 2b+`B#2
dv 1 dP GM
v + + 2 = 0. UkXkeV
dr ρ dr r
S` bBKTHB}+` 2H T`Q#H2K 2b bm}+B2Mi2- HQb }M2b /2 /2b+`B#B` Hb +`@
+i2`őbiB+b T`BM+BTH2b /2H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM /2 "QM/B@>QvH2- `22K@
THx` H 2+m+BƦM /2 H 2M2`;ő TQ` H `2H+BƦM TQHBi`ƦTB+
P = Kργ , UkXkdV
/QM/2 K v γ bQM H +QMbiMi2 v 2tTQM2Mi2 TQHBi`ƦTB+Qb- `2bT2+iBp@

K2Mi2X 1bi `2H+BƦM T2`KBi2 /2b+`B#B` /Bp2`bQb `2;őK2M2b- /2b/2 mM
j9
kX *QMbB/2`+BQM2b ;2M2`H2b j8
~mDQ BbQiû`KB+Q Uγ4RV ?bi mMQ /B#iB+Q Uγ = 5/3 T` mM ;b

KQMQiƦKB+QVX
bő- 2H T`Q#H2K b2 `2/m+2 `2bQHp2` H 2+X kXke +QM H vm/ /2 H

2+X kXk9 2 B/2MiB}+` H bQHm+BƦM [m2 +Q``2bTQM/2 Mm2bi`Q T`Q#H2K
7őbB+QX *QK#BMM/Q 2bib /Qb 2+m+BQM2b v i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2
dP dP dρ dρ
= = c2b ,
dr dρ dr dr
/QM/2 cs 2b H p2HQ+B// /2 bQMB/Q 2M 2H K2/BQ- Q#i2M2KQb- /2bTmûb /2
`2+QKQ/` HQb iû`KBMQb
c2 2c2b r
! " ( )
1 d 2 GM
1 − b2 (v ) = − 2 1 − . UkXk3V
2 v dr r GM
0 2r
1
1M T`BK2` Hm;` MQiKQb [m2 H2DQb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q- 2H 7+iQ` 1 − 2c s
GM
/2#2 b2` M2;iBpQ Tm2b c2s H+Mx mM pHQ` bBMiƦiB+Q c2s (r → ∞)- `2H@
+BQM/Q +QM H i2KT2ìm` /2H ;b ;`M/2b /BbiM+Bb /2H ;mD2`Q
M2;`QX 1M +QMb2+m2M+B- 2H iû`KBMQ /2 H /2`2+? /2 H 2+X kXk3 `2bmHi
TQbBiBpQX u [m2 [m2`2KQb [m2 2H ;b H2DQb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q b2 2M+m2Mi`2
2M `2TQbQ- +2H2`M/Qb2 K2/B/ [m2 b2 +2`+ H +2Mi`Q- dr d
(v 2 ) /2#2
b2` M2;iBpQX 1biQb /Qb `2[mBbBiQb bQM +QKTiB#H2b bQHQ bB T` ;`M/2b
r 2H ~mDQ 2b bm#bƦMB+Q- 2b /2+B`
v 2 < c2b UkXkNV
1bi2 2b mM `2bmHi/Q Kmv `xQM#H2- v [m2 2H ;b i2M/` i2KT2ìm`

MQ MmH H2DQb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q v- TQ` HQ iMiQ- H p2HQ+B// /2H bQMB/Q 2M
2H K2/BQ iK#BûM b2` MQ MmHX lM MHBbBb bBKBH` T` HQb bB;MQb /2 H
2+X kXk3 Km2bi` [m2 2H ~mDQ /2#2 b2` bmT2`bƦMB+Q +2`+ /2 H bmT2`}+B2
/2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q-
v 2 > c2b . UkXjyV
j8
je kXkX 1H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM
.2 2bi /Bb+mbBƦM Tm2/2 p2`b2 [m2 MQ #bi +QM 2bi#H2+2` Hb +QM/B@
+BQM2b /2H K#B2Mi2 2M 2H BM}MBiQ bBMQ [m2 T` 2bT2+B}+` 2H T`Q#H2K
2M 7Q`K +QKTH2i M2+2bBiKQb +QM/B+BQM2b +2`+ /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX 1H
?#2` BKTm2biQ H +QM/B+BƦM kXjy i2M/` 2H 272+iQ /2 b2H2++BQM` mM
ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM 2Mi`2 iQ/b Hb TQbB#H2bX
S` i2`KBM` /2 +`+i2`Bx` 2H ~mDQ Q#b2`p2KQb [m2 2tBbi2 mM `/BQ

rs = GM/2c2s (rs ) T` 2H +mH 2H iû`KBMQ /2 H /2`2+? 2M H 2+X kXk3
b2 MmHX 1M +QMb2+m2M+B- 2H iû`KBMQ /2 H Bx[mB2`/ iK#BûM /2#2
MmH`b2- 2tBbiB2M/Q /Qb TQbB#BHB//2b
RX v 2 = c2s -
kX d
dr
(v 2 ) = 0X
bő- iQ/b Hb bQHm+BQM2b /2 H 2+X kXk3 Tm2/2M b2` +`+i2`Bx/b b2;ȹM
bm +QKTQìKB2MiQ 2M rs DmMiQ +QM bm +QKTQìKB2MiQ +2`+ v H2DQb /2H
;mD2`Q M2;`QX úbib bQM 7+BHK2Mi2 /BbiBM;mB#H2b bB KB`KQb 2H ;`}+Q
v 2 (r)X
.2 H 6B;m` kXkXR Tm2/2 Q#b2`p`b2 [m2 2tBbi2M b2Bb 7KBHBb /2 bQHm@
+BQM2b /BbiBMib,
RX v 2 (rb ) = c2s (rs )- v 2 → y T` r → ∞

Uv 2 < c2s - r > rs c v 2 > c2s - r < rs V
kX v 2 (rs ) = c2s (rs )- v 2 → y T` r → y

Uv 2 > c2s - r > rs c v 2 < c2s - r < rs V
jX v 2 < c2s T` iQ/Q r- d

dr
(v 2 ) = 0 2M r = rs
9X v 2 > c2s T` iQ/Q r- d

dr
(v 2 ) = 0 2M r = rs
8X d
dr
(v 2 ) = ∞ T` v 2 = c2s (rs ) c r > rs bB2KT`2
je
kX *QMbB/2`+BQM2b ;2M2`H2b jd
6B;m` kXkXR, 6HmDQb 2b7û`B+K2Mi2 bBKûi`B+Qb 2M 2H +KTQ ;`pBi+BQMH /2

mM Kb TmMimHX hQK/Q /2 6`MF 2i HX UkyykVX
eX d
dr
(v 2 ) = ∞ T` v 2 = c2s (rs ) c r < rs bB2KT`2
1tBbi2 mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM T` HQb iBTQb R v k, ûbib b2 HHKM bQHm+BQM2b
i`MbƦMB+b v [m2 TbM iMiQ TQ` 2H `û;BK2M bm#bƦMB+Q +QKQ TQ` 2H
bmT2`bƦMB+Q- v 2H TmMiQ rs - T` 2bib bQHm+BQM2b- b2 HHK TmMiQ bƦMB+QX
GQb iBTQb j v 9 `2T`2b2MiM ~mDQb [m2 bQM bm#@ Q bmT2`bƦMB+Qb 2M iQ@
/Q TmMiQX u [m2 HQb iBTQb 8 v e MQ +m#`2M iQ/Q 2H `M;Q /2 pHQ`2b
T` r v bQM #BpHm/Qb- bQM 2t+Hmő/Qb 2Mi`2 Hb bQHm+BQM2b TQbB#H2bX GQb
iBTQb k v 9 /2#2M b2` 2t+Hmő/Qb v [m2 bQM bmT2`@bƦMB+Qb T` r ;`M/2-
pBQHM/Q H +QM/B+BƦM kXkN- KB2Mi`b [m2 2H iBTQ j 2b bm#bƦMB+Q T` r
+?B+Q pBQHM/Q H +QM/B+BƦM kXjyX lM bQHm+BƦM /2H iBTQ k /2b+`B#2- TQ`
2D2KTHQ- 2H pB2MiQ bQH`8 X *#2 /2bi+` [m2 H /B72`2M+B +mHBiiBp
2Mi`2 Hb bQHm+BQM2b R v k bQM Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ THMi2/b
8
*QKQ H 2+X kXk3 /2T2M/2 ȹMB+K2Mi2 /2 v 2 - mM KBbK bQHm+BƦM /2b+`B#2 iMiQ
~mDQb /2 pB2MiQ Uv > 0V +QKQ /2 +`2+BƦM Uv < 0VX
jd
j3 kXkX 1H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM
2M 2H T`Q#H2KX _2bmHi 2MiQM+2b [m2 H ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM [m2 biBb7+2

iQ/Qb Mm2bi`Qb `2[mBbBiQb 2b H bQHm+BƦM /2 iBTQ RX G +QM/B+BƦM T`
2H TmMiQ bƦMB+Q MQb T2`KBiB` `2H+BQM` H ib /2 +`2+BQM Ṁ +QM Hb
+QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ 2M 2H BM}MBiQX
lM p2x /2i2`KBM/ H mMB+B// /2 H bQHm+BƦM- BMi2;`KQb H 2+X kXke-

miBHBxM/Q H 2+X kXkd- v Q#i2M2KQb H BMi2;`H /2 "2`MQmHHB
v2 c2 GM
+ s − = +i2. UkXjRV
2 γ−1 r
.2H +QKTQìKB2MiQ /2 H bQHm+BƦM /2 iBTQ R [m2 /2b+`B#2 Mm2bi`Q
T`Q#H2K 7őbB+Q b2 Q#iB2M2 [m2 H +QMbiMi2 2M H 2+X kXjR /2#2 b2`
c2s (r → ∞)/(γ − 1)X
liBHBxM/Q H `2H+BƦM 2Mi`2 cs (r → ∞) v cs (rs ) [m2 bm`;2 /2 +QK#BM`
H 2+X kXjR v H +QM/B+BƦM T` 2H TmMiQ bƦMB+Q- b2 Q#iB2M2
! " 12
2
cb (rb ) = cb (∞) UkXjkV
5 − 3γ
SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- /2 H 2+X kXk8 v //Q [m2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM 2b +QMbiMi2-
`2bmHi
Ṁ = 4πr2 ρ(−v) = 4πrb2 ρ(rb )cb (rb ) UkXjjV
*QKQ TQ` /2}MB+BƦM c2s ∝ ργ−1 - TQ/2KQb 2b+`B#B`

( )2/(γ−1)
cs (rs )
ρ(rs ) = ρ(r → ∞) . UkXj9V
cs (∞)
*QHQ+M/Q 2bi ȹHiBK v H 2+X kXjj 2M H 2+X kXjk b2 Q#iB2M2- /2bTmûb
/2 `2+QKQ/` HQb iû`KBMQb- H 2tT`2bBƦM T` H ib /2 +`2+BƦM +QKQ
7mM+BƦM /2 Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ 2M 2H BM}MBiQ,
( )(5−3γ)/2(γ−1)
2ρ(r → ∞)
2 2
Ṁ = πG M 2 . UkXj8V
cb (r → ∞) 5 − 3γ
j3
kX *QMbB/2`+BQM2b ;2M2`H2b jN
1bi 2tT`2bBƦM 2b +QMQ+B/ +QKQ H ib /2 +`2+BƦM /2 "QM/B@>QvH2X

G KBbK [m2/ /2i2`KBM/ TQ` Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ 2M 2H BM@
}MBiQ v +`2+2 +m/ìB+K2Mi2 +QM H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX
aB #B2M H 2+X kXjR MQ 2bi /2}MB/ 2M γ = 1- Tm2/2 Q#i2M2`b2 mM 2t@

T`2bBƦM b2K2DMi2 T` 2H +bQ 2bi`B+iK2Mi2 BbQiû`KB+Q 2M+QMi`M/Qb2
[m2 H 2tT`2bBƦM T` H 2+X kXj8 2b B;mH H HőKBi2 +mM/Q γ → 1 /2
/B+? 2+m+BƦMX a2 Tm2/2 MQi` /2 H 2+X kXj8 [m2 H /2T2M/2M+B +QM γ
0 1(5−3γ)/2(γ−1)
2b #biMi2 /û#BH, 2H 7+iQ` 5−3γ
2
p`ő /2b/2 R- 2M 2H HőKBi2
γ = 5/3 e3/2 ≈9X8- 2M 2H HőKBi2 γ = 1X
1M +TőimHQb TQbi2`BQ`2b- b2 T`2b2Mi mM p2`bBƦM ;2M2`HBx/ /2 2bi2

KQ/2HQ /2 +`2+BƦM [m2 BM+Hmv2 iû`KBMQb /2 7m2Mi2b 2M Hb 2+m+BQM2b
?B/`Q/BMKB+b v 2H +KTQ ;`pBiiQ`BQ /2H bBbi2K 2M 2H [m2 b2 2M+m2M@
i` BMK2`bQ 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX
kXkXkX +`2+BƠM /2 7HmB/Qb `2HiBpBbib
1M H b2++BƦM Mi2`BQ` b2 `2HBxƦ mM /2b+`BT+BƦM /2 Hb 2+m+BQM2b

#bB+b [m2 `B;2M 2H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q- /2b/2
2H TmMiQ /2 pBbi /2 H K2+MB+ M2riQMBMX 1bi2 2M7Q[m2 2b pHB/Q
bB2KT`2 [m2 b2 +mKTHM /Qb +QM/B+BQM2b,
*mM/Q Hb /BbiM+Bb BMpQHm+`/b 2M 2H 2bim/BQ /2H T`Q#H2K

`2bmHi2M Km+?Q KvQ`2b [m2 2H `/BQ /2 a+?r`bx+?BH/ /2H ;mD2`Q
M2;`Q
*mM/Q 2H ~mB/Q +`2i/Q MQ b2 BMi`őMb2+K2Mi2 `2HiBpBbi Up ≪

ρV
./Q [m2 HQ H`;Q /2 2bi2 i`#DQ 2bi`2KQb BMi2`2b/Qb 2M 2H 272+iQ

/2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q 2b+Hb /2H Q`/2M /2H `/BQ /2H Mȹ+H2Q rc /2H +ȹKmHQ
;HQ#mH` U∼ yXR T+V- H T`BK2` /2 2bb +QM/B+BQM2b 2b biBb72+?X aBM
jN
9y kXkX 1H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM
2K#`;Q- 2H MHBbBb /2 ~mB/Qb +QKTm2biQb TQ` Ki2`B MQ #`BƦMB+-

+QKQ H Ki2`B vfQ 2M2`;ő Qb+m`- `2[mB2`2 /2H 7Q`KHBbKQ `2HiBpBbiX
úbi2 b2` 2H i2K #Q`//Q 2M 2bi b2++BƦM- bB;mB2M/Q 2H /2b``QHHQ /2
JB+?2H URNdkVX 1M 2bi2 2M7Q[m2- 2H Q#D2iQ +QKT+iQ 2b /2b+`BTiQ TQ`
mM bBM;mH`B// /2 a+?r`xb+?BH/ v b2 /2bT`2+BM +Q``2++BQM2b H
Kûi`B+ /2#B/b H ~mB/Q KBbKQX "DQ 2bib ?BTƦi2bBb- 2H BMi2`pHQ /2
2bT+BQ@iB2KTQ `2bmHi
! " ! "−1
2 2M 2 2M
dr2 − r2 dθ2 + sen2 θdφ2 .
2 3
ds = 1− dt − 1 −
r r
UkXjeV
/QM/2 r, θ, φ bQM Hb +QQ`/2M/b 2b7û`B+b i`/B+BQMH2b v M 2b H Kb
/2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX /2Kb- ds v iQ/b Hb K;MBim/2b /2 2bi b2++BƦM
bQM 2tT`2b/b 2M mMB//2b Mim`H2b U+ 4 RV- bHpQ +mM/Q b2 +H`2
HQ +QMi``BQX
Gb 2+m+BQM2b /2 KQpBKB2MiQ 2biM //b TQ` H +QMb2`p+BƦM /2H
~mDQ /2 Kb
µ
J;µ = 0, UkXjdV
v /2 H 2M2`;ő
T;µµν = 0, UkXj3V
/QM/2 HQb TmMiQ v +QK BM/B+M /2`Bp/b +Qp`BMi2bX [mő-
Tµν = (ρ + p) uµ uν − pgµν , UkXjNV
2b 2H i2MbQ` /2 2M2`;ő KQK2MiQ T` mM ~mB/Q T2`72+iQ +QM 2+m+BƦM

/2 2bi/Q p = p(ρ) v
J µ = ρuµ UkX9yV
9y
kX *QMbB/2`+BQM2b ;2M2`H2b 9R
2b 2H ~mDQ /2 Kb- bB2M/Q uµ H +m/`B@p2HQ+B//X

Gb BMi2;`H2b /2 Hb 2+bX kXjd v kXj3 Tm2/2M `22b+`B#B`b2- bB 2H bBbi2K
b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M 2bi/Q 2bi+BQM`BQ v iB2M2 bBK2i`ő 2b7û`B+- +QKQ
ρur2 = C1 UkX9RV
! "2 ! "
P +µ 2m
1− + u2 = C2 , UkX9kV
ρ r
/QM/2 µ = ρ + ǫ 2b H /2MbB// iQiH /2 2M2`;ő- bB2M/Q ǫ H 2M2`;ő

BMi2`M /2H ~mB/QX
.B72`2M+BM/Q Hb 1+bX kX9R v kX9k v 2HBKBMM/Q- Hm2;Q- dρ- b2 Q#iB2M2
* .
u2
( )
du 2 m dr 2
2V − 2 + V − = 0, UkX9jV
r 1 − 2m 1 − 2m
3
u r
+ u2 r r
+ u2
/QM/2
dln(P + µ)
V2 = − 1. UkX99V
dlnρ
1b 2pB/2Mi2 [m2 bB H;mMQ /2 HQb 7+iQ`2b 2Mi`2 +Q`+?2i2b b2 MmH
b2 Q#iB2M2 mM TmMiQ +`őiB+Q- v Hb bQHm+BQM2b bQM #BpHm/b 2M r Q uX
H B;mH [m2 2M 2H KQ/2HQ /2 +`2+BƦM /2 "QM/B >QvH2 URN99V- bƦHQ
Hb bQHm+BQM2b [m2 TbM i`pûb /2H TmMiQ +`őiB+Q `2T`2b2MiM Ki2@
`B +v2M/Q 2M 2H Q#D2iQ +QM p2HQ+B// 2M mK2MiQ HQ H`;Q /2 H
i`v2+iQ`BX 1bi2 TmMiQ +`őiB+Q 2bi m#B+/Q /QM/2 K#Qb +Q`+?2i2b 2M
H 2+X kX9j b2 MmHM- 2b /2+B`-
u2+ = M/2r+ UkX98V
9R
9k kXkX 1H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM
V+2 = u2+ /(1 − 3u2+ ). UkX9eV
LQ 2tBbi2- 2MiQM+2b- bQHm+BƦM }bB+K2Mi2 +2Ti#H2 T` V+2 bB u2+ > 1/3
Q r+ < 6M X .2 2bi KM2`- 2H TmMiQ +`őiB+Q b2 2M+m2Mi` bB2KT`2 7m2`
/2H Q#D2iQ +QKT+iQe X
1H Q#D2iBpQ 2b +H+mH` H ib /2 +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q- iH

+QKQ b2 ?BxQ 2M H /2b+`BT+BƦM M2riQMBM /2H 72MƦK2MQX aB;mB2M/Q
"#B+?2p 2i HX Ukyy9V- mbQ +QKQ b2;mM/ BMi2;`H /2 KQpBKB2MiQ U2M
Hm;` /2 H 2+X kXjdV H T`Qv2++BƦM /2 H H2v /2 +QMb2`p+BƦM /2 2M2`;ő@
KQK2MiQ bQ#`2 H +m/`Bp2HQ+B//
uµ T;νµν = uµ ρ,µ + (ρ + p)uµ;µ = 0. UkX9dV
G BMi2;`+BƦM /2 H 2+X kX9d / Hm;` H 2+m+BƦM T` 2H ~mDQ /2 H

2M2`;ő
(# ρ )
2 dρ′
ux exp = −A, UkX93V
ρ∞ ρ′ + p(ρ′ )
/QM/2 u < 0 2M 2H +bQ /2 mM ~mDQ /2 +`2+BƦM v 2b mM +QMbiMi2

/BK2MbBQMHX bBKBbKQ- b2 ? /2}MB/Q H p`B#H2 x = r/M X .2 H
KBbK KM2`- /2 H BMi2;`+BƦM /2 H 2+X kXj3 b2 Q#iB2M2
! "1/2
2
(ρ + p) 1 − + u2 x2 u = C1 , UkX9NV
x
e
_2+Q`/` [m2- 2M mMB//2b Mim`H2b- 2H `/BQ /2 a+?r`bx+?BH/- ra+? = 2M X
9k
kX *QMbB/2`+BQM2b ;2M2`H2b 9j
bB2M/Q C1 mM +QMbiMi2 /2i2`KBM`X .BpB/B2M/Q H 2+X kX9N 2Mi`2 H

2+X kX93- b2 Q#iB2M2
! "1/2 ( # ρ )
2 dρ′
(ρ + p) 1 − + u2 exp − = C2 , UkX8yV
x ρ∞ ρ′ + p(ρ′ )
/QM/2 C2 = −C1 /A = ρ∞ + p(ρ∞ )X .2 Hb 2+m+BQM2b kX93 v kX9N b2

Q#iB2M2M `2H+BQM2b 2Mi`2 H p2HQ+B// u> = u(2M ) v H /2MbB// /2H
~mB/Q ρ> = ρ(2M ) 2M 2H ?Q`BxQMi2 /2 2p2MiQb
( # ρ>
A2
)
A ρ> + p(ρ> ) dρ′
=− = exp 2 . UkX8RV
4 ρ∞ + p(ρ∞ ) 16u2 (2M ) ρ∞ ρ + p(ρ )
′ ′
G +QMbiMi2 - [m2 /2i2`KBM 2H ~mDQ /2 +`2+BƦM- b2 +H+mH }DM/Q HQb

pHQ`2b /2 HQb T`Ki2`Qb 2M 2H TmMiQ +`őiB+Q- /2 +m2`/Q kX98 v kX9eX
*QK#BMM/Q Hb 2+bX kX9N v kX8R b2 2M+m2Mi` H `2H+BƦM [m2 /2i2`KBM
2H pHQ` /2 H /2MbB// 2M 2H TmMiQ +`őiB+Q- ρ+ -
(# ρ+ )
ρ+ + p(ρ+ ) 4 5−1/2 dρ′
1 + 3c2b (ρ+ ) = exp . UkX8kV
ρ∞ + p(ρ∞ ) ρ∞ ρ′ + p(ρ′ )
.2 2bi KM2`- T` +B2ìQ pHQ` /2 ρ+ - mbM/Q H 2+X kX98 v kX9e b2

+H+mHM HQb pHQ`2b T` r+ v u+ - v H +QMbiMi2 2b +H+mH/ bmbiB@
imv2M/Q 2biQb pHQ`2b 2M H 2+X kX93X
G ib /2 +K#BQ /2 Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q- +QKQ +QMb2+m2M+B

/2 +`2+BƦM /2H ~mB/Q- 2bi // TQ` Ṁ = −4πr2 T0r X *QK#BMM/Q Hb
2+bX kX93 v kX9N- /B+? ib /2 +`2+BƦM Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 +QKQ
Ṁ = 4πAM 2 [ρ∞ + p(ρ∞ )] . UkX8jV
9j
99 kXkX 1H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM
Sm2/2 p2`b2 [m2- B;mH [m2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM /2 "QM/B@>QvH2- Ṁ [m2@

/ /2i2`KBM/ TQ` Hb +QM/B+BQM2b 2M 2H BM}MBiQ v /2T2M/2 +m/ìB@
+K2Mi2 /2 H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX /2Kb- 2b BMi2`2bMi2 /2bi+`
[m2 H +`2+BƦM /2 2M2`;ő 7MibK +QM ρ∞ + p(ρ∞ ) < 0 2bi` bB2KT`2
+QKTƢ/ /2 mM /BbKBMm+BƦM 2M H Kb /2H Q#D2iQ +`2iMi2X
aBM 2K#`;Q- 2M MBM;mMQ /2 HQb KQ/2HQb T`2b2Mi/Qb UM2riQMBMQ

Q `2HiBpBbiV b2 +QMbB/2` 2H 2MiQ`MQ /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX úbiQb MQ bQM
Q#D2iQb BbH/Qb- bBMQ [m2 bQM Tì2 /2 2bi`m+im`b Kb ;`M/2b iH2b
+QKQ HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b Q Hb ;HtBb [m2 MQ bQHQ +QMi`B#mv2M
H TQi2M+BH ;`pBiiQ`BQ bBMQ [m2- /2Kb- bmb 2bi`2HHb +iȹM +QKQ
7m2Mi2b /2 BMv2++BƦM /2 Ki2`B H K2/BQ BMi2`2bi2H`X Sì2 /2 2bi2
i`#DQ /2 h2bBb ? bB/Q BMp2biB;` 2H 272+iQ /2 Hb 2bi`2HHb /2H +ȹKmHQ
;HQ#mH` 2M H +`2+BƦM /2 2M2`;ő TQ` Tì2 /2 AJ">b +QM 2H }M /2
2bim/B` H 2pQHm+BƦM /2 HQb KBbKQbX >BTƦi2bBb- KQ/2HQb v `2bmHi/Qb
b2`M T`2b2Mi/Qb 2M 2H bB;mB2Mi2 +TőimHQX
99
+`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B MQ
3
#`BƦMB+
*QKQ b2 2tT`2bƦ 2M 2H *TőimHQ k- H bQHm+BƦM /2 mM ~mDQ /2 +`2+BƦM

2b7û`B+K2Mi2 bBKûi`B+Q v 2M 2bi/Q 2bi+BQM`BQ T` mM ~mB/Q B/2H
+HbB+Q ? bB/Q Q#i2MB/ TQ` "QM/B >QvH2 URN99VX JB+?2H URNdkV /2@
b``QHHƦ H bQHm+BƦM +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 2M 2H K`+Q /2 H `2HiBpB// ;2M2@
`H- 2M TìB+mH` 2M H Kûi`B+ /2 a+r`bx+?BH/ +QMbB/2`M/Q mM ~mB/Q
+QKTm2biQ TQ` Tìő+mHb KbBpbX "#B+?2p 2i HX Ukyy9V /2b``QHH`QM
mM KQ/2HQ b2K2DMi2- 2M 2H KBbKQ K`+Q i2Ʀ`B+Q T2`Q T` mM ~mB/Q
+QKTm2biQ TQ` Tìő+mHb bBM KbX 1M iQ/Qb HQb +bQb- mM T`2/B++BƦM
BKTQìMi2 /2 2biQb KQ/2HQb 2b [m2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM +`2+2 +QKQ 2H
+m/`/Q /2 H Kb /2H Q#D2iQ +QKT+iQX 1bi T`2/B++BƦM 2b TìB+mH`@
K2Mi2 BKTQìMi2 2M 2H +bQ /2 HQb AJ">b v [m2- //Q [m2 bmb 2//2b
98
9e
b2`őM +QKT`#H2b Hb /2 HQb *:b U∼ 10 :v`V- H +`2+BƦM /2 Ki2@

`B TQ/`ő +K#B` bB;MB}+iBpK2Mi2 H Kb /2H AJ">- KQ/B}+M/Q
HQb pHQ`2b 2bT2`/Qb 2M H +imHB//X SQ` HQ iMiQ- mM /2i2`KBM+BƦM
T`2+Bb /2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM 2b M2+2b`B T` 2biBK` Hb Kbb [m2
i2M/`őM ?Qv HQb AJ">bX
THB+M/Q 2H KQ/2HQ /2 "#B+?2p 2i HX Ukyy9V mM AJ">- b2 Q#@
iB2M2 [m2 2H +K#BQ 2M H Kb /2H Q#D2iQ /2#B/Q H +`2+BƦM /2 2M2`;ő
Qb+m` /m`Mi2 H pB/ /2H AJ">- 2b /2bT`2+B#H2X aBM 2K#`;Q- 2biQ
Tm2/2 /B72`B` T` 2H +bQ /2 Ki2`B Qb+m`X o`BQb miQ`2b ?M BMp2b@
iB;/Q H +`2+BƦM /2 Ki2`B Qb+m` TQ` ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb bmT2`KbBpQb
UJ+JBHHM >2M`BFb2M- kyyk- JmMvM2x "B2`KMM- kyy8- S2B`MB
/2 6`2Bib S+?2+Q- kyy3- w2HMBFQp obBH2p- kyy8-#VX :mxKM
GQ`@*HpBDQ UkyRRV 2pHm`QM bmb KQ/2HQb /2 +`2+BƦM /2T2M/B2Mi2b
/2H iB2KTQ v 2M+QMi``QM [m2- bB H Ki2`B Qb+m` MQ 2D2`+2 T`2bBƦM 2M@
iQM+2b /2#2 +QMi`B#mB` +QM mM 7`++BƦM bB;MB}+iBp /2 H Kb +imH
/2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX 1H KBbKQ `xQMKB2MiQ Tm2/2 b2` THB+/Q AJ">b
bm;B`B2M/Q [m2 ?#`őM +`2i/Q +B2MiQb Q KBH2b /2 Kbb bQH`2b 2M bm
iB2KTQ /2 pB/X
aBM 2K#`;Q- HQb AJ">b MQ bQM Q#D2iQb BbH/Qb bBMQ [m2 `2bB/2M 2M
2H +2Mi`Q /2 bBbi2Kb 2bi2H`2b KbBpQbX 1H +KTQ ;`pBi+BQMH /2 2biQb
bBbi2Kb TQ/`ő +QMi`B#mB` H ~mDQ /2 +`2+BƦM- mK2MiM/Q H ib /2
+`2+BƦM- 272+iQ [m2 MQ 7m2 +QMbB/2`/Q 2M HQb i`#DQb /2 "#B+?2p 2i
HX Ukyy9V v :mxKM GQ`@*HpBDQ UkyRRVX SQ` +QMbB;mB2Mi2- `2bmHi
`2H2pMi2 BMp2biB;` HQb 272+iQb /2H bBbi2K 2bi2H` M}i`BƦM 2M 2H ~mDQ
/2 +`2+BƦM v [m2 T2`KBiB`ő `2HBx` T`2/B++BQM2b Kb T`2+Bbb bQ#`2
Hb ibb /2 +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 AJ">b v bmb Kbb }MH2b- Tm/B2M/Q ûbib
b2` +QKT`/b +QM Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /BbTQMB#H2bX
1M Hb bB;mB2Mi2b b2++BQM2b b2 /2b+`B#2 2H KQ/2HQ [m2 ?2 /2b``QHH/Q

T` 2H 2bim/BQ /2 ~mDQb /2 +`2+BƦM 2b7û`B+K2Mi2 bBKûi`B+Qb 2M 2bi/Q
9e
jX +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B MQ #`BƦMB+ 9d
2bi+BQM`BQ bQ#`2 mM AJ"> 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2 mM +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` US2T2-

S2HHBxx _QK2`Q- kyRkVX 1M H b2++BƦM jXR b2 T`2b2Mi 2H KQ/2HQ- 2H
+mH b2 #b 2M Hb 2+m+BQM2b `2HiBpBbib T` H ~mB/Q@/BMKB+ 2M
2H +KTQ ;`pBi+BQMH /2H AJ"> v 2H +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH`X GQb `2bmHi/Qb
Q#i2MB/Qb T` /BbiBMiQb ~mB/Qb bQM /2b+`BTiQb 2M Hb b2++BQM2b jXk- jXj
v jX9 U`/B+BƦM +ƦbKB+ /2 7QM/Q- Ki2`B Qb+m` v 2M2`;ő Qb+m`-
`2bT2+iBpK2Mi2VX SQ` ȹHiBKQ- mM #`2p2 THB++BƦM H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q /2
Kb 2bi2H` sh1 CRRR3Y93y 2b T`2b2Mi/ 2M H a2++BƦM jX8X
jXRX JQ/2HQ b2KB@MHŌiB+Q
1H KQ/2HQ /2b``QHH/Q T` 2bim/B` H +`2+BƦM /2 ~mB/Qb `2HiBpBb@

ib bQ#`2 mM AJ"> 2b /2b+`BTiQ +QMiBMm+BƦMX 1H Q#D2iQ +`2iMi2
2b mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q /2 Kb M m#B+/Q 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2 mM +ȹKmHQ
;HQ#mH`X G /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 Kb /2H bBbi2K 2bi2H` U+ȹKmHQ v ;mD2`Q
M2;`QV Tm2/2 bmKB`b2 2b7û`B+- TQ` HQ [m2 2H BMi2`pHQ /2 2bT+BQ@iB2KTQ
Tm2/2 2b+`B#B`b2 +QKQ
ds2 = eν dt2 − eλ dr2 − r2 (dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 ), UjXRV
/QM/2 r, θ, φ bQM Hb +QQ`/2M/b 2b7û`B+b i`/B+BQMH2b- t 2b 2H iB2KTQ

v ν v λ bQM 7mM+BQM2b bQHQ /2 rX úbib bQM /2i2`KBM/b TQ` H /Bb@
i`B#m+BƦM /2 Kb /2H bBbi2K 2bi2H` [m2- bm p2x- Tm2/2 b2` /2b+`BTi
TQ` mM 7mM+BƦM m(r) [m2 `2T`2b2Mi H Kb 2M+2``/ 2M mM 2b72` /2
`/BQ r UJBbM2` 2i HX- RNdyVX G Kûi`B+ /2 a+?r`xb+?BH/ MQ 2b Kb
[m2 mM +bQ TìB+mH` /2 2bi Kûi`B+ ;2M2`H- 2M H [m2 m(r) = M v-
2M +QMb2+m2M+B ν = −λ = ln(1 − 2M/r)X HQ H`;Q /2 2bi b2++BƦM-
b2 miBHBxM mMB//2b Mim`H2b bHpQ [m2 HQ +QMi``BQ b2 2bi#H2+B/Q 2t@
THő+BiK2Mi2X
1H K2/BQ +`2i/Q Tm2/2 b2` /2b+`BTiQ +QKQ mM K2/BQ `2HiBpBbi +QM
9d
93 jXRX JQ/2HQ b2KB@MHőiB+Q
2+m+BƦM /2 2bi/Q p = ωρ- /QM/2 p 2b H T`2bBƦM v ρ H /2MbB// /2

2M2`;őX 1H i2MbQ` /2 2M2`;ő@KQK2MiQ `2bmHi
Tµν = (ρ + p)uµ uν − pgµν , UjXkV
/QM/2 gµν 2b 2H i2MbQ` T` H Kûi`B+ v uµ = dxµ /ds 2b H +m/`B@

p2HQ+B// /2H ~mB/Q- [m2 biBb7+2 uµ uµ = 1X
1H Q#D2iBpQ 2b 2pHm` H ib /2 +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 2H AJ">-
Ṁ = −4π lı́m r2 T0r , UjXjV

r→2M
T` HQ +mH b2 BMi2;`M Hb 2+m+BQM2b /2 KQpBKB2MiQ /2H ~mB/QX *QKQ

+QM/B+BƦM /2 +QMiQ`MQ b2 `2[mB2`2 [m2 H2DQb /2H bBbi2K H /2MbB// ρ∞
v H T`2bBƦM p∞ b2M +QMbiMi2b v [m2 2H ~mB/Q b2 2M+m2Mi`2 2M `2TQbQ
Uu∞ = 0VX
Gb 2+m+BQM2b /2 KQpBKB2MiQ bQM Hb /2b+`BTib 2M H b2++BƦM kXkXkX

.2 2bi KM2`- BMi2;`M/Q H 2+m+BƦM /2 +QMb2`p+BƦM /2 H 2M2`;ő
UkXj3V v bm T`Qv2++BƦM bQ#`2 H +m/`Bp2HQ+B// UkX9dV 2M H Kûi`B+ jXR
b2 Q#iB2M2
31/2 2 1 (λ+3ν)
(p + ρ) e−ν + eλ−ν u2 UjX9V
2
ur e 2 = C1 ,
v
!ρ dρ′ 1
e ∞ ρ′ +p
e 2 (ν+λ) ur2 = C2 , UjX8V
/QM/2 C1 v C2 bQM +QMbiMi2b /2 BMi2;`+BƦMX

*QK#BMM/Q Hb 2+m+BQM2b jX9 v jX8 b2 Q#iB2M2
!ρ dρ′ 31/2 ν/2

1 + e λ u2
−
UjXeV
2
(p + ρ)e ∞ p+ρ′
e = ρ∞ + p ∞ .
1H pHQ` ρ∞ + p∞ bm`;2 /2 iQK` 2H HőKBi2 r → ∞ 2M H 2tT`2bBƦM /2H
93
jX +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B MQ #`BƦMB+ 9N
H/Q Bx[mB2`/Q /2 H B;mH//R X
.2 H 2tT`2bBƦM jXj v Hb BMi2;`H2b /2 KQpBKB2MiQ jX9 v jX8- b2 Tm2/2

Q#i2M2` mM 2tT`2bBƦM T` H ib /2 +`2+BƦM
Ṁ = −4π(ρ∞ + p∞ )C2 , UjXdV
/QM/2 b2 ? mb/Q [m2 2M 2H HőKBi2 r → 2M H BM~m2M+B /2H +ȹKmHQ

;HQ#mH` 2b /2bT`2+B#H2 v H Kûi`B+ b2 T`QtBK H /2 a+?r`xb+?BH/-
/2 KM2` [m2 λ + ν = 0X
G +QMbiMi2 C2 /2i2`KBM 2H ~mDQ /2 +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q

v Tm2/2 b2` +H+mH/ }DM/Q HQb T`K2i`Qb /2H T`Q#H2K 2M +mH[mB2`
TmMiQX *QKQ 7m2 /2b``QHH/Q 2M H b2++BƦM kXkXk- 2tBbi2 mM TmMiQ +`őiB+Q
T` 2biQb ~mDQb /2 +`2+BƦM- [m2 Tm2/2 b2` miBHBx/Q T` /2i2`KBM`
2H pHQ` /2 C2 X S` 2biQ- b2 `22b+`B#2M Hb 2+m+BQM2b jX9 v jX8 2M bm
7Q`K /B72`2M+BHc H +QK#BM`Hb b2 Q#iB2M2
0 ω1
(e−ν + eλ−ν u2 )−1 eλ−ν u − du +
( u
1 −ν
(e + eλ−ν u2 )−1 (−e−ν ν ′ + (λ′ − ν ′ )u2 eλ−ν )+
2
! ′ ")
λ′ 3ν ′ 2 ν λ′ 2
+ + − (1 + ω) + + dr = 0, UjX3V
2 2 r 2 2 r
/QM/2 b2 ? mb/Q 2tTHő+BiK2Mi2 H 2+m+BƦM /2 2bi/Q /2H ~mB/QX

aB;mB2M/Q HQ /2b``QHH/Q 2M H b2++BƦM kXkXk- H `2[m2`B` [m2 K#Qb
+Q`+?2i2b b2 MmH2M- `2bmHi
1 ′ 2ω
ν (rc )(1 − ω) − = 0, UjXNV
2 rc
R
1M 2H BM}MBiQ- H Kûi`B+ iB2M/2 H /2 a+?r`xb+?BH/- BX2X- ν v λ iB2M/2M +2`QX
9N
8y jXRX JQ/2HQ b2KB@MHőiB+Q
ω
u2c = . UjXRyV
1−ω
[mő 2H bm#őM/B+2 ǳ+Ǵ BM/B+ [m2 Hb p`B#H2b +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b bQM 2p@
Hm/b 2M HQb pHQ`2b +`őiB+QbX 1b 2pB/2Mi2 /2 H 2+m+BƦM jXRy [m2 MQ
2tBbi2 TmMiQ +`őiB+Q T` ω < 0 U2M2`;ő Qb+m`VX 1bi2 +bQ b2` 2bim@
/B/Q TQ` b2T`/Q Kb /2HMi2c ?Q` MQb `2bi`BM;BKQb H +bQ ω > 0X
JBbM2` 2i HX URNdyV /2KQbi``QM [m2- T` mM bBbi2K 2bi2H` 2b7û`B+Q
b2 +mKTH2
2m(r)
ν ′ (r) = . UjXRRV
r [r − 2m(r)]
*QM 2bi /2}MB+BƦM T` ν ′ - rc [m2/ /2}MB/Q TQ` H 2+m+BƦM BKTHő+Bi
m(rc ) 2ω
= . UjXRkV
rc 1 + 3ω
1bi 2+m+BƦM Km2bi` [m2 T` mM +ȹKmHQ //Q- H m#B++BƦM /2H TmMiQ
+`őiB+Q /2T2M/2 2t+HmbBpK2Mi2 /2 pHQ` /2 ωX 1pHmM/Q Hb 2+m+BQM2b
jX8 v jXe 2M 2H TmMiQ +`őiB+Q- TQ/2KQb `22KTHx` C2 2M H 2+m+BƦM jXd
T` Q#i2M2` mM 2tT`2bBƦM }MH T` H ib /2 +`2+BƦM 2M iû`KBMQb
/2 +MiB//2b +QMQ+B/b-
( )− 2ω1
νc ω
Ṁ = −π(1 + ω)ρ∞ e (1 + )
1−ω
! " 12 ! "2
ω 2 1 + 3ω 1
m (rc ) e 2 νc . UjXRjV
1−ω ω
1b BMi2`2bMi2 /2bi+` [m2 Ṁ `2bmHi T`QTQ`+BQMH m2 (rc ) [m2- /2@

T2M/B2M/Q /2 H m#B++BƦM /2H TmMiQ +`őiB+Q- bm pHQ` Tm2/2 2M+QMi``b2
2Mi`2 M 2 v (Mgc + M )2 - /QM/2 Mgc 2b H Kb /2H +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH`X
./Q [m2 Mgc ≫ M - H +`2+BƦM Tm2/2 b2` BMi2MbB}+/ bB 2H TmMiQ
8y
jX +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B MQ #`BƦMB+ 8R
*m/`Q jXkXR, S`K2i`Qb /2H KQ/2HQX
_/BQ /2 2b+H /2H +ȹKmHQ Ur0 V yXj8 T+

_/BQ iB/H /2H +ȹKmHQ Urt V 99 T+
*QM+2Mi`+BƦM /2H +ȹKmHQ Ucgc V RX3
.BbiM+B ;H+iQ+ûMi`B+ /2H +ȹKmHQ URgc V jXR FT+
Jb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q UM V 3000 M⊙
.2MbB// /2 Ki2`B Qb+m` Rgc UρDM V 4,0 × 10−21 kg m−3
.2MbB// /2 2M2`;ő Qb+m` UρDE V 7,7 × 10−27 kg m−3
+`őiB+Q b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M Hb `2;BQM2b Kb 2ti2`Mb /2H +ȹKmHQX
1M Hb bB;mB2Mi2b b2++BQM2b b2 THB+ 2bi2 KQ/2HQ H;mMQb ~mB/Qb +QM

/BbiBMib pHQ`2b /2H T`K2i`Q ω /2 H 2+m+BƦM /2 2bi/Q v b2 MHBxM
Hb ibb /2 +`2+BƦM `2bmHiMi2bX
jXkX _/B+BƠM /2 7QM/Q
HT?2` >2`KM URN93V 7m2`QM HQb T`BK2`Qb 2M T`2/2+B` i2Ʀ`B+@

K2Mi2 H 2tBbi2M+B /2 mM `/B+BƦM /2 7QM/Q /2 +m2`TQ M2;`Q [m2 b2
2bi`ő 2M7`BM/Q +QM H 2tTMbBƦM /2H lMBp2`bQX S`2/BD2`QM- /2Kb-
[m2 H i2KT2ìm` +imH /2 2bi `/B+BƦM 2M 2H T`2b2Mi2 /2#2`ő b2`
/2H Q`/2M /2 ∼ 10 KX bő- 2bi `/B+BƦM /2 7QM/Q b2`ő Kb 7+BHK2Mi2
/2i2+i#H2 2M 7`2+m2M+Bb /2 KB+`QQM/b v bm`;2 2H MQK#`2 +QbKB+ KB@
+`Qrp2 #+F;`QmM/ `/BiBQM U*J"_VX aBM +QMQ+2` 2bi T`2/B++BƦM
i2Ʀ`B+- S2MxBb qBHbQM URNe8V `2HBx`QM- TQ` ++B/2Mi2- H T`BK2`
/2i2++BƦM /2 H `/B+BƦM +ƦbKB+ /2 7QM/Q KB2Mi`b +HB#`#M mM
Mi2M /2 `/BQ /2 i2H2+QKmMB++BQM2b T` G#QìBQb "2HHX ƢQb /2@
bTmûb- 2H biûHBi2 *P"1 U*QbKB+ "+F;`QmM/ 1tTHQ`2`V 7m2 HMx/Q H
2bT+BQ T` 2bim/B` H *J"_ 2M /2iHH2X 1M H };m` jXkXR b2 Q#b2`p
2H 2bT2+i`Q +QKTH2iQ iQK/Q /2H i`#DQ /2 Ji?2` 2i HX URNNyVX
8R
8k jXkX _/B+BƦM /2 7QM/Q
6B;m` jXkXR, 1bT2+i`Q /2 H `/B+BƦM +ƦbKB+ /2 7QM/Q iQK/Q TQ` *P"1

U/2 Ji?2` 2i HX- RNNyVX
*QKQ T`BK2` 2D2KTHQ /2 THB++BƦM /2H KQ/2HQ /2b``QH/Q 2M H b2+@

+BƦM jXR- b2 +QMbB/2` H +`2+BƦM /2 mM ~mB/Q T2`72+iQ `2HiBpBbic H
`/B+BƦM +ƦbKB+ /2 7QM/Q T` H +mH p = ρ/3X 1M 2bi2 +bQ- ω 2b
/2H Q`/2M /2 H mMB//X G /2b+`BT+BƦM /2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2H +ȹKmHQ
;HQ#mH` Kb 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q 2b H T`2b2Mi/ 2M H b2++BƦM kXRXR- +QM
`/BQ /2 EBM; r0 = 0,35 pc- +QM+2Mi`+BƦM cgc = 1,8 v mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q
+2Mi`H /2 M = 3000M⊙ X GQb T`K2i`Qb /2H KQ/2HQ- iQK/Qb /2 >`@
`Bb URNNeV- ?M bB/Q 2H2;B/Qb /2 KQ/Q iH [m2 `2T`2b2Mi2M H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM
/2 Kb /2 L:* ej33- mMQ /2 HQb Kb 7m2ì2b +M/B/iQb H#2`;`
mM AJ">X
.2 H 2+m+BƦM jXRk Tm2/2M 2bim/B`b2 Hb +QMi`B#m+BQM2b BM/BpB/mH2b

/2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q v 2H +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 KbX 1M
H };m` jXkXk b2 Km2bi` mM ;`}+Q /2H KB2K#`Q Bx[mB2`/Q /2 2bi
2+m+BƦM T` Mm2bi`Q KQ/2HQ 2M TìB+mH`X 1H +`2+BKB2MiQ bBMiƦiB+Q
T` r → 0 2b +QMb2+m2M+B /2H +KTQ ;`pBi+BQMH /2H AJ"> 2M 2H
+2Mi`Q U∼ M/rV- KB2Mi`b [m2 2H TB+Q 2M r/r0 ∼ 10 b2 /2#2 H +QMi`B#m@
8k
jX +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B MQ #`BƦMB+ 8j
+BƦM TìB+mH` /2H +ȹKmHQk X Sm2/2 p2`b2 [m2 T` mM ~mB/Q `2HiBpBbi
+QM ω ∼ 1- 2H H/Q /2`2+?Q /2 H 2+m+BƦM jXRk iQK pHQ`2b /2H Q`/2M
/2 H mMB//- p`BQb Ʀ`/2M2b /2 K;MBim/ TQ` 2M+BK /2H KtBKQ 2M
m(r)/rX Gm2;Q- 2H `/BQ +`őiB+Q 2bi m#B+/Q 2M r ≪ r0 - bB2M/Q 2H ;mD2`Q
M2;`Q 2H [m2 /QKBM H 2b+2MX G Kûi`B+- 2M +QMb2+m2M+B- Tm2/2 b2`
T`QtBK/ TQ` H Kûi`B+ /2 a+?r`xb+?BH/ T` 2M+QMi`` rc - uc v Ṁ X
.2 2bi KM2`- 2H T`Q#H2K b2 `2/m+2 H /2 mM AJ"> BbH/Q v H ib
/2 +`2+BƦM /2T2M/2 bƦHQ /2 M 2 - +QKQ T`2/BD2`QM "#B+?2p 2i HX Ukyy9VX
S` 2bim/B` 2H +bQ TìB+mH` /2 H `/B+BƦM +ƦbKB+ /2 7QM/Q b2

iQKƦ +QKQ pHQ` T` H /2MbB// ρ = 7, 0425 × 10−31 F; K−3 X 1bi2
pHQ` bm`;2 /2 bmKB` mM +QMi`B#m+BƦM 7`++BQMH /2 H `/B+BƦM @//
TQ` 2H KQ/2HQ +QbKQHƦ;B+Q 2biM/`@
ρ`/
Ω`/ = = 5 × 10−5 , UjXR9V
ρ+`Bi
/QM/2 ρcrit 2b H /2MbB// +`őiB+ /2H lMBp2`bQ /2}MB/ +QKQ
;
ρ = 1,878 × 10−29 h , UjXR8V
+K3
bB2M/Q h = 0,75 2H T`K2i`Q /BK2MbBQMH /2 >m##H2- /2 KM2` [m2
H +QMbiMi2 /2 >m##H2 ?Qv 2b H0 = 7,5 × 107 FK b2;−1 JT+−1 X
G ib /2 +`2+BƦM `2bmHi- 2MiQM+2b- Ṁ = 1,7 × 10−29 M⊙ yr−1 -

mM pHQ` +QKTH2iK2Mi2 /2bT`2+B#H2 +QKQ +QMb2+m2M+B iMiQ /2 H
/2T2M/2M+B +QM H Kb /2H AJ"> /2 Ṁ +QKQ /2 H #D /2MbB//
/2 7QiQM2b /2H 7QM/Q +ƦbKB+Q /m`Mi2 H 2` /QKBM/ TQ` Ki2`B 2M
H [m2 b2 7Q`K`QM HQb bBbi2Kb 2bi2H`2bX 1bi2 pHQ` 2bi 2M 2t+2H2Mi2
+m2`/Q +QM HQb `2bmHi/Qb /2 /2 6`2Bib S+?2+Q UkyRRVX
k
S` mM +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` M (r)/r → 0 +mM/Q r → 0- Tm2b H Kb +QMi2MB/
2M mM `/BQ BM}MBi2bBKH 2b 2bi`B+iK2Mi2 MmHX
8j
89 jXjX Ji2`B Qb+m`
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

1e-08 1e-08
9e-09 9e-09
8e-09 8e-09
7e-09 7e-09
6e-09 6e-09
m(r)/r
5e-09 5e-09
4e-09 4e-09
3e-09 3e-09
2e-09 2e-09
1e-09 1e-09
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
r /r0
6B;m` jXkXk, *Q+B2Mi2 m(r)/r T` mM +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` iőTB+Q +QM mM AJ">X
Gb HőM2b b2;K2Mi/ v TmMi2/ /2}M2M HQb pHQ`2b KtBKQ v KőMBKQ /2
2ω/(1 + 3ω) T` HQb +mH2b H 1+X jXRk TQb22 i`2b bQHm+BQM2bX
jXjX Ji2`B Qb+m`
G T`BK2` 2pB/2M+B /2 2tBbi2M+B /2 H Ki2`B Qb+m` 7m2 2M+QM@

i`/ TQ` 6`Bix wrB+Fv 2M RNjjX am i`#DQ b2 #bƦ 2M H K2/B+BƦM /2
Hb p2HQ+B//2b `/BH2b /2 bB2i2 ;HtBb T2ì2M2+B2Mi2b H +ȹKmHQ /2
;HtBb *QKX 1M TìB+mH`- 2M+QMi`Ʀ [m2 +/ ;HtB BM/BpB/mH b2
KQpő +QM p2HQ+B//2b `/BH2b [m2 /B72`őM /2 H p2HQ+B// K2/B /2H
+ȹKmHQ- +QM mM /BbT2`bBƦM /2 700 FK b−1 X .B+? /BbT2`bBƦM 7m2 BMi2`@
T`2i/ +QKQ mM K2/B/ /2 H 2M2`;ő +BMûiB+ TQ` mMB// /2 Kb
/2 Hb ;HtBb 2M 2H +ȹKmHQ TìB` /2 H +mH- mbM/Q 2H h2Q`2K /2H
oB`BH- wrB+Fv URNjjV `2HBxƦ 2biBK+BQM2b T` H Kb /2H +ȹKmHQ #@
DQ 2bim/BQX Gm2;Q- +QKT`Ʀ H `2H+BƦM Kb@HmKBMQbB// Q#i2MB/ +QM
2bi2 KûiQ/Q +QM [m2HH Q#i2MB/ TìB` /2 Hb +m`pb /2 `Qi+BƦM /2
Hb 2bTB`H2b +2`+Mb 2M+QMi`M/Q [m2 H T`BK2` 2t+2/2 H b2;mM/
89
jX +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B MQ #`BƦMB+ 88
2M- H K2MQb- mM 7+iQ` 9yyj X 1MiQM+2b- +QM+HmvƦ [m2 mM HiQ TQ`+2MiD2

/2 H Kb /2H +ȹKmHQ 2b H;ȹM iBTQ /2 Ki2`B BMpBbB#H2 m Qb+m` [m2
bƦHQ Tm2/2 /2i2+i`b2 i`pûb /2 bmb 272+iQb ;`pBi+BQMH2bX aB #B2M
2H 7+iQ` 9yy Q#i2MB/Q 2M 2H i`#DQ /2 wrB+Fv URNjjV `2bmHiƦ 2M mM
bQ#`22biBK+BƦM /2H KBbKQ- bm i`#DQ /BƦ Hm;` 2bim/BQb TQbi2`BQ`2b
[m2 +QM+m2`/M 2M H 2tBbi2M+B /2 H Ki2`B Qb+m` v T2`KBiB2`QM
`2}M` Hb T`2/B++BQM2b /2 wrB+Fv Up2` HQb `2pB2rb /2 1BMbiQ- kyyN-
Em?H2M- oQ;2Hb#2`;2` M;mHQ- kyRk- T` BM7Q`K+BƦM /2iHH/ v
mM /2b+`BT+BƦM /2 H bBim+BƦM +imH /2 2bi2 i2KVX
G Ki2`B Qb+m` 7`ő 2b mM ~mB/Q MQ `2HiBpBbi +mv 2M2`;ő iû`@

KB+ v T`2bBƦM `2bmHi /2bT`2+B#H2- TQ` HQ [m2 ρ 2b- 2b2M+BHK2Mi2- H
/2MbB// /2 2M2`;ő 2M `2TQbQX S` 2bi2 iBTQ /2 ~mB/Q b2 Tm2/2 mb`
H 2+m+BƦM /2 2bi/Q p = ωρ +QM ω ≪ 1- bB bmKBKQb [m2 2H ~mDQ 2b
BbQiû`KB+Q v ω 2b B;mH H +m/`/Q /2 H p2HQ+B// /2H bQMB/Q 2M 2H
K2/BQ9 X
.2 H 6B;m` jXkXk Tm2/2 p2`b2 [m2 T` mM ~mB/Q +QM ω % 1,5 × 10−9 -
2H ~mDQ /2 +`2+BƦM 2b KQ/B}+/Q TQ` H T`2b2M+B /2H +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH`8 -
bB2M/Q ûbi2 2H KBbKQ [m2 2M H b2++BƦM Mi2`BQ`X S` pHQ`2b iQ/pő
Kb #DQb /2 ω Uω % 5 × 10−10 - TQ` /2#DQ /2 H HőM2 TmMi2/ 2M
H };m` jXkXkV- 2H TmMiQ +`őiB+Q b2 2M+m2Mi` m#B+/Q H2DQb /2H +2Mi`Q
/2H +ȹKmHQ U6B;m` jXjXRV v- 2M +QMb2+m2M+B- m(rc ) ≈ M + Mgc X SQ`
+QMbB;mB2Mi2- b2 2bT2` [m2- /2 +m2`/Q HQ /Bb+miB/Q 2M H b2++BƦM jXR-
H ib /2 +`2+BƦM `2bmHi2 BMi2MbB}+/ `2bT2+iQ /2H pHQ` 2biBK/Q 2M
2H 2b+2M`BQ /2 ;mD2`Q M2;`Q BbH/QX 1tBbi2- /2Kb- mM `2;BƦM /2
i`MbB+BƦM 2M H [m2 H 2+m+BƦM jXRk iB2M2 i`2b bQHm+BQM2b U2Mi`2 Hb
HőM2b TmMi2/ v b2;K2Mi/ 2M H 6B;m` jXkXkVX úbib- TQ` bBKTHB+B@
j
1bi /Bb+`2TM+B 7m2 `272`B/ 2M [m2H KQK2MiQ +QKQ 2H T`Q#H2K /2 H Kb
2b+QM/B/X
9
2M mMB//2b /2 H p2HQ+B// /2 H HmxX
8
1biQ BKTHB+ [m2 2H H/Q /2`2+?Q /2 H 2+m+BƦM jXRk 2b /2H Q`/2M /2 ∼ 3 × 10−9 X
88
8e jXjX Ji2`B Qb+m`
// T` H /2b+`BT+BƦM /2 H };m`- Hb HHKKQb T`BK2`- b2;mM/ v

i2`+2`- bB2M/Q H T`BK2`- H m#B+/ Kb +2`+ /2H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQX
aBM 2K#`;Q- bQHQ /Qb /2 2HHb bQM 7őbB+K2Mi2 +2Ti#H2bX aB H b2;mM/
bQHm+BƦM +Q``2bTQM/B2b2 H p2`//2`Q `/BQ +`őiB+Q- 2M HQb `/BQb +Q``2b@
TQM/B2Mi2b Hb Qi`b bQHm+BQM2b /2 H 2+m+BƦM jXRk H /2`Bp/ /2 H
p2HQ+B// /2#2`ő MmH`b2- pBQHM/Q Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ T`
H p2HQ+B// /2H ~mDQX .2 2bi KM2`- bƦHQ Hb bQHm+BQM2b T`BK2` v
i2`+2` bQM TQbB#H2b- mM[m2 bQHQ mM /2 2HHb +Q``2bTQM/2 H p2`//2`Q
`/BQ +`őiB+QX S` 2M+QMi`` 2bi2 pHQ`- Hb 2+m+BQM2b /2H ~mDQ jX3 bQM
BMi2;`/b T` K#Qb pHQ`2b miBHBxM/Q mM 2b[m2K /2 BMi2;`+BƦM
/2 1mH2`X G BMi2;`+BƦM +QMp2`;2 bƦHQ T` mMQ /2 2biQb pHQ`2b- BM/B@
+M/Q [m2 ûbi2 2b 2H pHQ` +Q``2+iQ T` rc X 1M 2H +bQ /2 L:* ej33-
2bi BMi2;`+BƦM Km2bi` [m2 2H `/BQ +`őiB+Q 2b H bQHm+BƦM T`BK2` UQ
BMi2`MV bB ω > ωt = 1,5 × 10−9 - v H bQHm+BƦM i2`+2` UQ 2ti2`MV- 2M
2H Qi`Q +bQX S` 2bi2 pHQ` /2 i`MbB+BƦM- H TQbB+BƦM /2H TmMiQ +`őiB@
+Q +K#B #`mTiK2Mi2 U6B;X jXjXRVX 1bi2 +K#BQ- T`Q##H2K2Mi2 mM
ìB}+BQ /2#B/Q H bBKTHB+B// /2H KQ/2HQ- MQ 72+i Hb +QM+HmbBQM2b-
+QKQ b2` /2KQbi`/Q Kb /2HMi2X
1M H 6B;m` jXjXk b2 Km2bi`M HQb `2bmHi/Qb T` H ib /2 +`2+BƦM

2biBK/ TìB` /2 H 2+m+BƦM jXRjX S` 2bi 2biBK+BƦM b2 miBHBxƦ
ρ∞ = ρDM c2 Up2` h#H jXkXRV- /QM/2 ρDM 2b H /2MbB// /2 Ki2`B
Qb+m` H /BbiM+B ;H+iQ+ûMi`B+ /2H +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH`- H +mH 7m2
iQK/ /2H i`#DQ /2 EHvTBM- w?Q aQK2`pBHH2 UkyykVX 1H T2`}H T`
H /2MbB// /2 Ki2`B Qb+m` 2M H :HtB 2b 2H T`QTm2biQ TQ` Lp`@
`Q- 6`2MF q?Bi2 URNN8- RNNeVX Sm2/2 p2`b2 mM +K#BQ #`mTiQ 2M 2H
pHQ` /2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM +QKQ +QMb2+m2M+B /2H +K#BQ +Q``2bTQM/B@
2Mi2 2M rc X 1M ωm ≈ 3 × 10−10 - rc H+Mx 2H `/BQ /2 K`2 /2H +ȹKmHQ
;HQ#mH`X aB r ≫ ri - Hb 7m2`xb /2 K`2 /2 H :HtB b2 pm2Hp2M /QKB@
MMi2b v 2H +ȹKmHQ v MQ Tm2/2 b2` +QMbB/2`/Q +QKQ mM Q#D2iQ BbH/QX
1M 2bi2 +bQ- Hb T`2/B++BQM2b /2 Mm2bi`Q KQ/2HQ MQ bQM +QM}#H2bX
8e
jX +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B MQ #`BƦMB+ 8d
1b M2+2b`BQ /Bb+miB`- H K2MQb #`2p2K2Mi2- 2H 272+iQ [m2 iB2M2 bQ#`2

H ib /2 +`2+BƦM 2H KQpBKB2MiQ `2HiBpQ /2H +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` Uv 2M
+QMb2+m2M+B /2H AJ">V `2bT2+iQ /2 H Ki2`B Qb+m`X >QvH2 Gvi@
iH2iQM URNjNV /2`Bp`QM mM 7Ʀ`KmH T` H ib /2 +`2+BƦM 2M 2H +bQ
/2 mM ~mB/Q +HbB+Q bB2M/Q +`2i/Q TQ` mM Q#D2iQ [m2 b2 Km2p2 2M ûH-
bBKBH` H Q#i2MB/ TQ` "QM/B >QvH2 URN99VX .2 +m2`/Q HQ /2@
b``QHH/Q TQ` >QvH2 GviiH2iQM URNjNV- H `2H+BƦM 2Mi`2 H ib /2
+`2+BƦM Ṁ (v) bQ#`2 mM Q#D2iQ 2M KQpBKB2MiQ +QM p2HQ+B// v `2bT2+iQ
/2H ~mB/Q v H ib /2 +`2+BƦM Ṁ0 bQ#`2 mM ~mB/Q 2M `2TQbQ- 2bi //
TQ`
c3s
Ṁ (v) = Ṁ0 , UjXReV
(v 2 + c2s )3/2
/QM/2 c2s = c2 ω 2b H p2HQ+B// /2H bQMB/Q 2M 2H K2/BQX *#2 /2bi+`
[m2 iQKM/Q 2H HőKBi2 M2riQMBMQ ω → 0 /2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM- ûbi
iB2M/2 [m2HH /2 "QM/B >QvH2 URN99VX SQ` +QMbB;mB2Mi2- bmKQ [m2
2H 7+iQ` /2 +Q``2++BƦM //Q TQ` H 2+m+BƦM jXRe Tm2/2 b2` miBHBx/Q
T` /2`Bp` Ṁ (v) /2 Ṁ0 2M 2bi2 KQ/2HQX 1M H 6B;m` jXjXk b2 Km2bi`
H ib /2 +`2+BƦM +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 /BbiBMiQb pHQ`2b /2 H p2HQ+B//
/2H +ȹKmHQ v = 0, 100, 200 v 8yy FKfb- pHQ`2b iőTB+Qb T` 2H KQpBKB2M@
iQ /2 QD2iQb /2H ?HQ :H+iB+Q- +QKQ HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2bX
aB b2 /2bT`2+B H 2pQHm+BƦM +QbKQHƦ;B+ /2 H /2MbB// /2 Ki2`B

Qb+m`- b2 Tm2/2 `2HBx` mM 2biBK+BƦM /2 H +MiB// /2 Ki2`B
∆M +`2i/ TQ` 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q /m`Mi2 2H iB2KTQ /2 pB/ /2H +ȹ@
KmHQ ;HQ#mH` ∆t ∼ 10 GyrX 1M 2H +bQ [m2 ω % 10−9 - Ṁ /2T2M/2 /2
m(rc ) +QM rc ≫ r0 /2 KQ/Q [m2 2H +K#BQ 2M H ib /2 +`2+BƦM /2@
#B/Q H BM+`2K2MiQ /2 H Kb /2H AJ"> Tm2/2 b2` /2bT`2+B/QX SQ`
+QMbB;mB2Mi2- b2 Tm2/2 2biBK` ∆M ≈ Ṁ ∆t ! 104 M⊙ T` +mH[mB2`
8d
83 jXjX Ji2`B Qb+m`
1000
Solución interna
100 Solución externa
10
r/r0
0,1
0,01
0,001
1e−10 1e−09 1e−08 1e−07
ω
6B;m` jXjXR, _/BQ +`őiB+Q T` 2H bBbi2K +ȹKmHQ@AJ"> +QKQ 7mM+BƦM /2H
T`K2i`Q /2 2bi/Q ωX GQb +ő`+mHQb v `2+iM;mHQb +Q``2bTQM/2M Hb bQHm@
+BQM2b BMi2`BQ` v 2ti2`BQ` /2 H 1+X jXRk- `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X
100 v = 0
Tasa de acreción (Msol/yr)
v = 100 km/s
1 v = 200 km/s
v = 500 km/s
0,01
0,0001
1e−06
1e−08
1e−10
1e−12
1e−10 1e−09 1e−08

ω
6B;m` jXjXk, hb /2 +`2+BƦM T` 2H bBbi2K +ȹKmHQ@AJ"> +QKQ 7mM+BƦM

/2H T`K2i`Q /2 2bi/Q ω- T` /BbiBMib p2HQ+B//2b /2H +ȹKmHQ `2HiBpb H
~mB/QX Gb HőM2b b2;K2Mi/b p2ìB+H2b +Q``2bTQM/2M HQb HőKBi2b bmT2`BQ` 2
BM72`BQ` /2 H `2;BƦM /2 i`MbB+BƦMX
83
jX +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B MQ #`BƦMB+ 8N
pHQ` `xQM#H2 /2 vX 1bi2 pHQ` `2bmHi 2M +QMi`/B++BƦM +QM Hb +Qib

bmT2`BQ`2b 2biBK/b H T`2b2Mi2 TQ` *b2? 2i HX UkyRyV- GMxQMB 2i HX
UkyydV- Gmix;2M/Q`7 2i HX UkyRRV 2M L:* ej33X SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- 2M 2H
+bQ [m2 ω ! 10−9 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM 2b bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 #D /2 KQ/Q
/2 2pBi` 2bi2 /2b+m2`/Q 2Mi`2 2H KQ/2HQ v Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2bX 1bi2 2b
mM `2bmHi/Q MQi#H2- v [m2 BKTHB+ [m2 Q #B2M 2H +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` MQ
H#2`; mM AJ"> Q #B2M H Ki2`B Qb+m` 2b +QHBbBQMH v 2tBbi2 mM
+Qi BM72`BQ` T` 2H T`K2i`Q /2 2bi/Q /2 H Ki2`B Qb+m` /2H Q`@
/2M /2 10−9 - bBKBH` H `2bmHi/Q Q#i2MB/Q TQ` :mxKM GQ`@*HpBDQ
UkyRRVX
jX9X 1M2`;Ō Qb+m`
.m`Mi2 H ȹHiBK /û+/ b2 ? +mKmH/Q mM +MiB// T`2+B#H2

/2 i`#DQb [m2 bm;B2`2M [m2 H 2tTMbBƦM /2H lMBp2`bQ Q+m``2 /2 KM2@
` +2H2`/X 1bib +QM+HmbBQM2b b2 #bM- T`BM+BTHK2Mi2- 2M Hb Q#b2`@
p+BQM2b /2 bmT2`MQpb A UEQrHbFB 2i HX- kyy3- S2`HKmii2`- H/2`BM;
:QH/?#2`- _B2bb- 6BHBT2MFQ *?HHBb- RNN3V v /2 H *J"_ UEQ@
Kibm 2i HX- kyyNV 2M +QK#BM+BƦM +QM K2/B+BQM2b /2 H +QMbiMi2
/2 >m##H2 v 2bi`m+im` ;`M 2b+H U*QH2 2i HX- kyy8VX lM TQbB#H2
2tTHB++BƦM T` 2bi 2tTMbBƦM +2H2`/e `2bmHi /2 BMi`Q/m+B` mM
Mm2p +QKTQM2Mi2 /2 ~mB/Q +ƦbKB+Q- H 2M2`;ő Qb+m`- +QM T`K2i`Q
/2 2bi/Q ω < −1/3X H /ő /2 ?Qv- bB #B2M MQ 2tBbi2 mM i2Q`ő [m2 2t@
THB[m2 +#/K2Mi2 H Mim`H2x /2 2bi 2M2`;ő Qb+m`- mM KTHB
;K /2 KQ/2HQb T`QTQM2M /BbiBMiQb 2b+2M`BQb /2 7Q`K+BƦM v 2pQHm@
+BƦM T` 2bi2 ~mB/Q U2H H2+iQ` 2b `272`B/Q H `2pB2r /2 *QT2HM/- aKB
hbmDBFr- kyye- T` mM /2b+`BT+BƦM /2iHH/ /2 2biQb KQ/2HQbVX
1H KQ/2HQ Kb bBKTH2 bmTQM2 [m2 H 2M2`;ő Qb+m` b2 2M+m2Mi` +QM2+@
i/ +QM H 2M2`;ő /2 p+őQ- H +QMbiMi2 +QbKQHƦ;B+- i`pûb /2 mM
T`K2i`Q /2 2bi/Q ω = −1X
e
bmKB2M/Q H pHB/2x /2 H `2HiBpB// ;2M2`H ;`M/2b 2b+HbX
8N
ey jX9X 1M2`;ő Qb+m`
1M H b2++BƦM Mi2`BQ`- Hb 2biBK+BQM2b b2 ?M #b/Q 2M H 2tBbi2M+B

/2 mM `/BQ +`őiB+Q v- 2M +QMb2+m2M+B- /2 mM p2HQ+B// +`őiB+ /2H
~mB/QX aBM 2K#`;Q- /2 H 2+m+BƦM jXRk Tm2/2 p2`b2 [m2 2M 2H +bQ /2
~mB/Qb BM2bi#H2b Uω < 0V- +QKQ 2b 2H +bQ /2 H 2M2`;ő Qb+m`- MQ
2tBbi2 iH TmMiQ +`őiB+Q 7m2` /2H ?Q`BxQMi2 /2 2p2MiQb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q
Urc < 2M VX aB;mB2M/Q H B/2 /2 JB+?2H URNdkV v "#B+?2p 2i HX Ukyy9V-
+QMbB/2`KQb [m2- 2M 2bi2 +bQ- Hb BM2bi#BHB//2b /2H ~mDQ +mbM 2H
+`2+BKB2MiQ /2 H p2HQ+B// /2H ~mB/Q- ?bi [m2 H+Mx H p2HQ+B// /2
H Hmx H HH2;` H ?Q`BxQMi2 /2 2p2MiQbX úbi 2b- 2MiQM+2b- H +QM/B+BƦM
/2 +QMiQ`MQ [m2 `22KTHx HQb pHQ`2b +`őiB+QbX "DQ 2bi ?BTƦi2bBb-
H ib /2 +`2+BƦM `2bmHi B/ûMiB+ H 2biBK/ TQ` "#B+?2p 2i HX
Ukyy9V-
Ṁ = 16π(1 + ω)ρ∞ M 2 . UjXRdV
1bi2 `2bmHi/Q iB2M2 mM BMi2`T`2i+BƦM bBKTH2, 2M 2bi2 `û;BK2M- Hb

7m2`xb /2 T`2bBƦM /2 mM ~mB/Q `2HiBpBbi bQM /2H Q`/2M /2 H 7m2`x
;`pBi+BQMH T`Q/m+B/ TQ` 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q +2`+ /2 bm ?Q`BxQMi2 [m2
`2bmHi Km+?Q KvQ` [m2 [m2HH 2D2`+B/ TQ` 2H +ȹKmHQX .2 2bi KM2@
`- 2H bBbi2K b2 +QKTQì +QKQ bB 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q 2bimpB2` BbH/Q- iH
+QKQ T`QTQM2M "#B+?2p 2i HX Ukyy9VX Pi`Q TmMiQ MQi#H2 /2 H ib
/2 +`2+BƦM jXRd 2b [m2 Ṁ 2b M2;iBp +mM/Q ω < −1 UTQ` 2D2KTHQ-
2M 2H +bQ /2 2M2`;ő 7MibKV- T`Q/m+B2M/Q mM /2+`2+BKB2MiQ 2M H
Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX 1b BKTQìMi2 /2bi+` [m2 2bi2 b2`ő 2H +bQ
bB H a2;mM/ G2v :2M2`HBx/ 2b pBQH/- /2 +m2`/Q HQ 2bim/B/Q
TQ` /2 6`2Bib S+?2+Q >Q`pì? UkyydVX
1M 2H +bQ /2 L:* ej33 v mbM/Q 2H pHQ` +imH T` H /2MbB//
ey
jX +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B MQ #`BƦMB+ eR
/2 2M2`;ő Qb+m` ρDE c2 +QKQ ρ∞ Up2` h#H jXkXRV- b2 Q#iB2M2

! "2
M
Ṁ = 9,5 × 10 −34 −1
M⊙ yr (1 + ω) . UjXR3V
M⊙
./Q 2H 7+iQ` /2H H/Q /2`2+?Q /2 H B;mH// /2 H 2+m+BƦM jXR3- iMiQ
H ib /2 +`2+BƦM +QKQ H Kb /[mB`B/ UQ T2`/B/V TQ` mM AJ"> /2
102 Ĝ104 M⊙ /m`Mi2 HQb ȹHiBKQb Ry :v` 2b /2bT`2+B#H2X bő- b2 Tm2/2
+QM+HmB` [m2 H +`2+BƦM /2 2M2`;ő Qb+m` MQ +K#B H 2pQHm+BƦM /2 H
Kb /2H Q#D2iQ +`2iMi2 bB ûbi2 2b mM AJ">X
jX8X THB++BƠM ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb /2 Kb 2bi2@

H`
./ H `2H2pM+B /2 HQb `2bmHi/Qb T`2b2Mi/Qb 2M Hb b2++BQM2b T`2@

pBb- `2bmHi BMi2`2bMi2 BMp2biB;` bQ#`2 HQb KBbKQb 2M Qi`Qb 2b+2M`BQb-
ȹM +mM/Q 2bi2 2bim/BQ 2bi 7m2` /2H H+M+2 /2 2bi h2bBbX lM TQbB@
#BHB// [m2 bm`;2 T` +Q``Q#Q`` HQb `2bmHi/Qb Q#i2MB/Qb H 2bim/B`
H +`2+BƦM /2 Ki2`B Qb+m` 2b BMp2biB;` 2H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM /2
2bi2 ~mB/Q bQ#`2 ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb /2 Kb 2bi2H` UaiJ">bVX 1biQ iB2M2
H p2MiD /2 [m2 H 2tBbi2M+B /2 2biQb Q#D2iQb 2bi 2bi#H2+B/- TQ`
HQ [m2 mM `2bmHi/Q bBKBH` H /2 H b2++BƦM Mi2`BQ` i2M/`ő mM BK@
THB+M+B /B`2+i bQ#`2 Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 H Ki2`B Qb+m`X H;mMQb
/2 2biQb Q#D2iQb iB2M2M Kbb +QMQ+B/b v bmb p2HQ+B//2b #B2M /2i2`@
KBM/bX hH 2b 2H +bQ /2 sh1 CRRR3Y93y- mM MQp ;2M2`/ TQ`
mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q [m2 2KBi2 2M `vQb s- /2b+m#B2ì U_2KBHH`/ 2i HX-
kyyyV +QM 2H _sh1 HH aFv JQMBiQ` 2H kN /2 J`xQ /2 kyyyX 1bi 7m2Mi2
/2 `vQb s 2bi +QMbiBimő/ TQ` mM aiJ"> /2 M"> = 6,9 ± 0,9 M⊙ -
mM 2bi`2HH +QKTƢ2` /QMMi2 /2 M/QMMi2 = 0,3 ± 0,2 M⊙ - b2T@
`/Qb mM /BbiM+B R = 3 R⊙ +QM mM T2`őQ/Q Q`#BiH /2 yXRd /őb
UJ+*HBMiQ+F 2i HX- kyyR- q;M2` 2i HX- kyyRVX G Ʀ`#Bi /2 2bi2 Q#@
D2iQ 7m2 2bim/B/ mM ƢQ /2bTmûb /2 bm /2b+m#`BKB2MiQ TQ` JB`#2H
eR
ek jX8X THB++BƦM ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb /2 Kb 2bi2H`
2i HX UkyyRV- [mB2M2b miBHBx`QM Q#b2`p+BQM2b 2M `/BQ iQK/b +QM

o2`v GQM; "b2HBM2 ``v UoG"VX ./Q [m2 2tBbi2 +B2ì /Bb+`2TM@
+B 2Mi`2 HQb pHQ`2b `2TQì/Qb TQ` /BbiBMiQb miQ`2b T` H p2HQ+B@
// `/BH /2H +2Mi`Q /2 Kb- 2H pHQ` Q#i2MB/Q TQ` JB`#2H 2i HX
UkyyRV 2b 2H T`QK2/BQ /2 HQb pHQ`2b 2biBK/Qb TìB` /2 b2M/Qb pHQ@
`2b- UU = −105 ± 16, V = −98 ± 16, W = −21 ± 10V FK b2+−1 2M 2H
2biM/` HQ+H /2 `2TQbQX
1M H 6B;m` jX8XR b2 Km2bi` H ib /2 +`2+BƦM Q#i2MB/ T` 2bi2

;mD2`Q M2;`Q- /QTiM/Q mM p2HQ+B// K2/B vBH ∼ 140km/sX Sm2/2
Q#b2`p`b2 [m2 2M 2H +bQ [m2 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q 2b +QMbB/2`/Q 2M `2TQbQ-
2H 2b+2M`BQ 2b bBKBH` H 2bim/B/Q T` mM AJ">, H Kb [m2 ?#`ő
+`2i/Q 2M ∼ 10 :v` b2 2M+m2Mi` ∼ k Ʀ`/2M2b /2 K;MBim/ TQ` 2M+B@
K /2H pHQ` `2H /2 H KbX aBM 2K#`;Q- H +QMbB/2`` 2H KQpBKB2MiQ
/2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q v H +QMb2+m2Mi2 +Q``2++BƦM T` H ib /2 +`2+BƦM
jXRe- H +MiB// /2 Kb +`2i/ /BbKBMmv2 b2MbB#H2K2Mi2 +QKQ +QM@
b2+m2M+B /2 H /BbKBMm+BƦM /2H 7+iQ` /2 +Q``2++BƦM U6B;m` jX8XkVX
.2 2bi KM2`- HQb aiJ">b MQ `2bmHiM ȹiBH2b T` p2`B}+` Hb

T`QTB2//2b /2 H Ki2`B Qb+m`- KB2Mi`b [m2 bB H 2tBbi2M+B /2 HQb
AJ">b 7m2b2 +Q``Q#Q`/ v b2 /2b``QHH`M KQ/2HQb /2iHH/Qb T`
H +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 2biQb Q#D2iQb- `2bmHi`őM 2M 2t+2H2Mi2b ?2``KB2Mib
T` BMp2biB;` H +m2biBƦMX
ek
jX +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B MQ #`BƦMB+ ej
100
velocidad nula
v = 145 km/s
1
Macretada
0,01
0,0001
1e−06
1e−12 1e−10 1e−08 1e−06
6B;m` jX8XR, Jb +`2i/ TQ` mM aiJ"> T` /BbiBMib p2HQ+B//2b /2H
;mD2`Q M2;`QX
1
Factor de corrección
0,01
0,0001
1e−06
1e−08
1e−12 1e−10 1e−08 1e−06
6B;m` jX8Xk, 6+iQ` /2 +Q``2++BƦM TQ` p2HQ+B// +QKQ 7mM+BƦM /2H T`K2i`Q
/2 2bi/QX
ej
e9 jX8X THB++BƦM ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb /2 Kb 2bi2H`
e9
+`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B
4
#`BƦMB+
*QKQ 2M Qi`Qb bBbi2Kb [m2 +QMiB2M2M Q#D2iQb +QKT+iQb- H /2i2+@

+BƦM /2 +`2+BƦM 2M +m`bQ Tm2/2 b2` /2 miBHB// T` TQM2` HőKBi2b H
2tBbi2M+B v T`QTB2//2b /2H AJ">X SQ` 2bi `xƦM- b2 HH2p`QM +#Q
/Bp2`bb #ȹb[m2/b /2 7m2Mi2b +2Mi`H2b /2 `vQb s 2M /BbiBMiQb +ȹKmHQbX
G /2i2++BƦM /2 7m2Mi2b +2Mi`H2b +QM T`QTB2//2b +QMbBbi2Mi2b +QM

[m2HHb 2bT2`#H2b T` mM AJ"> +`2iMi2 ? bB/Q `2TQì/ T`
/Qb +ȹKmHQb, L:* ej33 v :RX UEQM; 2i HX- kyRy- Lm+Bi 2i HX- kyy3VX
S` Qi`Qb +ȹKmHQb- bƦHQ b2 Q#impB2`QM +Qib bmT2`BQ`2b T` H HmKB@
MQbB// /2 `vQb s- /2H Q`/2M /2 ∼ 1031−32 erg s−1 UJ++`QM2- kyy9-
v bmb `272`2M+BbVX amTQMB2M/Q [m2 2H AJ"> +`2i /2H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹ@
e8
ee
KmHQ UA*JV- [m2 ûbi2 iB2M2 mM /2MbB// bBKBH` H K2/B/ TQ` 6`2B`2
2i HX UkyyRV 2M L:* Ry9 v [m2 H 2}+B2M+B `/BiBp 2b bBKBH` H
Q#b2`p/ 2M Qi`Qb bBbi2Kb [m2 +QMiB2M2M ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb- J++`QM2
Ukyy9V +QM+Hmv2 [m2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM /2#2 b2` Km+?Q K2MQ` [m2 H
T`2/B+? TQ` 2H KQ/2HQ /2 "QM/B >QvH2 URN99V T` b2` +QMbBbi2Mi2
+QM HQb HőKBi2b Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX /2Kb- #bM/Qb2 2M H +Q``2H+BƦM
2Mi`2 Hb HmKBMQbB//2b 2M `vQb s v `/BQ T` 2H +bQ /2 ;mD2`Qb
M2;`Qb 2bi2H`2b U:HHQ 2i HX- kyyjV- 2bi2 miQ` +QMbB/2` [m2 H 2KBbBƦM
2M `/BQ /2H bBbi2K b2`ő Km+?Q Kb 7+BH /2 /2i2+i` [m2 [m2HH 2M
`vQb sX aBM 2K#`;Q- MQ b2 ?M /2i2+i/Q 7m2Mi2b /2 `/BQ +2Mi`H2b 2M
+ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b ;H+iB+Qb HQ [m2- b2;ȹM J++`QM2 Ukyy9V- BKTQM@
/`ő 7m2ì2b HőKBi2b Hb Kbb /2 HQb ?BTQiûiB+Qb AJ">bX aQHQ lHp2bi/
2i HX UkyydV `2TQì`QM H /2i2++BƦM /2 mM 7m2Mi2 /2 `/BQ ∼ 1 arcsec
/2H +2Mi`Q /2 : R 2M J jRX 1HHQb +QM+Hmv2M [m2 2bi 2KBbBƦM 2b +QMbBb@
i2Mi2 +QM H 2bT2`/ T` mM AJ"> /2 2 × 104 M⊙ +`2iM/Q 2M 2H
+2Mi`Q /2 2bi2 +ȹKmHQX LQ Q#biMi2- 2bi2 `2bmHi/Q ? bB/Q +m2biBQM/Q
TQ` Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b `2+B2Mi2b /2 JBHH2`@CQM2b 2i HX UkyRkVX
_2bmHi 2pB/2Mi2 [m2 H /2i2++BƦM UQ H 7Hi /2 2HHV /2 7m2Mi2b HB@

K2Mi/b TQ` +`2+BƦM 2M HQb +2Mi`Qb /2 HQb +ȹKmHQb 2b +`m+BH T` H
BMp2biB;+BƦM /2 H 2tBbi2M+B v Mim`H2x /2 HQb AJ">bX 1M 2bi2 +QM@
i2tiQ- H BMi`2T`2i+BƦM iMiQ /2 H 2KBbBƦM 2M s +QKQ 2M `/BQ ? bB/Q
`2HBx/ mbM/Q KQ/2HQb bBKTH2b T` H ib /2 +`2+BƦMX 1M TìB+m@
H`- b2 ? miBHBx/Q 2H KQ/2HQ /2 "QM/B >QvH2 URN99V [m2 bmTQM2 [m2
mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q BbH/Q +`2i /2 mM K2/BQ ?QKQ;ûM2Q v 2biiB+QX aBM
2K#`;Q- 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q MQ b2 2M+m2Mi` BbH/Q bBMQ BMK2`bQ 2M 2H TQ@
i2M+BH ;`pBiQ`BQ /2H +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` v- /2Kb- 2H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹKmHQ
MQ TQb22 MBM;mM /2 Hb /Qb +`+i2`őbiB+b T`2pBK2Mi2 K2M+BQM/b
/2#B/Q- TQ` mM H/Q- H +QMbiMi2 2KBbBƦM /2 Ki2`B 2M 7Q`K /2
pB2MiQb TQ` Tì2 /2 Hb ;B;Mi2b `QDb v- TQ` Qi`Q- HQb TbD2b /2H +ȹ@
KmHQ i`p2b /2H THMQ :H+iB+Q [m2 `2Km2p2M 2bi2 K2/BQ U_Q#2ìb-
ee
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ ed
RN3NVX GQb 272+iQb /2 2biQb T`Q+2bQb bQ#`2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM /2#2 b2`
+mMiB}+/Qb bB b2 [mB2`2 `2HBx` mM +Q``2+i +QKT`+BƦM 2Mi`2 HQb
KQ/2HQb v Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2bX
1M 2bi2 +TőimHQ b2 T`2b2Mi 2H KQ/2HQ [m2 ?2 /2b``QHH/Q T` 2H

~mDQ /2 +`2+BƦM /2H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹKmHQ bQ#`2 mM AJ"> 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2
mM +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH`- BM+Hmv2M/Q 2H TQi2M+BH ;`pBiiQ`BQ /2 Hb 2bi`2HHb
v bm +QMi`B#m+BƦM H K2/BQ BMi2`2bi2H`X a2 T`2b2MiM 2biBK+BQM2b /2
H ib /2 +`2+BƦM v bm /2T2M/2M+B +QM H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q v
H i2KT2ìm` /2H ;bX 1M H b2++BƦM 9XR b2 /2b+`B#2M Hb 2+m+BQM2b
?B/`Q/BMKB+b /2H ~mDQ v b2 /Bb+mi2M bmb +`+i2`őbiB+b T`BM+BTH2bX
1M Hb b2++BQM2b 9Xk v 9Xj b2 /Bb+mi2M /BbiBMib +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQX
1M K#Qb +bQb b2 2bim/B 2H BKT+iQ /2 Hb KBbKb 2M H bQHm+BƦM v
H /2T2M/2M+B /2 ûbi ȹHiBK +QM HQb T`K2i`Qb /2H KQ/2HQX 1M H
b2++BƦM 9X9 b2 MHBxM Hb /B72`2M+Bb +QM 2H KQ/2HQ i`/B+BQMH /2 "QM@
/B >QvH2 URN99VX 1M H b2++BƦM 9X8 b2 `2HBxM 2biBK+BQM2b b2M+BHHb
bQ#`2 H HmKBMQbB// 2M `vQb s v b2 /Bb+mi2 bm +Q``2bTQM/2M+B +QM
Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2bX SQ` ȹHiBKQ- 2M H b2++BQM 9Xe b2 /Bb+mi2 H TQbB#BHB@
// /2 /2b+`B#B` H +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 mM AJ"> +QM mM ~mDQ /B#iB+Q-
KB2Mi`b [m2 2M H b2++BƦM 9Xd b2 `2bmK2M HQb `2bmHi/Qb v +QM+HmbBQM2b
T2ìBM2Mi2b 2bi2 +TőimHQX
9XRX 1+m+BQM2b #{bB+b /2H KQ/2HQ
*QM 2H }M /2 2Mi2M/2` 2H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM TQ` Tì2 /2 mM AJ">-

b2 2bim/B H /BMKB+ /2H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹKmHQ- #DQ H ++BƦM /2H +KTQ
;`pBi+BQMH /2H +ȹKmHQ v 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX 1H Q#D2iBpQ 2b 2biBK` H
ib /2 +`2+BƦM v +QKT``H +QM [m2HH [m2 `2bmHi /2H KQ/2HQ /2
"QM/B >QvH2 URN99VX
1H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹKmHQ 2b ;2M2`/Q TQ` H Tû`/B/ /2 Kb /2 Hb
ed
e3 9XRX 1+m+BQM2b #bB+b /2H KQ/2HQ
;B;Mi2b `QDb 2M 2H +ȹKmHQX amTQMB2M/Q [m2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 2bib

2bi`2HHb bB;m2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 Kb 2bi2H` /2H +ȹKmHQ v [m2 H ib
/2 Tû`/B/ /2 Kb T`QK2/BQ 2b H KBbK T` iQ/b Hb ;B;Mi2b `QDb-
H ib H +mH +`2+2 H /2MbB// /2H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹKmHQ /2#B/Q H
BMv2++BƦM /2 Ki2`B /2 2bib 2bi`2HHb Tm2/2 2b+`B#B`b2
ρ̇ = αρ∗ U9XRV
/QM/2 ρ∗ 2b H /2MbB// /2 Kb 2bi2H`X 1H iû`KBMQ /2 H /2`2+?

/2b+`B#2 H BMv2++BƦM /2 ;b TQ` Tì2 /2 Hb 2bi`2HHb mM ib 7`+@
+BQMH α T` H +mH b2 ? Q#i2MB/Q mM 2biBK+BƦM /2 10−14 Ĝ10−11 yr−1
TìB` iMiQ /2 i`#DQb i2Ʀ`B+Qb +QKQ Q#b2`p+BQMH2b US`B2biH2v 2i
HX- kyRR- a+Qii _Qb2- RNd8VX 1H +KTQ ;`pBi+BQMH /2H +ȹKmHQ v 2H
AJ"> 2b /2b+`BTiQ miBHBxM/Q 2H KQ/2HQ /2 JBQ++?B UkyydV T`2b2Mi/Q
2M 2H *TőimHQ kX
aB;mB2M/Q HQ T`QTm2biQ TQ` a+Qii _Qb2 URNd8V- bmTQM2KQb [m2 2H

K2/BQ BMi2`2bi2H` 2b mM ;b B/2HX 1bi ?BTƦi2bBb 2bi DmbiB}+/ Tm2b-
2H +KBMQ HB#`2 K2/BQ `2bmHi K2MQ` Hb 2b+Hb +`+i2`őbiB+b /2 2bi2
T`Q#H2K- λ ∼ 10−4 − 10−3 T+X /2Kb- 2H ~mDQ Tm2/2 b2` +QMbB/2`/Q
2bi+BQM`BQ v 2b7û`B+K2Mi2 bBKûi`B+QX G 2M2`;ûiB+ /2H K2/BQ BMi2`@
2bi2H` 2b TQ+Q +QMQ+B/- TQ` HQ [m2 2tTHQ``2KQb /Qb ?BTƦi2bBbX 1M
T`BK2` Hm;` b2 +QMbB/2` mM ~mDQ BbQiû`KB+QX ./Q [m2 Hb 2bi`2HHb 2t@
TmHbM ;b BMi`Q/m+B2M/Q 2M2`;ő 2M 2H ~mDQ- 2biQ 2[mBpH2 bmTQM2` mM
2M7`BKB2MiQ bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 2}+B2Mi2 +QKQ T` KMi2M2` H i2KT2`@
im` +QMbiMi2X SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- H }MH /2H +TőimHQ- b2 +QMbB/2` mM ~mDQ
+mbB@/B#iB+Q 2M /QM/2 H ȹMB+ 7m2Mi2 /2 2M2`;ő bQM Hb 2bi`2HHbX
"DQ H ?BTƦi2bBb /2 ~mB/Q BbQiû`KB+Q- Hb 2+m+BQM2b /2 +QMiBMmB// v
1mH2` /2b+`B#2M H /BMKB+ /2H ~mDQX G T`BK2`- `2bmHi
1 d
(ρr2 u) = αρ∗ , U9XkV
r2 dr
e3
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ eN
/QM/2 r 2b H +QQ`/2M/ `/BH v u v ρ bQM H p2HQ+B// v /2MbB// /2H

~mB/Q- `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X G 2+m+BƦM /2 1mH2` `2bmHi
du kB T dρ GM (r)ρ
ρu =− − − αuρ∗ , U9XjV
dr µ dr r2
/QM/2 G 2b H +QMbiMi2 /2 ;`pBi+BƦM mMBp2`bH- kB 2b H +QMbiMi2
/2 "QHixKMM- µ 2b H Kb KQH2+mH` K2/B /2H ;b- M (r) 2b H bmK
/2 H Kb 2bi2H` +QMi2MB/ 2M mM `/BQ r v MBH H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q
M2;`QX amTQM2KQb- /2Kb- [m2 2H Ki2`BH b2 BMv2+i +QM p2HQ+B//
MmH 2M 2H ~mDQ- Tm2b 2M T`QK2/BQ Hb p2HQ+B//2b 2bi2H`2b bQM MmHb v
HQb pB2MiQb /2 Hb 2bi`2HHb- bBKûi`B+QbX
1bib 2+m+BQM2b Tm2/2M bBKTHB}+`b2 BMi`Q/m+B2M/Q H p`B#H2 q̃ =

q/α- /QM/2 q = ρur2 2b 2H +m/H- `2bmHiM/Q
dq̃
= ρ∗ r 2 , U9X9V
dr
2c2s GM (r) (u2 + c2s )r2 ρ∗

! "
du u
= 2 − − , U9X8V
dr u − c2s r r2 q̃
/QM/2 cs = kB T µ−1 2b H p2HQ+B// /2H bQMB/Q 2M 2H K2/BQX _2bmHi
BKTQìMi2 /2bi+` [m2- +QM 2bi bBKTHB}++BƦM- Hb 2+m+BQM2b Tm2/2M
b2` `2bm2Hib BM/2T2M/B2Mi2K2Mi2 /2 αX aBM 2K#`;Q- 2bi2 pHQ` /2#2
b2` +QMQ+B/Q T` +H+mH` H /2MbB// v H ib /2 +`2+BƦMX
G 2+m+BƦM 9X9 Tm2/2 b2` BMi2;`/ /B`2+iK2Mi2- Q#i2MB2M/Q

r
M ∗ (r)
#
q̃ = ρ∗ r′2 dr′ + q̃0 = + q̃0 , U9XeV
0 4π
/QM/2 H +QMbiMi2 /2 BMi2;`+BƦM q̃0 `2bmHi T`QTQ`+BQMH H ib /2
+`2+BƦM /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX mM[m2 H BMi2;`+BƦM /2#B2` `2HBx`b2
/2b/2 2H `/BQ /2 a+?r`xb+?BH/- ûbi2 `2bmHi /2bT`2+B#H2 `2bT2+iQ /2
iQ/b Hb 2b+Hb 2M Mm2bi`Q KQ/2HQ- /2 KQ/Q [m2 2b T`QtBK/Q +2`QX
eN
dy 9XkX aQHm+BQM2b i`MbƦMB+b
S` HH2p` +#Q H BMi2;`+BƦM- b2 /2}M2M p`B#H2b /BK2MbBQMH2b

ξ = rr0−1 - ψ = uσ −1 Uv- 2M +QMb2+m2M+B- ψs = cs σ −1 V- ω = q̃(ρ0 r03 )−1 -
Ω∗ (ξ) = M ∗ (r)(4πρ0 r03 )−1 - ΩBH = MBH (4πρ0 r03 )−1 - v Ω(ξ) = Ω∗ (ξ) +
ΩBH - /QM/2 r0 2b 2H `/BQ /2 EBM;- ρ0 2b H /2MbB// +2Mi`H /2H +ȹKmHQ-
v σ 2 = 4πGρ0 r02 /9 2b 2H T`K2i`Q /2 /BbT2`bBƦM /2 p2HQ+B//2bX *QM
2bib /2}MB+BQM2b- Hb 2+m+BQM2b 9X8 v 9Xe Tm2/2M b2` `22b+`Bib +QKQ
ω = Ω∗ (ξ) + ω0 , U9XdV
2ψs2 dω (ψs2 + ψ 2 ) 9Ω(ξ)

! "
dψ ψ
= 2 − − . U9X3V
dξ ψ − ψs2 ξ dξ ω ξ2
1bib 2+m+BQM2b /2b+`B#2M H /BMKB+ /2H ~mB/QX Gb KBbKb- `2T`2@
b2MiM mM 2ti2MbBƦM /2 Hb 2tT`2bBQM2b /2 "QM/B >QvH2 URN99V H
+bQ 2M 2H [m2 b2 2M+m2Mi`M T`2b2Mi2b 7m2Mi2b /2 Ki2`B v mM +KTQ
;`pBi+BQMH /BbiBMiQ H /2H Q#D2iQ +`2iMi2 +iȹ bQ#`2 2H ~mB/QX 1H b2@
;mM/Q v i2`+2` iû`KBMQ 2Mi`2 +Q`+?2i2b 2M 2H H/Q /2`2+?Q /2 H 2+m+BƦM
9X3 v 2H T`BK2`Q /2H H/Q /2`2+?Q /2 H 2+m+BƦM 9Xd- `2T`2b2MiM iH2b
272+iQbX Gb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ v 2H KûiQ/Q /2 BMi2;`+BƦM bQM
/2b+`BTiQb 2M Hb bB;mB2Mi2b b2++BQM2bX
9XkX aQHm+BQM2b i`MbƠMB+b
*QM 2H }M /2 BMi2;`` H 2+m+BƦM 9X3 b2 /2#2M }D` +QM/B+BQM2b /2

+QMiQ`MQ TìB` /2 Hb +mH2b +QK2Mx` H BMi2;`+BƦMX 1M 2bi b2++BƦM
b2 /2iHHM Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ [m2 /M Hm;` +m`pb /2 p2HQ+B@
// i`MbƦMB+bX H B;mH [m2 2M 2H KQ/2HQ /2 "QM/B >QvH2 URN99V-
b2 bmTQM2 [m2 H T`2bBƦM 2M 2H BM}MBiQ 2b MmH- +QM HQ +mH- H2DQb /2H
;mD2`Q M2;`Q- H p2HQ+B// /2H ~mDQ /2#2 i2M2` /B`2++BƦM ?+B 7m2`
v [m2 MQ ?v 7m2Mi2b /2 Ki2`B 7m2` /2H +ȹKmHQX SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- 2M
2H ?Q`BxQMi2 /2 2p2MiQb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q H Ki2`B bQHQ Tm2/2 +2` v
[m2 MQ ?v mM ;`/B2Mi2 /2 T`2bBQM2b [m2 +QKT2Mb2 H i`++BƦM ;`pB@
dy
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ dR
i+BQMH /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX *QKQ +QMb2+m2M+B /B`2+i- 2tBbi2 mM `/BQ

/2 2biM+KB2MiQ ξst 2M 2H +mH u = 0X 1pHmM/Q H 2+m+BƦM 9Xd 2M
2bi2 `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ- b2 Q#iB2M2
Ω∗ (ξst ) = −ω0 , U9XNV
[m2 2bi#H2+2 [m2 iQ/ H Ki2`B 2v2+i/ TQ` Hb ;B;Mi2b `QDb m#B@
+/b /2Mi`Q /2 ξst 2b +`2i/ TQ` 2H AJ">X 1bi2 `2bmHi/Q 2b +QMb2@
+m2M+B /B`2+i /2 H ?BTƦi2bBb /2 ~mDQ 2bi+BQM`BQX
.2 2bi KM2`- 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ b2T` /Qb `2;BQM2b 2M

2H 2bT+BQ /2H +ȹKmHQ, mM xQM BMi2`BQ`- /QM/2 b2 /2b``QHH mM `û;@
BK2M /2 +`2+BƦM- v mM xQM 2ti2`BQ`- /QM/2 2tBbi2 mM bQHm+BƦM /2
pB2MiQX _2bmHi 7mM/K2MiH /2bi+` [m2- ?bi [mő- 2H `/BQ /2 2b@
iM+KB2MiQ MQ Tm2/2 b2` mMőpQ+K2Mi2 /2i2`KBM/Q, T` +/ mMQ /2
2HHQb 2tBbi2 mM bQHm+BƦM /2 Hb 2+m+BQM2b /BMKB+bX aBM 2K#`;Q- MQ
iQ/b 2HHb `2bmHiM 7őbB+K2Mi2 +2Ti#H2b v [m2 /2#2M biBb7+2`b2 Hb
+QM/B+BQM2b /2 _MFBM2@>m;QMBQi 2M ξst X úbib 2pHm/b 2M 2H `/BQ /2
2biM+KB2MiQ `2[mB2`2M [m2 Hb /2MbB//2b K#Qb H/Qb /2 ξst b2M
B;mH2bX
*QKQ 2M 2H +bQ /2H T`Q#H2K /2 "QM/B@>QvH2 U2X;X- 6`MF 2i HX-
kyykV- Tm2/2 p2`b2 /2 H 2+m+BƦM 9X3 [m2 2tBbi2M pHQ`2b bBM;mH`2b ξs
UHHK/Qb `/BQb bƦMB+QbV T` HQb +mH2b Q #B2M H p2HQ+B// B;mH H
p2HQ+B// /2H bQMB/Q 2M 2H K2/BQ Q #B2M H +2H2`+BƦM /2H ~mB/Q 2b MmHX
úbi2 2b 2H +bQ +mM/Q H 2tT`2bBƦM 2Mi`2 T`ûMi2bBb 2M H 2+m+BƦM 9X3
b2 MmH-
! "
1 1 dω 9Ω(ξ)
fb (ξ) = 2ψs2 − − = 0. U9XRyV
ξ ω dξ ξ2
SQ` Hb KBbKb `xQM2b 2tTm2bib 2M 2H MHBbBb /2H T`Q#H2K /2 "QM/B@
>QvH2- bQHQ Hb +m`pb i`MbƦMB+b bQM +QMbBbi2Mi2b +QM Hb +QM/B+BQM2b
/2 +QMiQ`MQ 2bi#H2+B/b H +QKB2MxQ /2 H b2++BƦMX 1M H };m` 9XkXR
dR
dk 9XkX aQHm+BQM2b i`MbƦMB+b
20
T = 9976 K
T = 12559 K
T = 15811 K
10
fs
-10
-20
0.1 1 10 100
r(r0)
6B;m` 9XkXR, 6mM+BƦM [m2 /2}M2 HQb `/BQb bƦMB+Qb 2M 2H +bQ BbQiû`KB+Q T`
2H +ȹKmHQ J R8 +QM i2KT2ìm`b T = 9976, 12559 v 15811 KX G Kb /2H
AJ"> 2b /2 Ryyy M⊙ X a2 +QMbB/2` 2M +/ +bQ 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ
+Q``2+iQ- b2;ȹM 2H +`Bi2`BQ 2tTHB+/Q 2M 2H i2tiQX
b2 Km2bi` 2H T2`}H /2 H 7mM+BƦM fb (ξ) [m2 b2 Q#iB2M2 bmTQMB2M/Q mM

AJ"> /2 Ryyy M⊙ 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQ J R8- T` i`2b pHQ`2b
/B72`2Mi2b /2 H i2KT2ìm`- T = 9976, 12559 v 15811 K R X S` Hb
i2KT2ìm`b Kb #Db- b2 2M+m2Mi`M j `/BQb T` HQb +mH2b b2 b@
iBb7+2 H +QM/B+BƦM fs (ξ) = 0X LQ Q#biMi2- bƦHQ /Qb /2 2HHQb Tm2/2M
b2` BMi2`T`2i/Qb +QKQ HQb `/BQb bƦMB+Qbc 2H T`BK2`Q v 2H ȹHiBKQX aB 2H
/2H K2/BQ 7m2b2 mM `/BQ bƦMB+Q- 2H ȹHiBKQ +Q``2bTQM/2`ő mM `/BQ
T` 2H +mH du/dr = 0 v H p2HQ+B// mK2i`ő- +QMi``BQ HQ `2[m2`B@
/Q 2M 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ ξst X 1M [m2HHQb +bQb [m2 Kb /2 mM
`/BQ bƦMB+Q 7m2b2 2M+QMi`/Q- b2 HH2pƦ +#Q H BMi2;`+BƦM T` K#QbX
./Q [m2 ξst MQ b2 +QMQ+2 T`BQ`B- 2H T`Q#H2K 7m2 `2bm2HiQ MmKû`B@
1bi 2H2++BƦM /2 i2KT2ìm`b +Q``2bTQM/2 mM 2b+H HQ;`őiKB+- HQ;T =

R
3,99, 4,09 v 4,19X
dk
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ dj
+K2Mi2 T` mM ;`BHH /2 pHQ`2b /2 ξst 2Mi`2 y v 2H `/BQ /2 K`2

/2H +ȹKmHQX S` +/ mMQ /2 2biQb pHQ`2b- b2 miBHBxƦ mM H;Q`BiKQ /2
#Bb2++BƦM T` 2M+QMi`` HQb `/BQb bƦMB+Qb 2M Hb `2;BQM2b BMi2`BQ` v
2ti2`BQ`X Gm2;Q- b2 BMi2;`Ʀ H 2+m+BƦM 9X3 U+QM mM H;Q`BiKQ /2 _mM;2@
Emii /2 Q`/2M 9V ?+B /2Mi`Q- +QK2MxM/Q /2b/2 2H `/BQ bƦMB+Q
2ti2`BQ` v- ?+B 7m2`- +QK2MxM/Q /2H `/BQ bƦMB+Q BMi2`BQ`X S`
+/ ξst b2 2pHmƦ H /B72`2M+B 2Mi`2 Hb /2MbB//2b +/ H/Q /2H
`/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ v- Hm2;Q- 7m2 BMi2`TQH/ +2`Q T` 2M+QMi``
2H p2`//2`Q `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQX lM p2x [m2 2bi2 pHQ` 7m2` 2M@
+QMi`/Q- b2 BMi2;``QM Hb 2+m+BQM2b 9Xd v 9X3 +QM 2H }M /2 Q#i2M2`
HQb T2`}H2b +QKTH2iQb /2 /2MbB// v p2HQ+B//X
9XkXRX 1tTHQ`+BƠM /2H 2bT+BQ /2 T`{K2i`Qb
Mi2b /2 `2HBx` mM 2bim/BQ bQ#`2 H iQiHB// /2 +ȹKmHQb :H+iB@

+Qb- b2 2bim/BM 9 /2 2HHQb- [m2 +m#`2M 2H `M;Q /2 +QM+2Mi`+BQM2b /2
HQb +ȹKmHQb /2 H oő G+i2 Up2` H h#H 9XkXRV, L:* dyd3 UJR8V-
GBHH2` R- L:* eeke UJk3V v L:* 8RjN Uω *2MVX */ +ȹKmHQ 2b +`+@
i2`Bx/Q TQ` bm pHQ` /2 H +QM+2Mi`+BQM cGC U/2}MB/ +QKQ 2H +Q+B2Mi2
2Mi`2 2H `/BQ /2 K`2 v r0 V- v /Qb /2 HQb i`2b T`K2i`Qb r0 - ρ0 - σX
1bi2 +QMDmMiQ /2 T`K2i`Qb DmMiQ H Kb /2H AJ"> bQM bm}+B2Mi2b
T` +QMbi`mB` 2H KQ/2HQ /2 JBQ++?B UkyydV T` H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 Kb
2bi2H` M (r)X G +QM+2Mi`+BƦM v H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q /2}M2M 2H
T2`}H /2 M (r) KB2Mi`b [m2 HQb Qi`Qb T`K2i`Qb bQHQ }DM H 2b+H
/2H T`Q#H2KX .2 2bi KM2`- //Q 2H +ȹKmHQ bQHQ /Qb T`K2i`Qb `2@
bmHiM HB#`2b, H i2KT2ìm` /BK2MbBQMH UQ H p2HQ+B// /2H bQMB/Q
cs /σV v H Kb /2H AJ">- ΩBH X S` +/ mMQ /2 2biQb +ȹKmHQb b2 /2@
b``QHHM KQ/2HQb /2 +`2+BƦM T` /BbiBMiQb pHQ`2b /2 HQb T`K2i`Qb
HB#`2bX mM[m2 L:* dyd3 v GBHH2` R TQb22M 2H KBbKQ pHQ` /2 H +QM@
+2Mi`+BƦM- /B}2`2M 2M HQb T`K2i`Qb /2 2b+H- HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 2bim/B`
/BbiBMiQb `M;Qb /2 HQb T`K2i`Qb HB#`2b /BK2MbBQMH2bX G i2KT2`@
dj
d9 9XkX aQHm+BQM2b i`MbƦMB+b
*ȹKmHQ σ r0 ρ0 cGC
Ukm s−1 V UpcV UM⊙ pc−3 V
L:* dyd3 UJ R8V RyX3 yX9k RXRk×105 kXkN
GBHH2` R 8Xy8 yXR8 RXNy×105 kXj
L:* 8RjN Uω *2MV RyXk jX83 RX9R×103 RXjR
L:* eeke UJ k3V dX3 yXj3 dXk9×104 RXed
*m/`Q 9XkXR, S`K2i`Qb /2 HQb 9 +ȹKmHQb /2 2D2KTHQ iQK/Qb /2 >`@

`Bb URNNeVX G /2MbB// +2Mi`H 7m2 2biBK/ bmTQMB2M/Q mM `2H+BƦM
KbĜHmKBMQbB// M/M⊙ ∼ L/L⊙ X
im` /2H ;b +m#`2 2H `M;Q 2bT2`/Q 5000 − 15000 K UEMTT- RNNe-
S`B2biH2v 2i HX- kyRR- a+Qii _Qb2- RNd8VX SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- H Kb /2H
;mD2`Q M2;`Q +m#`2 2H `M;Q 102 Ĝ104 M⊙ X Jbb KvQ`2b +K#B`őM H
/BMKB+ 2bi2H` v H 2bi`m+im` /2H +ȹKmHQ KB2Mi`b [m2 T` Kbb
K2MQ`2b H ?BTƦi2bBb [m2 2bi#H2+2 [m2 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M
`2TQbQ b2`ő BMpHB/X
1M Hb 6B;m`b 9XkXk v 9XkXj b2 Km2bi` 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ ξst v

H ib /2 +`2+BƦM U/BK2MbBQMHV Ω∗ (ξst ) +QKQ 7mM+BƦM /2 HQb T`K2i@
`Qb HB#`2b cs /σ M/ ΩBH - `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X oH2 H T2M `2bHi` [m2 H
ib /2 +`2+BƦM Ṁ Tm2/2 b2` `2+mT2`/ +QKQ Ṁ = αΩ∗ (ξst )ρ0 r03 - bB b2
miBHBx mM pHQ` /2+m/Q T` αX Sm2/2 Q#b2`p`b2 /2H TM2H Bx[mB2`@
/Q /2 H 6B;m` 9XkXk [m2 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ /2+`2+2 +QM cs /σX
1biQ Tm2/2 2Mi2M/2`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H 2M2`;ûiB+ /2H ;b, T` i2K@
T2ìm`b Kb Hib 2H ;b iB2M2 Kb 2M2`;ő v Tm2/2 2b+T` /2 H
`2;BƦM +2Mi`H /2H +ȹKmHQ /QM/2 2H TQxQ /2 TQi2M+BH 2b Kb T`Q7mM/Q-
+QMbB;mB2M/Q [m2 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ b2 Km2p ?+B /2Mi`QX
1biQ `2bmHi 2M mM ib /2 +`2+BƦM K2MQ` UTM2H BM72`BQ` /2 H KBb@
K };m`VX Pi`Q `2bmHi/Q BMi2`2bMi2 2b [m2 H ib /2 /2+`2+BKB2MiQ
/2 H +m`p /2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ b2 +2Miȹ 2M rst ∼ r0 - /QM/2
cs /σ ∼ 1X 1H `TB/Q +`2+BKB2MiQ /2 H Kb 2bi2H` /2H +ȹKmHQ K2@
d9
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ d8
/B/ [m2 b2 H+Mx 2H +2Mi`Q T`QpQ+ 2bi2 +K#BQ #`mTiQ 2M H ib

/2 +`2+BƦMX .B+?Q +K#BQ bm;B2`2 H 2tBbi2M+B /2 /Qb `2;őK2M2b /2
+`2+BƦM US2T2 S2HHBxx- kyRjV, T` i2KT2ìm`b Hib Ucs /σ ! 1V-
2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M H `2;BƦM +2Mi`H /2H +ȹKmHQ
Urst % r0 V HQ +mH `2bmHi 2M mM ib /2 +`2+BƦM #D Uh"V- KB2M@
i`b [m2 T` i2KT2ìm`b #Db Ucs /σ < 1V 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ
b2 2M+m2Mi` H2D/Q /2H +2Mi`Q Urst ≫ r0 V `2bmHiM/Q 2M mM ib /2
+`2+BƦM Hi UhVX 1Mi`2 K#Qb `2;őK2M2b b2 Q#b2`p mM /B72`2M+B
/2 ∼k Ʀ`/2M2b /2 K;MBim/ 2M 2H pHQ` /2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦMX .2 H
6B;m` 9XkXk Tm2/2 Q#b2`p`b2 /2Kb- [m2 T` mM pHQ` }DQ /2 cs /σ 2H
`/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ v- 2M +QMb2+m2M+B- H ib /2 +`2+BƦM +`2+2M
+QM H +QM+2Mi`+BƦM /2H +ȹKmHQ US2T2 S2HHBxx- kyRjVX
G 6B;m` 9XkXj Km2bi` H /2T2M/2M+B /2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ v

H ib /2 +`2+BƦM +QM H Kb /BK2MbBQMH /2H AJ"> T` mM i2KT2@
ìm` /BK2MbBQMH }DX a2 2tTHQ``QM T` 2bi2 ȹHiBKQ T`K2i`Q /Qb
pHQ`2b /BbiBMiQb- +/ mMQ +Q``2bTQM/B2M/Q HQb /BbiBMiQb `2;őK2M2b
T`2b2Mi/Qb Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2 Uh" v hVX Sm2/2 Q#b2`p`b2 [m2 iMiQ
2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ +QKQ H ib /2 +`2+BƦM `2bmHiM T`+iB@
+K2Mi2 BM/2T2M/B2Mi2b /2 ΩBH 2M 2H `û;BK2M h US2T2 S2HHBxx-
kyRjVX 1biQ Q+m``2 TQ`[m2 H2DQb /2H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQ- 2H AJ"> MQ 72+@
i H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2bi2H` /2H +ȹKmHQ Up2` 6B;m` kXRXjV v H /2MbB// /2
2bi`2HHb +`2+2 Kmv H2MiK2Mi2X *QMi``BK2Mi2- 2M 2H `û;BK2M h" b2
Q#b2`p mM 7m2ì2 /2T2M/2M+B +QM H Kb /2H AJ"> US2T2 S2HHBx@
x- kyRjV /2#B/Q [m2 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ b2 2M+m2Mi` +2`+ /2
H 2b72` /2 BM~m2M+B /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q /QM/2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2bi2H`
b2 2M+m2Mi` /QKBM/ TQ` 2H AJ">X hK#BûM Tm2/2 MQi`b2 [m2 2M
2bi2 `û;BK2M- H ib /2 +`2+BƦM p`ő iK#BûM +QM H +QM+2Mi`+BƦM /2H
+ȹKmHQ- /2+`2+B2M/Q K2/B/ [m2 H ȹHiBK +`2+2X
d8
de 9XkX aQHm+BQM2b i`MbƦMB+b
100
M 15
Liller 1
" Cen
M 28
10
r st (r0)
0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2
cs /!
100
M 15
Liller 1
$ Cen
M 28
10
"#(r st)
0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2
cs / !
6B;m` 9XkXk, _/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ UTM2H bmT2`BQ`V v ib /2 +`2+BƦM

UTM2H BM72`BQ`V +QKQ 7mM+BƦM /2 H i2KT2ìm` /2H ;b T` /B72`2Mi2b +ȹ@
KmHQb U+m/`/Qb T` J R8- i`BM;mHQb T` GBHH2` R- +`m+2b T` ω *2M v
2bi`2HHb T` J k3VX G Kb /BK2MbBQMH /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q ΩBH 2b ∼yXyyd
2M iQ/Qb HQb +bQbX a2 Q#b2`p mM T2`}H /2+`2+B2Mi2 v Hb +m`pb b2 m#B+M 2M
2H ;`}+Q 2M Q`/2M +`2+B2Mi2 /2H pHQ` /2 H +QM+2Mi`+BƦMX
de
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ dd
100
10
r st(r0)
M 15
Liller 1
1 " Cen
M 28
✦BH
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
100
10
!"(r st)
M 15
Liller 1
0.1 # Cen
M 28
0.01
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
!BH
6B;m` 9XkXj, _/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ UTM2H bmT2`BQ`V v ib /2 +`2+BƦM

UTM2H BM72`BQ`V +QKQ 7mM+BƦM /2 H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q T` /B72`2Mi2b +ȹ@
KmHQb U+m/`/Qb T` J R8- i`BM;mHQb T` GBHH2` R- +`m+2b T` ω *2M v 2b@
i`2HHb T` J k3VX G i2KT2ìm` /BK2MbBQMH /2H ;b c2s /σ 2 2b ∼yXj9 T`
HQb +ȹKmHQb 2M 2H `û;BK2M h U+QMDmMiQ /2 +m`pb bmT2`BQ`VX S` [m2HHQb
2M 2H `û;BK2M h" U+QMDmMiQ /2 +m`pb BM72`BQ`V H i2KT2ìm` /BK2MbBQMH
2b ∼ 1- 2t+2TiQ T` GBHH2` R T` 2H +mH 2b ∼ 3X Gb +m`pb b2 m#B+M 2M 2H
;`}+Q 2M Q`/2M +`2+B2Mi2 /2H pHQ` /2 H +QM+2Mi`+BƦMX Sm2/2 Q#b2`p`b2 [m2
H /2T2M/2M+B /2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM +QM H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q Tm2/2 b2`
/2bT`2+B/ +QKT`/ +QM H /2T2M/2M+B +QM H i2KT2ìm` /2H ;b 2M 2H
hX
dd
d3 9XkX aQHm+BQM2b i`MbƦMB+b
10000
M 15
Liller 1
! Cen
M 28
1000
rst/racc
100
10
1
100 1000 10000
MBH
6B;m` 9XkX9, *Q+B2Mi2 2Mi`2 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ v 2H `/BQ /2 +`2+BƦM

i`/B+BQMH 2M 7mM+BƦM /2 H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q M"> X 1M 2H `û;BK2M h"-
2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ b2 +QKTQì +QKQ 2H `/BQ /2 +`2+BƦM- TQ` HQ [m2
H ib /2 +`2+BƦM 2b+H +QM M"> B;mH [m2 2M 2H KQ/2HQ /2 "QM/B >QvH2
URN99VX aBM 2K#`;Q- T` mM +B2ìQ pHQ` /2 M"> - H ib 2b RyĜRyy p2+2b
KvQ`X
1M H 6B;m` 9XkX9 b2 Km2bi` 2H +Q+B2Mi2 2Mi`2 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2M@

iQ v 2H `/BQ /2 +`2+BƦM /2}MB/Q +QKQ racc = GMBH /c2s 2M 7mM+BƦM /2
H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q M"> X Sm2/2 Q#b2`p`b2 [m2 2M 2H `û;BK2M
h 2H +Q+B2Mi2 rst /racc /2+`2+2 T` MBH +`2+B2Mi2- //Q [m2 2H `/BQ
/2 2biM+KB2MiQ 2b BM/2T2M/B2Mi2 /2 H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX 1M 2H
`û;BK2M h"- 2bi2 +Q+B2Mi2 `2bmHi T`QtBK/K2Mi2 +QMbiMi2- HQ [m2
BKTHB+ [m2 Ṁ 2b+H +QKQ ∼ MBH 2
- B;mH [m2 2M 2H KQ/2HQ i`/B+BQMH
/2 "QM/B >QvH2 URN99VX aBM 2K#`;Q- 2H +Q+B2Mi2 `2bmHi RĜk Ʀ`/2M2b
/2 K;MBim/ KvQ` [m2 H mMB//- bB2M/Q 2MiQM+2b H ib /2 +`2+BƦM
Km+?Q KvQ` 2M 2bi2 KQ/2HQ [m2 2M 2H +bQ /2 "QM/B >QvH2 URN99V
US2T2 S2HHBxx- kyRjVX
d3
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ dN
9XkXkX 1tTHQ`+BƠM /2H 2bT+BQ /2 T`{K2i`Qb 2bi`m+im`H2b

/2 HQb +ȳKmHQb /2 H oŌ G{+i2
1M H b2++BƦM Mi2`BQ` b2 KQbi`Ʀ [m2 2M H;mMQb +bQb 2tBbi2 mM /2@

T2M/2M+B /2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM +QM Hb T`QTB2//2b /2H +ȹKmHQX [mő
b2 2tTHQ`` 2bi /2T2M/2M+B THB+M/Q 2H KQ/2HQ /2iHH/Q 2M H b2+@
+BƦM 9Xk iQ/Qb HQb +ȹKmHQb /2 H oő G+i2 +QM T`K2i`Qb #B2M
/2i2`KBM/Qb UHBbi/Qb 2M 2H +iHQ;Q /2 >``Bb- RNNeV T` +QMbi`mB`
KQ/2HQb /2H ~mDQ T` /BbiBMib i2KT2ìm`b v Kbb /2H ;mD2`Q M2@
;`QX 1b M2+2b`BQ /2bi+` [m2 HQb `2bmHi/Qb Q#i2MB/Qb 2M H b2++BƦM 9Xk
b2 2tiB2M/2M iQ/Qb HQb +ȹKmHQb 2M 2H +iHQ;Q v [m2 2H KBbKQ `xQ@
MKB2MiQ Tm2/2 THB+`b2 iQ/Qb 2HHQbX S` +/ +ȹKmHQ b2 2biBKƦ H
ib /2 +`2+BƦM mbM/Q 2H KBbKQ pHQ` /2 α [m2 2M H b2++BƦM Mi2`BQ`
Uα = 10−11 yr−1 VX 1M H;mMQb +bQb- HQb KQ/2HQb /2#B2`QM b2` /2b+`@
i/Qb /2#B/Q [m2 H Kb /2H AJ"> 2` /2H Q`/2M /2 H Kb /2H
+ȹKmHQ- KB2Mi`b [m2 2M Qi`Qb- MQ b2 2M+QMi`Ʀ mM `/BQ /2 2bi+KB2M@
iQ T` Hb i2KT2ìm`b Kb Hib U2H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹKmHQ 2b+T 2M bm
iQiHB// +QKQ mM pB2MiQVX
a2 #mb+`QM +Q``2H+BQM2b 2Mi`2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM v Hb T`QTB2//2b

/2H +ȹKmHQ- +`+i2`Bx/Q TQ` bmb T`K2i`Qb /2 2b+H v bm KbX LQ
b2 Q#b2`pƦ MBM;mM i2M/2M+B T` H ib /2 +`2+BƦM Ṁ +QM r0 Q ρ0 -
T2`Q bő +QM H Kb /2H +ȹKmHQ MGC v H p2HQ+B// /2 /BbT2`bBƦM σX a2
Km2bi` 2M H 6B;m` 9XkX8 H /2T2M/2M+B 2Mi`2 Ṁ v σ T` mM pHQ`
+QMb2`p/Q` /2 H Kb /2H AJ">- MBH = 1000M⊙ v i`2b i2KT2ìm`b
/BbiBMib- T = 5000, 10000, 12600 K UTM2H bmT2`BQ`V v- TQ` Qi`Q H/Q-
T` mM i2KT2ìm` }D T = 5000K v /B72`2Mi2b pHQ`2b /2 H Kb
/2H AJ">- MBH = 1000, 4000, 10000M⊙ UTM2H BM72`BQ`VX G i2M/2M+B
Q#b2`p/ 2M 2H TM2H bmT2`BQ` /2 H 6B;m` 9XkX8 Tm2/2 b2` 2tTHB+/ 2M
iû`KBMQb /2 HQb `2bmHi/Qb Q#i2MB/Qb 2M H b2++BƦM T`2pBX S` mM pHQ`
}DQ /2 T - mM mK2MiQ 2M σ BKTHB+ mM /BbKBMm+BƦM 2M cs /σ- +K#BM@
dN
3y 9XkX aQHm+BQM2b i`MbƦMB+b
/Q H ~mDQ /2 mM `û;BK2M h" mMQ h 2M Hb +m`pb /2}MB/b 2M

H 6B;m` 9XkXkX 1biQ 2tTHB+- bBKBbKQ- TQ` [mû HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
+QM pHQ`2b Kb HiQb /2 σ bQM Kb T`QT2MbQb b2` 2M+QMi`/Qb 2M mM
`û;BK2M hX G /BbT2`bBƦM Q#b2`p/ 2M 2bi +Q``2H+BƦM b2 /2#2 2M
Tì2 Hb /B72`2Mi2b +QM+2Mi`+BQM2b /2 HQb +ȹKmHQb v- TQ` Qi` Tì2-
H T`K2i`Q /2 2b+H /2 Ṁ Uρ0 r03 V [m2 2b /B72`2Mi2 T` +/ +ȹKm@
HQX 1M 2H TM2H BM72`BQ` /2 H KBbK };m`- Tm2/2 Q#b2`p`b2 [m2 2bi2
`2bmHi/Q MQ /2T2M/2 /2 H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q US2T2 S2HHBxx-
kyRjVX
lM i2M/2M+B /2 +`2+BKB2MiQ 2M H ib /2 +`2+BƦM +QM H Kb /2H

+ȹKmHQ Tm2/2 p2`b2- /2Kb- 2M H 6B;m` 9XkXe T` ibb /2 +`2+BƦM
Hi US2T2 S2HHBxx- kyRjVX G 2tTHB++BƦM /2 2bi2 `2bmHi/Q b2 #b
2M 2H ?2+?Q [m2 2biQb +ȹKmHQb 2biM +`2iM/Q 2M 2H `û;BK2M h- 2M
2H +mH 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M Hb xQMb 2ti2`Mb /2H
+ȹKmHQ v- 2M +QMb2+m2M+B- 2M+B2`` H KvQ` Tì2 /2 H Kb 2bi2H`
/2H +ȹKmHQX ./Q [m2 Ṁ 2b T`QTQ`+BQMH H Kb 2bi2H` +QMi2MB/
2M rst - bm`;2 H +Q``2H+BƦM +QM MGC X 1M Qi`b TH#`b- H KvQ` Tì2
/2 H Kb 2v2+i/ TQ` Hb 2bi`2HHb 2b +`2i/ TQ` 2H AJ">X 1M
+ȹKmHQb Kb KbBpQb ?v Kb Kb T` b2` +`2i/- HQ [m2 2tTHB+
H +Q``2H+BƦM +QM MGC 2M 2H `û;BK2M hX a2 Tm2/2 Q#b2`p` [m2 2bi
i2M/2M+B 2b BM/2T2M/B2Mi2 /2 H i2KT2ìm` v H Kb /2H AJ"> v
[m2 MQ T`2b2Mi H KBbK /BbT2`bBƦM [m2 2M 2H +bQ /2 H 6B; 9XkX8, Ṁ v
MGC bQM 2b+H/Qb +QM H KBbK +QK#BM+BƦM /2 T`K2i`Qb /2H +ȹKmHQ
Uρ0 r03 V- `2/m+B2M/Q bő H /BbT2`bBƦM Q#b2`p/ 2M [m2H +bQX S` HQb
+ȹKmHQb 2M 2H `û;BK2M h" MQ b2 Q#b2`p mM i2M/2M+B +H`- v [m2
2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M H xQM BMi2`M /2H +ȹKmHQ
v /2b+QTH H ib /2 +`2+BƦM /2 H Kb /2H +ȹKmHQX .2 +m2`/Q
HQb `2bmHi/Qb /2 2bi b2++BƦM- HQb +ȹKmHQb +QM pHQ`2b Kb HiQb /2 σ
3y
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ 3R
1e-05
Accretion rate (MSun yr )
-1
NGC 6388
1e-06
Liller 1
M 28
" Cen
M 15
1e-07
T = 5000 K
T = 10000 K
1e-08 T = 12600 K
10000
!(m/s)
1e-05
Accretion rate (MSun yr-1)
Liller 1
NGC 6388
M 15
" Cen
1e-06
M 28
1e-07
M = 1000 MSun
M = 4000 M Sun
M = 10000 MSun
1e-08
10000
! (m/s)
6B;m` 9XkX8, hb /2 +`2+BƦM +QKQ 7mM+BƦM /2 H /BbT2`bBƦM /2 p2HQ+B//2b

/2H +ȹKmHQ UσV T` i`2b i2KT2ìm`b /BbiBMib U``B#V, 8yyyE Ui`BM;mHQbV-
RyyyyE U+`m+2bV v Rkjyy E U+m/`/QbVX hb /2 +`2+BƦM +QKQ 7mM+BƦM /2 H
/BbT2`bBƦM /2 p2HQ+B//2b /2H +ȹKmHQ T` i`2b Kbb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q /BbiBM@
ib U#DQV, RyyyM⊙ Ui`BM;mHQbV- 9yyyM⊙ U+`m+2bV v RyyyyM⊙ U+m/`/QbVX
1H pHQ` /2 Ṁ 2b T`+iB+K2Mi2 +QMbiMi2 T` [m2HHQb +ȹKmHQb +QM #DQ σX
GQb +ȹKmHQb m#B+/Qb H /2`2+? /2H ;`}+Q bQM HQb [m2 b2 2M+m2Mi`M 2M 2H
`û;BK2M hX Gb HőM2b TmMi2/b BM/B+M HQb pHQ`2b /2 σ +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b
HQb +ȹKmHQb 2bim/B/Qb 2M H b2++BƦM 9Xk v 2H +bQ TìB+mH` /2 L:* ej33
/Bb+miB/Q 2M 2H i2tiQX
3R
3k 9XkX aQHm+BQM2b i`MbƦMB+b
T = 5000 K
T = 10000
1e-05 T = 12300 K
Accretion rate (MSunyr )
Liller 1
-1
! Cen
NGC 6388
1e-06
M 15
M 28
1e-07
1e-08
0 5e+05 1e+06 1.5e+06

MGC(MSun)
M = 1000 MSun
1e-05 M = 4000 MSun
M = 10000 MSun
-1
M 15
! Cen
1e-06
Liller 1
NGC 6388
M 28
1e-07
1e-08
0 5e+05 1e+06 1.5e+06

MGC(MSun)
6B;m` 9XkXe, hb /2 +`2+BƦM +QKQ 7mM+BƦM /2 H Kb /2H +ȹKmHQ T` i`2b
i2KT2ìm`b /BbiBMib U``B#V, 8yyyE Ui`BM;mHQbV- RyyyyE U+`m+2bV v Rkjyy
E U+m/`/QbVX hb /2 +`2+BƦM +QKQ 7mM+BƦM /2 H Kb /2H +ȹKmHQ T`
i`2b Kbb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q /BbiBMib U#DQV, RyyyM⊙ Ui`BM;mHQbV- 9yyyM⊙
U+`m+2bV v RyyyyM⊙ U+m/`/QbVX Sm2/2 Q#b2`p`b2 mM bmp2 i2M/2M+B 2Mi`2
H ib /2 +`2+BƦM v H Kb /2H +ȹKmHQX Gb HőM2b TmMi2/b BM/B+M HQb
pHQ`2b /2 MGC +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b HQb +ȹKmHQb /2 H b2++BƦM 9Xk v 2H +bQ
TìB+mH` /2 L:* ej33 /Bb+miB/Q 2M 2H i2tiQX
3k
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ 3j
v MGC bQM Kb T`Q##H2b /2 b2` 2M+QMi`/Qb 2M mM `û;BK2M h v

bQM- TQ` iMiQ- HQb K2DQ`2b +M/B/iQb T` `2HBx` /2i2++BQM2b /2 H
+`2+BƦM bQ#`2 mM AJ">X
9XkXjX S2`7BH2b /2 p2HQ+B// v /2MbB//
lM p2x /2i2`KBM/Q 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ [m2 biBb7+2 Hb

+QM/B+BQM2b /2 _MFBM2@>m;QMBQi 2b TQbB#H2 Q#i2M2` H bQHm+BƦM +QK@
TH2i- 2b /2+B`- Hb +m`pb /2 p2HQ+B// v /2MbB// T` 2H ~mDQX u [m2
T`2pBK2Mi2 b2 MHBxƦ 2M /2iHH2 2H +QKTQìKB2MiQ /2H `/BQ /2 2b@
iM+KB2MiQk +QM HQb /BbiBMiQb T`K2i`Qb- [mő bQHQ b2 Km2bi`M Hb
+m`pb /2 p2HQ+B// v /2MbB// T` mM +ȹKmHQ UJ R8V v /BbiBMiQb p@
HQ`2b /2 H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q- bB2M/Q ûbi2- 2M ȹHiBK BMbiM+B- 2H
T`K2i`Q /2H KQ/2HQ [m2 b2 /2b2 2biBK`X
1M H };m` 9XkXd b2 Km2bi`M HQb T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB// v p2HQ+B@

// T` /BbiBMiQb pHQ`2b /2 H Kb /2H AJ">- 398 M⊙ - 1000 M⊙
v 3981 M⊙ X /2Kb- b2 ;`2;M Hb +m`pb /2 /2MbB// v p2HQ+B// [m2
b2 Q#iB2M2M /2H KQ/2HQ bBM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q UM"> 4 yVX 1M iQ/Qb HQb +bQb
H i2KT2ìm` /2H ;b 2b /2 9976 KX Sm2/2 Q#b2`p`b2 [m2 Hb +m`pb
/2 p2HQ+B// T`2b2MiM iQ/b mM T2`}H /2 pB2MiQ 2M H `2;BƦM 2ti2`M
rest - BX2X- +m`pb [m2- Hm2;Q /2 Tb` TQ` 2bi2 `/BQ- +`2+2M BM/2}MB/@
K2Mi2 /2#B/Q H 7Hi /2 mM K2/BQ 2ti2`MQ [m2 +QMi2M; H ;b /2H
+ȹKmHQX 1M H `2;BƦM BMi2`M- b2 2M+m2Mi`M HQb pHQ`2b M2;iBpQb /2 H
p2HQ+B//- +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b mM ~mDQ /2 +`2+BƦMX G 2tBbi2M+B /2 2bi2
T2`}H +QK#BM/Q /2 +`2+BƦMfpB2MiQ 2b mM /2 Hb T`BM+BTH2b /B72`2M@
+Bb +QM 2H KQ/2HQ /2 "QM/B >QvH2 URN99VX /2Kb- 2M 2bi `2;BƦM Hb
/BbiBMib +m`pb /2H KQ/2HQ T`2b2Mi/Q [mő Tm2/2M /B72`2M+B`b2 2Mi`2
bő /2#B/Q H /2T2M/2M+B +QM H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q, K2/B/
[m2 ûbi +`2+2- 2H ;b +2 Kb `TB/K2Mi2 bQ#`2 2H AJ">X 1bi2 ?2+?Q
k
u- 2M +QMb2+m2M+B- /2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦMX
3j
39 9XkX aQHm+BQM2b i`MbƦMB+b
10000
M=0
M = 398 MSol
M = 1000 MSol
M = 3981 MSol
100
!
0.01
0.0001
0.01 1 100
r (r0)
0
u (!)
M=0
M = 398 MSol
M = 1000 MSol
M = 3981 MSol
-5
0 50 100
r (r0)
6B;m` 9XkXd, S2`}H2b /2 /2MbB// v p2HQ+B// /2 J R8X 1M iQ/Qb HQb +bQb H

i2KT2ìm` /2H ;b 2b NNde EX 1H T2`}H /2 /2MbB// +K#B +mHBiiBpK2Mi2
`2bT2+iQ /2H KQ/2HQ bBM AJ">, b2 Q#b2`p mM T2`}H +QM T2M/B2Mi2 2M 2H +2Mi`Q
/2H +ȹKmHQX 1M H `2;BƦM BMi2`BQ` rest b2 Q#b2`p +B2ì /2T2M/2M+B /2H T2`}H
/2 p2HQ+B// +QM H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX
39
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ 38
+QMbiBimv2- T2b` /2 Hb HBKBi+BQM2b iû+MB+b +imH2b- mM Q#b2`p#H2

/2 H T`2b2M+B /2 mM AJ">X GQb T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB//- 2M +K#BQ- MQ
T`2b2MiM +K#BQb bB;MB}+iBpQb H p`B` H Kb 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX LQ
Q#biMi2- b2 Q#b2`p mM +K#BQ +mHBiiBpQ `2bT2+iQ /2H T2`}H [m2 b2 Q#@
iB2M2 +QM 2H KQ/2HQ bBM AJ">, KB2Mi`b [m2 ûbi2 ȹHiBKQ +QMHH2p mM
T2`}H THMQ /2 /2MbB// 2M 2H +2Mi`Q- Hb bQHm+BQM2b H KQ/2HQ [mő T`2@
b2Mi/Q Km2bi`M mM +`2+BKB2MiQ bQbi2MB/Q ?+B 2H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQX
.2 2bi KM2`- iMiQ HQb T2`}H2b /2 p2HQ+B// +QKQ /2 /2MbB// T`2@
b2MiM `b;Qb +`+i2`őbiB+Qb /2 H T`2b2M+B /2H AJ"> 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2H
+ȹKmHQX bő- 2bi2 KQ/2HQ #`BM/ mM K`+Q i2Ʀ`B+Q T` THMB}++BƦM /2
Q#b2`p+BQM2b 7mim`b i2M/B2Mi2b /2i2+i` AJ">b i`pûb /2H 2bim/BQ
/2 H +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 HQb KBbKQbX
9XjX aQHm+BQM2b /2 #`Bbb
1M H b2++BƦM 9Xk b2 /Bb+miBƦ bQ#`2 Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ [m2

/M Hm;` bQHm+BQM2b i`MbƦMB+bX Gb KBbKb `2[mB2`2M [m2 2H +ȹKmHQ
b2 2M+m2Mi`2 `Q/2/Q /2 mM K2/BQ +QM T`2bBƦM MmHX aBM 2K#`;Q- H
T`2bBƦM T`2/B+? TQ` HQb KQ/2HQb 2M 2H `/BQ /2 K`2 /2H +ȹKmHQ 2b /2H
KBbKQ Q`/2M /2 K;MBim/ [m2 H T`2bBƦM iőTB+ /2H K2/BQ BMi2`2bi2H`
/2 H :HtBX SQ` 2bi `xƦM- 2M 2bi b2++BƦM b2 2bim/B H +QM/B+BƦM /2
+QMiQ`MQ [m2 / Hm;` Hb bQHm+BQM2b /2 #`Bbb 2M H `2;BƦM 2ti2`BQ`
rest X 1M 2bi2 2b+2M`BQ- b2 2bi#H2+2 [m2 H T`2bBƦM 2ti2`BQ` H K2/BQ BM@
i2`2bi2H` /2H +ȹKmHQ 2b /BbiBMi /2 +2`Q- /2 KQ/Q [m2 BKTB/2 2H 2b+T2
/2 ;b 2M 7Q`K /2 pB2MiQ- bB2M/Q ûbi2 7`2M/Q H 2b+T` /2H KBbKQX
1M TìB+mH`- H T`2bBƦM /2H K2/BQ 2ti2`BQ` /2#2 2[mBHB#`` H T`2bBƦM
/2 H #`Bb H2DQb /2H +ȹKmHQX
1tBbi2M /Qb TQbB#H2b 2b+2M`BQb [m2 bm`;2M H T2/B` [m2 fs (ξ) = 0,

Q #B2M H p2HQ+B// H+Mx H p2HQ+B// /2H bQMB/Q Q #B2M bm /2`Bp/
b2 MmH v ξ 2b mM 2ti`2KQ HQ+HX Gb bQHm+BQM2b /2 #`Bbb bm`;2M /2
38
3e 9XjX aQHm+BQM2b /2 #`Bbb
H ȹHiBK TQbB#BHB//X 1M 2bi2 2b+2M`BQ- 2H KûiQ/Q /2 BMi2;`+BƦM 2b

HB;2`K2Mi2 /B72`2Mi2 H T`QTm2biQ T` Hb bQHm+BQM2b i`MbƦMB+bX 1M
H `2;BƦM BMi2`M rest b2 #mb+ 2H `/BQ bƦMB+Q- B;mH [m2 2M 2H +bQ
i`MbƦMB+Q- v b2 BMi2;`M H p2HQ+B// v H /2MbB// /2b/2 2b2 pHQ`
?+B 7m2` ?bi H+Mx` 2H `/BQ /2 K`2 rt X .2 2bi KM2`- b2
Q#iB2M2 T` +/ `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ +QM `/BQb bƦMB+Qb BMi2`MQb-
+m`pb /2 p2HQ+B// v /2MbB// 2M 7mM+BƦM /2H `/BQX TìB` /2H pHQ`
/2 H /2MbB// 2M 2H `/BQ /2 K`2 /2H +ȹKmHQ- b2 2biBK 2MiQM+2b 2H
pHQ` /2 H T`2bBƦM b2;ȹM
Pt = ρ(rt )c2s . U9XRRV
bő- T` +/ `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ rest b2 Q#iB2M2 2H +Q``2bTQM/B@

2Mi2 pHQ` /2 H T`2bBƦM 2M 2H `/BQ /2 K`2 /2H +ȹKmHQ [m2 b2` Hm2;Q
+QKT`/Q +QM 2H pHQ` 2M 2H 2ti2`BQ` /2H +ȹKmHQj X G 2biBK+BƦM /2
ûbi2 ȹHiBKQ b2 Q#iB2M2 TìB` /2 mM KQ/2HQ b2M+BHHQ #b/Q 2M H K2@
/B/ /2 /BbT2`bBƦM HQ H`;Q /2 H HőM2 /2 H pBbmH T` TȹHb`2b +QM
/BbiM+Bb +QMQ+B/b U"BMM2v h`2KBM2- RNN3VX a2;ȹM 2bi2 KQ/2HQ-
Tm2/2 2biBK`b2 2H pHQ` /2 H /2MbB// /2 2H2+i`QM2b 2M 2H 2MiQ`MQ /2H
+ȹKmHQ TìB` bmb +QQ`/2M/b :H+iQ+ûMi`B+b R v z-
( ! ") + ,
−|z| 2
n2 (R, z) = 2,5 + 1,5 exp 104 m−3 , U9XRkV
70 pc 1 + RR0
/QM/2 R0 = 8 kpc 2b H /BbiM+B /2H aQH H +2Mi`Q :H+iB+QX TìB` /2

2bi2 pHQ` /2 H /2MbB// /2 Tìő+mHb n Tm2/2 2biBK`b2 H T`2bBƦM 2M
2H 2MiQ`MQ /2H +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` bmTQMB2M/Q mM i2KT2ìm` T`QK2/BQ
_2+Q`/` [m2 T` `2+mT2`` H /2MbB// /2H K2/BQ 2b M2+2b`BQ bmTQM2` mM

j
pHQ` /2 H ib /2 BMv2++BƦM /2 Ki2`B αX /2Kb- b2 bmTQM2 [m2 H T`2bBƦM /2 H

#`Bb 2M 2H `/BQ /2 K`2 TQtBK `xQM#H2K2Mi2 H T`2bBƦM 2M BM}MBiQX
3e
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ 3d
/2H ;b :H+iB+Q T = 100 K 9

b2;ȹM H 2+m+BƦM /2 ;b B/2H
P = nkT, U9XRjV
/QM/2 k 2b H +QMbiMi2 /2 "QHixKMMX 1bi 2biBK+BƦM T2`KBi2 2H2;B`

2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ +Q``2+iQ mbM/Q H +QM/B+BƦM /2 +QMiQ`MQ
bQ#`2 H T`2bBƦM v- TìB` /2 ûbi2- `2HBx` 2biBK+BQM2b bQ#`2 H ib
/2 +`2+BƦMX 1H BKT+iQ /2 2bi +QM/B+BƦM /2 +QMiQ`MQ 2M H b2H2++BƦM
/2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ rest v H /2T2M/2M+B /2 2bi2 pHQ` +QM HQb
T`K2i`Qb /2H KQ/2HQ bQM /Bb+miB/Qb 2M Hb T`ƦtBKb b2++BQM2bX
9XjXRX .2T2M/2M+B /2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ +QM H T`2@

bBƠM 2ti2`M
G +QM/B+BƦM /2 2[mBHB#`BQ 2Mi`2 Hb T`2bBQM2b BMi2`M v 2ti2`M 2M

2H `/BQ /2 K`2 /2H +ȹKmHQ 2b H [m2 T2`KBi2 b2H2++BQM` mM 2M@
i`2 iQ/b Hb +m`pb /2 #`Bbb TQbB#H2bX 1M 2bi2 b2MiB/Q- /B+? B;mH//
+mKTH2 mM 7mM+BƦM bBKBH` Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 _MFBM2@>m;QMBQi 2M
2H +bQ /2 Hb bQHm+BQM2b i`MbƦMB+bX aBM 2K#`;Q- 2H pHQ` 2ti2`MQ /2
H T`2bBƦM `2bmHi /2T2M/B2Mi2 /2H KQ/2HQ miBHBx/Q T` 2biBK` H /2M@
bB// 2M 2H 2MiQ`MQ /2H +ȹKmHQ- /2 KQ/Q [m2 2H pHQ` /2H rest 2H2;B/Q
/2 2bi KM2` Tm2/2 p`B` /2 +m2`/Q H KQ/2HQ :H+iB+Q miBHBx/Q
2- BM+HmbQ- +QM H T`2+BbBƦM /2H KBbKQ 2M H `2;BƦM /2 BMi2`ûbX SQ` 2bi
`xƦM- `2bmHi M2+2b`BQ BMp2biB;` bQ#`2 HQb 272+iQb /2 H p`B+BƦM /2
H T`2bBƦM 2ti2`M bQ#`2 H b2H2++BƦM /2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ +Q``2+iQX
*QM 2H }M /2 `2HBx` 2H 2bim/BQ K2M+BQM/Q- b2 MHBx 2H +bQ T`@

iB+mH` /2 JR8X 1M H };m` 9XjXR b2 Km2bi` H p`B+BƦM /2 H T`2bBƦM
2M 2H `/BQ /2 K`2 /2H +ȹKmHQ +QM 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ T`
/BbiBMiQb pHQ`2b /2 H i2KT2ìm` /2H ;b v H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX
9
.2 +m2`/Q Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2 H HőM2 /2 kR +K 2H pHQ` /2 H i2KT2ìm`
Tm2/2 2M+QMi``b2 2Mi`2 3y E v Rj8 EX
3d
33 9XjX aQHm+BQM2b /2 #`Bbb
1H pHQ` /2 H T`2bBƦM 2ti2`M Pext 2b 2H [m2 bm`;2 /2H KQ/2HQ :H+iB+Q

K2M+BQM/Q 2M H b2++BƦM Mi2`BQ`X *#2 +H`` [m2 b2 ?M /2b+ì/Q
HQb pHQ`2b /2 rest Kmv +2`+MQb H `/BQ /2 K`2 Tm2b- 2M 2biQb +bQb
MQ Tm2/2 ;`MiBx`b2 [m2 H T`2bBƦM 2M 2H `/BQ /2 K`2 `2T`2b2Mi2
bm pHQ` 2M 2H BM}MBiQX Sm2/2 Q#b2`p`b2 [m2- rest }DQ- 2H pHQ` /2 Pt
bm#2 K2/B/ [m2 H i2KT2ìm` /2H ;b bm#2X bBKBbKQ- b2 Q#b2`@
p mM +`2+BKB2MiQ /2 Pmarea +QM H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q- rest }DQX
/2Kb b2 Q#b2`p [m2 bB H Kb /2H AJ"> v H i2KT2ìm` /2H ;b b2
KMiB2M2M }Db- 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ +`2+2 +QM H T`2bBƦM 2ti2`MX
1b BMi2`2bMi2 /2bi+` [m2 2H pHQ` /2 Pt /2T2M/2 HBM2HK2Mi2 /2 H
ib /2 BMv2++BƦM /2 Ki2`B α- i`pûb /2 H /BK2MbBQMHBx+BƦM /2 H
/2MbB// ρ- BX2X- +K#BQb 2M 2H Q`/2M /2 K;MBim/ /2 α BKTHB+M mM
2H2++BƦM /B72`2Mi2 /2 rest v- 2M +QMb2+m2M+B- /2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM Ṁ X
9XjXkX S2`7BH2b /2 p2HQ+B// v /2MbB//
1H 2bim/BQ /2H BKT+iQ /2 H +QM/B+BƦM /2 +QMiQ`MQ 2M H b2H2++BƦM

/2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ Km2bi` H 7m2ì2 /2T2M/2M+B [m2 2tBbi2
+QM H KBbKX SQ` 2b `xƦM- `2bmHi +QMp2MB2Mi2 }D` H +QM/B+BƦM /2
+QMiQ`MQ8 T` MHBx` H /2T2M/2M+B /2H KQ/2HQ +QM H i2KT2ìm`
/2H ;b v H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`QX
G };m` 9XjXk Km2bi` HQb T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB// v p2HQ+B// T` J R8

bmTQMB2M/Q mM i2KT2ìm` T = 9976K T` 2H ;bX Sm2/2 Q#b2`p`b2
[m2 2H T2`}H /2 /2MbB// MQ +K#B +mHBiiBpK2Mi2 `2bT2+iQ /2 H
bQHm+BƦM i`MbƦMB+X aBM 2K#`;Q- 2H T2`}H /2 p2HQ+B//- +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2
mM #`Bb- T`2b2Mi /Qb +`+i2`őbiB+b BMi2`2bMi2bX 1M T`BK2` Hm;`- b2
`2T`Q/m+2 H 2bi`m+im` BMi2`M /2H +bQ i`MbƦMB+Q [m2 b2 Km2bi` 2M H
};m` 9XkXdX 1M b2;mM/Q Hm;`- b2 Q#b2`p mM +`+i2`őbiB+ /BbiBMiBp
2M H `2;BƦM 2ti2`BQ` rest , 2H pHQ` KtBKQ /2 H p2HQ+B// +`2+2 +QM H
8
1biQ BKTHB+ /B`2+iK2Mi2 b2H2++BQM` mM `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ T` 2H KQ/2HQX
33
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ 3N
1e-12
T = 5000 K
T = 9976 K
1e-13 T = 15811 K
Pext
1e-14
Pmarea(Pa)
1e-15
1e-16
1e-17
1 10 100
rest(r0)
1e-14
M = 398 MSol
M = 1000 MSol
M = 3981 MSol
Pext
1e-15
Pmarea(Pa)
1e-16
1e-17
1 10 100
rest(r0)
6B;m` 9XjXR, ```B#, S`2bBƦM 2M 2H `/BQ /2 K`2 pb `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ

2M J R8 T` /BbiBMib i2KT2ìm`b, 8yyy E- NNde E v R83RR EX 1M iQ/Qb
HQb +bQb H Kb /2H AJ"> 2b /2 Ryyy M⊙ X #DQ, S`2bBƦM 2M 2H `/BQ /2
K`2 pb `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ 2M J R8 T` /BbiBMib Kbb /2H AJ">, jN3
M⊙ - Ryyy M⊙ v jN3R M⊙ X 1M iQ/Qb HQb +bQb H i2KT2ìm` 2b /2 NNde EX
3N
Ny 9X9X *QKT`+BƦM +QM 2H KQ/2HQ /2 "QM/B@>QvH2
Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q- +QKQ +QMb2+m2M+B /2H +`2+BKB2MiQ 2M H ib

/2 +K#BQ /2 u 2M 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQX .2 2bi KM2`- bB 2H T2`}H
/2 p2HQ+B// /2H ;b /2 mM +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` 7m2b2 K2/B/Q v H T`2b2M+B
/2 mM AJ"> +QM}`K/ TQ` Qi`Qb K2/BQb- H 2tBbi2M+B /2 mM KtBKQ
2M H `2;BƦM 2ti2`BQ` b2`ő mM 2biBK/Q` /2 H Kb /2H KBbKQX
9X9X *QKT`+BƠM +QM 2H KQ/2HQ /2 "QM/B@>QvH2
1H KQ/2HQ T`2b2Mi/Q 2M 2bi2 *TőimHQ /B}2`2 /2H /2 "QM/B >QvH2

URN99V 2M H;mMQb bT2+iQb 7mM/K2MiH2bX 1H T`BK2` KQ/2HQ +QMbB/@
2` 2H TQi2M+BH ;`pBiiQ`BQ /2H +ȹKmHQ- [m2 /B}2`2 /2 mMQ Qi`Q- v
/2Kb BM+Hmv2 H +QMbiMi2 BMv2++BƦM /2 Ki2`B /2 Hb ;B;Mi2b `QDb-
TQ` HQ [m2 2H AJ"> v MQ +`2i /2 mM K2/BQ 2biiB+Q 2 BM}MBiQX 1bib
+`+i2`őbiB+b +QMHH2pM mM +QMb2+m2M+B BKTQìMi2- [m2 2b H T`BM@
+BTH /B72`2M+B +QM 2H `2bmHi/Q /2 "QM/B@>QvH2, H ib /2 +`2+BƦM v
MQ /2T2M/2 ȹMB+K2Mi2 /2 H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q v H i2KT2ìm@
` UQ p2HQ+B// /2H bQMB/QV /2H ;b- bBMQ [m2 iK#BûM /2 Hb T`QTB2/2b
/2H +ȹKmHQX bBKBbKQ- b2 +QMbB/2`M /B72`2Mi2b +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ
[m2 /M Hm;` bQHm+BQM2b /2 +`2+BƦMfpB2MiQ 2M mM +bQ- v /2 +`2@
+BƦMf#`Bb- 2M Qi`QX
1M H 6B;m` 9X9XR b2 Km2bi` H +QKT`+BƦM 2Mi`2 2H KQ/2HQ i`M@

bƦMB+Q T`2b2Mi/Q 2M 2bi2 +TőimHQ UT` /BbBMiQb +ȹKmHQb- iQ/Qb T =
10000 KV- H ib /2 +`2+BƦM /2 "QM/B@>QvH2 v H ib /2 1//BM;iQM-
/2}MB/ +QKQ ṀEdd = LEdd /c2 - /QM/2 c 2b H p2HQ+B// /2 H Hmx v
LEdd = 1,26 × 1038 (MBH /M⊙ ) erg s−1 2b H HmKBMQbB// /2 1//BM;iQM
/2H AJ">X G ib /2 +`2+BƦM /2 "QM/B@>QvH2 7m2 +H+mH/ +QKQ
ṀBH = 4πG2 MBH s - /QM/2 ρa 2b H /2MbB// K#B2Mi2 /2H ;bX
2
ρa c−3
S` 2HHQ- mbKQb 2H pHQ` ρa = 0,2 cm−3 Q#i2MB/Q TQ` 6`2B`2 2i HX
UkyyRV- [m2 2b 2H KBbKQ pHQ` miBHBx/Q TQ` Qi`Qb miQ`2b U2X;X- J+@
Ny
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ NR
1e+06
M = 398 MSol
M = 1000 MSol
10000 M = 3981 MSol
100
!
0.01
0.0001
0.01 1 100
r (r0)
M = 398 MSol
M = 1000 MSol
0.5 M = 3981 MSol
u (cs )
2
-0.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
r (r0)
6B;m` 9XjXk, S2`}H2b /2 /2MbB// v p2HQ+B// /2 J R8X 1M iQ/Qb HQb +bQb H

i2KT2ìm` /2H ;b NNde EX 1H T2`}H /2 /2MbB// MQ +K#B +mHBiiBpK2Mi2
`2bT2+iQ /2H +bQ i`MbƦMB+QX 1H T2`}H /2 p2HQ+B// +Q``2bTQM/2 mM #`BbX G
Him` /2H TB+Q 2M H `2;BƦM 2ti2`BQ` rest +Q``2H+BQM H Kb /2H AJ">X
NR
Nk 9X9X *QKT`+BƦM +QM 2H KQ/2HQ /2 "QM/B@>QvH2
+`QM2- kyy9V T` 2biBK` HmKBMQbB//2b /2 `vQb sX *QM 2H }M /2

Q#i2M2` `2bmHi/Qb +QKT`#H2b +QM [m2HHQb /2 "QM/B@>QvH2- T` +@
/ KQ/2HQ b2 2HB;BƦ 2H pHQ` /2 α /2 KQ/Q [m2 H /2MbB// 2M 2H `/BQ
/2 2biM+KB2MiQ +QM+m2`/2 +QM ρa X 1bi 2H2++BƦM 2bi DmbiB}+/ v
[m2 b2 +QMbB;m2 [m2 K#Qb KQ/2HQb i2M;M H KBbK /2MbB// /QM/2 2H
~mB/Q b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M `2TQbQX GQb pHQ`2b /2 α Q#i2MB/Qb b2 2M+m2Mi`M
2M 2H `M;Q 10−14 − 10−11 yr−1 - 2M +m2`/Q +QM H;mMb 2biBK+BQM2b
Q#b2`p+BQMH2b /2 2bi2 T`K2i`Q US`B2biH2v 2i HX- kyRR- a+Qii _Qb2-
RNd8VX
Sm2/2 p2`b2 /2 H 6B;m` 9X9XR [m2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM 2M 2H `û;B@

K2M h U+QKQ 2b 2H +bQ /2 L:* dyd3 2M 2bi 6B;m`V v MQ 2b+H
+QKQ MBH 2
- v /2T2M/2 /2H +ȹKmHQX aBM 2K#`;Q- 2M 2H `û;BK2M h"
2H +QKTQìKB2MiQ 2b bBKBH` H /2H KQ/2HQ /2 "QM/B@>QvH2- mM[m2 2H
pHQ` #bQHmiQ /2 Ṁ 2b mM Q`/2M /2 K;MBim/ KvQ`X Pi`Q `2bmHi/Q
BMi2`2bMi2 2b [m2 2M 2H `û;BK2M h- 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q H+Mx ibb
/2 +`2+BƦM bBKBH`2b H /2 1//BM;iQMX 1biQ b2 /2#2 H /2b``QHHQ /2
~mDQb /2 ;`M 2b+H 2M 2H `û;BK2M h- HH2pM/Q Ki2`B /2 Hb xQMb
2ti2`Mb H AJ"> v- `2bmHiM/Q bő 2M mM ib /2 +`2+BƦM HiX 1bi2
`2bmHi/Q MQ Tm2/2 b2` `2T`Q/m+B/Q TQ` 2H KQ/2HQ /2 "QM/B >QvH2
URN99V K2MQb [m2 b2 bmTQM;M pHQ`2b Kmv HiQb /2 H /2MbB// Q
Kmv #DQb /2 H i2KT2ìm`X oH2 +H`` [m2 2bib ibb /2 +`2+BƦM
bmT2`@1//BM;iQM MQ BKTHB+M HmKBMQbB//2b bmT2`@1//BM;iQM v [m2 H
2}+B2M+B /2 `/B+BƦM 2b- mbmHK2Mi2- Km+?Q K2MQ` [m2 R v H +`2+BƦM
Tm2/2 b2` HH2p/ +#Q bBM b2` /2i2MB/ TQ` H T`2bBƦM /2 `/B+BƦMX
1M 2H +bQ /2 Hb bQHm+BQM2b /2 #`Bb MQ `2bmHi b2M+BHHQ `2HBx` mM

+QKT`+BƦM /B`2+i /2#B/Q H 7m2ì2 /2T2M/2M+B /2 H bQHm+BƦM +QM
H +QM/B+BƦM /2 +QMiQ`MQX aBM 2K#`;Q- `2bmHi 2pB/2Mi2 [m2 H ib
/2 +`2+BƦM v MQ /2T2M/2 ȹMB+K2Mi2 /2 H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q
Nk
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ Nj
0.0001
-1
1e-08
M 15
Liller 1
! Cen
M 28
Eddington limit
Bondi-Hoyle
1e-12
100 10000
Mbh(MSun)
6B;m` 9X9XR, *QKT`+BƦM 2Mi`2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM /2 Mm2bi`Q KQ/2HQ v

[m2HH `2bmHiMi2 /2H KQ/2HQ /2 "QM/B@>QvH2X a2 Km2bi`- /2Kb- H ib /2
+`2+BƦM /2 1//BM;iQM +QKQ `272`2M+BX
Nj
N9 9X9X *QKT`+BƦM +QM 2H KQ/2HQ /2 "QM/B@>QvH2
1e-05
M = 398 MSol
M = 1000 MSol
1e-06
Tasa de acrecion (MSol yr )
M = 3981 MSol
-1
1e-07
1e-08
1e-09
1e-10
0.01 1 100
r(r0)
6B;m` 9X9Xk, hb /2 +`2+BƦM Q#i2MB/ +QM 2H KQ/2HQ /2 #`Bbb T` J R8

T` iQ/Qb HQb `/BQb /2 2biM+KB2MiQ TQbB#H2b T` i`2b pHQ`2b /BbiBMiQb /2
H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q UjN3- Ryyy v jN3R M⊙ VX a2 bmTmbQ mM pHQ` /2 H
ib /2 BMv2+BƦM /2 Ki2`B 2biM/`- α = 10−11 yr−1 X a2 Q#b2`p [m2 Ṁ
+`2+2 +QM H Kb /2H AJ"> bB 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M H
`2;BƦM +2Mi`H /2H +ȹKmHQX
+`2iMi2X 1M H };m` 9X9Xk b2 Km2bi` H ib /2 +`2+BƦM Q#i2MB/

T` +/ mMQ /2 HQb `/BQb /2 2biM+KB2MiQ TQbB#H2b- BX2- 2M iQ/ H
2ti2MbBƦM /2H +ȹKmHQX a2 Km2bi`M Hb +m`pb T` i`2b pHQ`2b /BbiBMiQb
/2 H Kb /2H AJ"> UjN3- Ryyy v jN3R M⊙ V v 2M iQ/Qb HQb +bQb b2
bmTmbQ α = 10−11 yr−1 X SQ` mM H/Q- b2 Q#b2`p mM +`2+BKB2MiQ /2 H
ib /2 +`2+BƦM +QM H Kb /2H AJ">- bB 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ b2
2M+m2Mi` 2M H `2;BƦM +2Mi`H /2H +ȹKmHQX 1biQ b2 /2#2 [m2 2M /B+?
`2;BƦM 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q /QKBM H /BMKB+ /2H ;bX SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- b2
Q#b2`p [m2- bB 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ b2 2M+m2Mi` bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2
+2`+ /2H AJ">- H ib /2 +`2+BƦM #D +QMbB/2`#H2K2Mi2 `2bT2+iQ
/2 Hb 2biBK+BQM2b `2HBx/b 2M 2H 2b+2M`BQ BbQiû`KB+QX 1bi2 `2bmHi/Q
iB2M2 7m2ì2b BKTHB+M+Bb Q#b2`p+BQMH2b v Hb KBbKb bQM /Bb+miB/b
2M H bB;mB2Mi2 b2++BƦMX
N9
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ N8
9X8X .2i2+i#BHB//, 2biBK+BQM2b /2 H HmKBMQbB@

//
TìB` /2 HQb `2bmHi/Qb Q#i2MB/Qb +QM 2bi2 KQ/2HQ- b2 Tm2/2 2biB@

K` H HmKBMQbB// 2M `vQb s- LX - /2#B/ H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM bQ#`2
2H AJ">X aBM 2K#`;Q- H HmKBMQbB// /2T2M/2 /2 /Qb T`K2i`Qb +mvQ
pHQ` MQ b2 2M+m2Mi` +QKTH2iK2Mi2 /2i2`KBM/Q- H ib /2 BMv2++BƦM
/2 Kb α v H 2}+B2M+B /2 2KBbBƦM- ǫ = LX /Ṁ c2 X aB b2 bmTQM2M HQb
pHQ`2b 2biM/` ǫ = 0,1 v α = 10−11 yr−1 - b2 Q#iB2M2M pHQ`2b T` H
HmKBMQbB// 2M 2H `M;Q 1037 − 1041 erg s−1 - 2M 2H +bQ /2 bQHm+BQM2b
i`MbƦMB+b- v 2H `M;Q b2 2tiB2M/2 1032 − 1041 erg s−1 bB b2 +QMbB/2`M
iK#BûM Hb bQHm+BQM2b /2 #`BbbX 1H HőKBi2 bmT2`BQ` /2 2bi2 `M;Q 2bi 2M
#m2M +m2`/Q +QM Hb HmKBMQbB//2b /2 Hb lGsbX aB Hb KBbKb- +QKQ
? bB/Q bm;2`B/Q 2M H;mMQb +bQb- bQM TQbB+BQMHK2Mi2 +QBM+B/2Mi2b +QM
+ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b 2ti`;H+iB+Qb UM;2HBMB 2i HX- kyyR- J++`QM2
a2`pBHHi- kyRy- v bmb `272`2M+BbV- 2bi2 KQ/2HQ bm;B2`2 [m2 2biQb bBbi2Kb
TQ/`őM i2M2` mM AJ"> +`2iM/Q 2M 2H `û;BK2M h /2 H bQHm+BƦM
i`MbƦMB+ U+QMbB/2`M/Q 2}+B2M+Bb /2 +`2+BƦM 2biM/`V Q #B2M H T`2@
bBƦM /2H ;b +B`+mM/Mi2 HQb KBbKQb 2b iH [m2 T2`KBi2 Q#i2M2` `/BQb
/2 2biM+KB2MiQ 2M Hb `2;BQM2b 2ti2`Mb /2H +ȹKmHQ- bB b2 +QMbB/2`M
bQHm+BQM2b /2 #`Bbb US2T2 S2HHBxx- kyRjVX
1M 2H +bQ /2 L:* ej33- mMQ /2 HQb +ȹKmHQb Kb 2bim/B/Qb- 2H KQ/2@

HQ i`MbƦMB+Q T`2/B+2e HmKBMQbB//2b 2M `vQb@s 2M 2H `M;Q 1038−40 erg s−1 -
8 Ʀ`/2M2b /2 K;MBim/ Kb HiQ [m2 2H pHQ` Q#b2`p/Q TQ` Lm+Bi 2i
HX Ukyy3V LX, NGC6388 = 2,7 × 1033 erg s−1 X Jb ȹM- *b2? 2i HX UkyRyV
`2TQì`QM mM pHQ` ȹM Kb #DQ- LX, NGC6388 = 8,3 × 1032 erg s−1 X aBM
2K#`;Q- 2bi T`2/B++BƦM Tm2/2 bBKBH`b2 H pHQ` Q#b2`p/Q bB Q #B2M α
Q #B2M ǫ bQM K2MQ`2bX Lm+Bi 2i HX Ukyy3V HH2;M mM +QM+HmbBƦM bBKBH`
e
"b/Q 2M H 2biBK+BƦM /2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM T`2pBK2Mi2 K2M+BQM/ v
bmTQMB2M/Q Hb 2}+B2M+Bb /Bb+miB/b Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2X
N8
Ne 9X8X .2i2+i#BHB//, 2biBK+BQM2b /2 H HmKBMQbB//
bQ#`2 H 2}+B2M+BX 1M 2H +bQ /2 Hb #`Bbb- v //Q [m2 H bQHm+BƦM /2@

T2M/2 7m2ì2K2Mi2 /2 HQb T`K2i`Qb T v MBH - 2H pHQ` Q#b2`p/Q Tm2/2
b2` `2T`Q/m+B/Q TQ` 2H KQ/2HQ T` +B2ì +QK#BM+BƦM /2 T`Ki`QbX
1M H };m` 9X8XR b2 Km2bi`M HQb pHQ`2b KőMBKQ v KtBKQ /2 H HmKB@
MQbB// 2M `vQb sd T` /BbiBMiQb pHQ`2b /2 H Kb /2H AJ"> URyy
v Ryyyy M⊙ - K#Qb 2ti`2KQb /2H `M;Q /2 Kbb +QMbB/2`/QV v mM
i2KT2ìm` /2H ;b T = 9976 KX a2 bmTQM2 2M iQ/Qb HQb +bQb mM p@
HQ` 2biM/` T` H ib /2 BMv2++BƦM /2 Kb- α = 10−11 yr−1 X Sm2/2
Q#b2`p`b2 [m2- bB 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M H `2;BƦM
+2Mi`H /2H +ȹKmHQ- v T` Kbb #Db /2H AJ">- b2 Q#iB2M2M pHQ`2b
/2 H HmKBMQbB// 2M `vQb s /2H Q`/2M /2H pHQ` Q#b2`p/Q LX, NGC6388 X
ȹM T` Kbb KvQ`2b- bB H ib /2 BMv2++BƦM α 2b K2MQ`- Tm2/2
`2+mT2``b2 2H `2bmHi/QX /2Kb- bB b2 +QMbB/2` 2H `M;Q /2 pHQ`2b
2biBK/Q T` 2bi2 T`K2i`Q U10−11 − 10−14 yr−1 V- H +Qi BM72`BQ` 2b@
iBK/ T` H HmKBMQbB// `2bmHi LX % 1031 erg s−1 - 2M +m2`/Q +QM
Hb +Qib bmT2`BQ`2b Q#i2MB/b T` H;mMQb +ȹKmHQbX
SQ` ȹHiBKQ- +#2 K2M+BQM` [m2 2M Hb ȹHiBKb /û+/b b2 ?M /2@
b``QHH/Q /B72`2Mi2b KQ/2HQb i2Ʀ`B+Qb T` ~mDQb /2 +`2+BƦM TQ+Q 2}@
+B2Mi2b- +QKQ HQb ~mDQb /2 +`2+BƦM /QKBM/Qb TQ` H /p2++BƦM U.6b-
L`vM uB- RNN9V- HQb /QKBM/Qb TQ` H 2KBbBƦM /2 D2ib UC.6b-
62M/2`- :HHQ CQMF2`- kyyjV- v HQb ~mDQb /2 #D 2}+B2M+B `/BiBp
UG_6b- Zmi2ì- kyyRVX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- 2M 2H +bQ /2 HQb .6b- H
2}+B2M+B /2T2M/2 /2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM b2;ȹM
ǫ = Ṁ /ṀEdd , U9XR9V
bB Ṁ < 0,1ṀEdd X .2 2bi KM2`- Hb 2biBK+BQM2b T`2pBK2Mi2 T`2@

b2Mi/b bQ#`2 H HmKBMQbB// b2 `2/m+2M 2M k@j Ʀ`/2M2b /2 K;MBim/-
d
amTQMB2M/Q 2}+B2M+Bb ǫ = 0,1 v ǫ = 0,001- `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X
Ne
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ Nd
1e+42
1e+40
1e+38
LX(erg s )
-1
1e+36
1e+34
M = 100 MSol
M = 10000 MSol
1e+32
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10

rest(r0)
6B;m` 9X8XR, GmKBMQbB// 2M `vQb s T` L:* ej33 +QKQ 7mM+BƦM /2H `@
/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQX */ mM /2 Hb +m`pb BM/B+ 2H pHQ` /2 H HmKBMQbB//
+Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 ǫ = 0,001 v ǫ = 0,1- `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X a2 +QMbB/2`M HQb
pHQ`2b KőMBKQ URyy M⊙ V v KtBKQ URyyyy M⊙ V /2H `M;Q /2 Kbb +QMbB/2@
`/QX 1M iQ/Qb HQb +bQb- α = 1 × 10−11 yr−1 X
+2`+M/Qb2 iQ/pő Kb HQb HőKBi2b Q#b2`p+BQMH2b 2- BM+HmbQ- 2M H@

;mMQb +bQb- 2M+QMi`M/Qb2 TQ` /2#DQ /2 HQb KBbKQb- HQ [m2 2tTHB+`ő
H mb2M+B /2 7m2Mi2b s +2Mi`H2b 2M HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b- ȹM 2M
T`2b2M+B /2 mM AJ">X
9XeX JQ/2HQ +mbB@/B#{iB+Q
1H KQ/2HQ BbQiû`KB+Q T`2b2Mi/Q 2M 2H +QKB2MxQ /2 2bi2 +TőimHQ `2@

bmHi 2M mM BMi2`2bMi2 T`BK2` /2b+`BT+BƦM /2H ~mDQ /2 +`2+BƦM bQ#`2
mM AJ"> +QMbB/2`M/Q bm 2MiQ`MQ- mM +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH`X aBM 2K#`;Q-
bmTQM2` [m2 H i2KT2ìm` /2H ;b 2b +QMbiMi2 2M iQ/ H 2ti2MbBƦM
/2H +ȹKmHQ 2b mM ?BTƦi2bBb 7m2ì2 [m2 BKTHB+ mM +QMbiMi2 BMi2`+K@
Nd
N3 9XeX JQ/2HQ +mbB@/B#iB+Q
#BQ /2 +HQ` +QM 2H K#B2Mi23 X /2Kb- 2M 2b2 2b+2M`BQ b2 BKTB/2 2H

Mim`H +H2MiKB2MiQ /2H ;b 2M 2H 2MiQ`MQ Kb +2`+MQ /2H ;mD2`Q
M2;`QX 1M 2bi b2++BƦM b2 T`2b2Mi mM KQ/2HQ +mbB@/B#iB+Q T` 2H
~mDQ /2 +`2+BƦM- 2M 2H [m2 MQ ?v BMi2`+K#BQ /2 +HQ`- 2t+2TiQ TQ`
H 2M2`;ő BMv2+i/ H K2/BQ TQ` Hb 7m2Mi2b /2 KbX 1M H b2++BƦM
9XeXR b2 T`2b2MiM Hb 2+m+BQM2b #bB+b /2H KQ/2HQX Gm2;Q- 2M H b2+@
+BQM 9XeXk b2 /Bb+mi2M /BbiBMib +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ v b2 Km2bi` bm
BM+QKTiB#BHB// +QM mM ~mDQ 2bi+BQM`BQX
9XeXRX 1+m+BQM2b #{bB+b /2H KQ/2HQ
Hb 2+m+BQM2b T`2b2Mi/b 2M H b2++BƦM 9XR b2 BM+Q`TQ` H 2+m+BƦM

/B72`2M+BH [m2 `B;2 H 2M2`;ûiB+ /2H ;b- `2HDM/Q bő H ?BTƦi2bBb /2
i2KT2ìm` +QMbiMi2X G 2+m+BƦM /2 +QMiBMmB// 9Xk +QMiBMȹ bB2M/Q
pHB/X aBM 2K#`;Q- bB #B2M H 2+m+BƦM /2 1mH2` 9Xj iK#BûM bB;m2
bB2M/Q pHB/- ûbi /2#2 b2` ;2M2`HBx/ v [m2 H p2HQ+B// /2H bQMB/Q
MQ 2b Kb +QMbiMi2 v p`ő `/BHK2Mi2 +QM H i2KT2ìm`- BX2X-
du dP dφ
ρu =− −ρ − αuρ∗ , U9XR8V
dr dr dt
bB2M/Q φ 2H TQi2M+BH ;`pBiiQ`BQ /2H +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` Kb 2H AJ">X
1bi 2+m+BƦM Tm2/2 b2` `22b+`Bi mbM/Q H `2H+BƦM
! "
dρ d P P dρ
=ρ + , U9XReV
dr dr ρ ρ dr
v H /2}MB+BƦM /2 H p2HQ+B// /2H bQMB/Q 2M mM ~mDQ /B#iB+Q c2s ≡ γ Pρ -

/QM/2 γ = cp /cv - bB2M/Q cp H +T+B// +HQ`ő}+ /2H ;b T`2bBƦM
+QMbiMi2 v cv 2H 2[mBpH2Mi2 pQHmK2M +QMbiMi2X *QK#BMM/Q Hb
2+m+BQM2b 9XR8 v 9XRe +QM H 2+m+BƦM /2 +QMiBMmB// 9Xk- H T`BK2`
3
u b2 2Mi`2;M/QHQ Q `2+B#BûM/QHQX
N3
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ NN
Tm2/2 2b+`B#B`b2 +QKQ
c2 dc2s c2s dq 2c2s dφ αρ∗ r2 u

! " ! "
du 1
u 1 + s2 =− + − − − . U9XRdV
γu dr γ dr q dr r dr q
./Q [m2 2M 2bi2 2b+2M`BQ H p2HQ+B// /2H bQMB/Q p`ő +QM H /BbiM@
+B H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQ `2bmHi M2+2b`BQ Q#i2M2` mM 2tT`2bBƦM T`
/B+? p`B#H2 v bmb /2`Bp/bX *QM iH }M- b2 BM+Q`TQ` H +QMDmMiQ /2
p`B#H2b i2`KQ/BMKB+b H 2MiHTő TQ` mMB// /2 Kb
u2 γ P u2 c2
h= + +φ= + s + φ, U9XR3V
2 γ−1 ρ 2 γ−1
TìB` /2 H +mH Tm2/2 2b+`B#B`b2 H 2+m+BƦM T` H 2M2`;ő +QKQ
1 d
(qh) = αρ ∗ (ǫ + φ), U9XRNV
r2 dr
/QM/2 ǫ 2b H 2M2`;ő BMi2`M TQ` mMB// /2 Kb [m2 T`Qp22 +/ mM
/2 Hb 2bi`2HHbX G 2+m+BƦM 9XRN Tm2/2 b2` BMi2;`/ T` Q#i2M2` mM
2tT`2bBƦM BMi2;`H T` H 2MiHTő 2M 7mM+BƦM /2 p`B#H2b +QMQ+B/b-
# r
α
h=ǫ+ ρ∗ r′2 φdr′ . U9XkyV
q r2bi
S` Q#i2M2` 2bi 2tT`2bBƦM- H BMi2;`+BƦM b2 `2HBx 2Mi`2 2H `/BQ /2

2biM+KB2MiQ rest - /QM/2 b2 biBb7+2 H +QM/B+BƦM q = 0- v mM `/BQ
;2Mû`B+Q r > rst X *QM 2bi BMi2;`+BƦM Tm2/2 Q#i2M2`b2 2H pHQ` /2 c2s
TìB` /2 H 2tT`2bBƦM 9XR3X .2 2b KBbK 2+m+BƦM b2 Q#iB2M2 H
2tT`2bBƦM T` H /2`Bp/ /2 c2s [m2- `22KTHxM/QH 2M H 2+m+BƦM
9XRd v `2+QKQ/M/Q iû`KBMQb /
2c2s dφ αρ∗ r2 u2 c2s

( ! ")
du 1 d
= 6 7 − (γ − 1) (h − φ) + − γ − +γ .
dr u 1− c2s dr r dr q u2
u2
U9XkRV
NN
Ryy 9XeX JQ/2HQ +mbB@/B#iB+Q
úbi 2b H /2`Bp/ TìB` /2 H +mH b2 Q#iB2M2 2H KQ/2HQ ?B/`Q/@

BMKB+Q +QKTH2iQX SQ` +QMbBbi2M+B 2M H MQi+BƦM +QM Hb b2++BQM2b
T`2+2/2Mi2b- +QMiBMm+BƦM b2 `2bmK2 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 2+m+BQM2b /B72`@
2M+BH2b 2M mMB//2b /2 EBM; [m2 `B;2M H /BMKB+ /2 mM ~mDQ /2 +`2@
+BƦM /B#iB+Q bQ#`2 mM AJ">
ω = Ω∗ (ξ) + ω0 , U9XkkV
2ψs2 dφad dω/dξ ψs2

( ! ")
dψ 1 d ad ad
= 6 7 − (γ − 1) (h − φ ) + − γ − +γ .
dξ ψ 1− ψs2 dr ξ dξ ω ψ2
ψ2
U9XkjV
/QM/2 b2 /2}M2M Hb Mm2pb p`B#H2b /BK2MbBQMH2b φad = φ/σ 2 v

had = h/σ 2 X u [m2 2M 2bi2 2b+2M`BQ H i2KT2ìm` /2H ;b MQ 2b +QMb@
iMi2- 2b M2+2b`BQ /2}MB` mM T`K2i`Q bQ+B/Q [m2 T2`KBi B/2MiB@
}+` HQb KQ/2HQb- iH +QKQ b2 ?BxQ 2M 2H +TőimHQ 9X 1H ;b BMv2+i/Q H
K2/BQ T`QpB2M2 /2 Hb ;B;Mi2b `QDb /2H +ȹKmHQX SQ` iMiQ- Tm2/2 2b@
iBK`b2 H 2M2`;ő [m2 b2 BM+Q`TQ` H K2/BQ BMi2`2bi2H` +QMbB/2`M/Q-
TQ` mM H/Q- H i2KT2ìm` /2 Hb +Tb 2ti2`Mb /2 iH2b 2bi`2HHb v-
TQ` Qi`Q- H p2HQ+B// +QM H [m2 2H Ki2`BH 2b 2tTmHb/Q /2 H 2bi`2@
HHX G T`BK2` Tm2/2 2biBK`b2 bmTQMB2M/Q mM i2KT2ìm` T`QK2/BQ
T ∗ = 4000 K 2M Hb +Tb 2ti2`Mb /2 H 2bi`2HHX G b2;mM/- TìB`
/2 H 2biBK+BƦM /2 H p2HQ+B// /2 2b+T2 T` mM ;B;Mi2 `QD iőTB+
/2 `/BQ R = 70 R⊙ v M = 0,8 M⊙ Uve ∼ 35km s−1 VX bő- H 2M2`;ő
TQ` mMB// /2 Kb BMv2+i/ H K2/BQ `2bmHi
k# T ∗
ǫ= + 0,5v22 , U9Xk9V
m>
/QM/2 kb 2b H +QMbiMi2 /2 "QHixKMM v mH H Kb /2H >B/`Ʀ;2MQX
Ryy
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ RyR
.2 2bi KM2`- Tm2/2 /2}MB`b2 mM i2KT2ìm` 272+iBp Tef iH [m2
kb Tef
ǫ= . U9Xk8V
mH
amTQMB2M/Q mM /BbT2`bBƦM /2 ∼ 15km s−1 2M H p2HQ+B// /2 2b+T2-
H i2KT2ìm` 272+iBp Tef b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M 2H `M;Q [104 − 105 ] KX 1M
/2HMi2- iQ/ K2M+BƦM H i2KT2ìm` b2 `272`B` /B+? i2KT2ìm@
` 272+iBp Tef X
S` HH2p` +#Q H BMi2;`+BƦM 2b M2+2b`BQ 2bi#H2+2` Hb +QM/B@

+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQX hH +QKQ b2 ?BxQ 2M 2H 2b+2M`BQ BbQiû`KB+Q- b2 +QM@
bB/2`M bQHm+BQM2b i`MbƦMB+b v bQHm+BQM2b /2 #`BbbX K#b bQM /2b@
+`BTib 2M Hb b2++BQM2b bm#bB;mB2Mi2b DmMiQ HQb `2bmHi/Qb Q#i2MB/QbX
9XeXkX aQHm+BQM2b /2 #`Bbb v i`MbƠMB+b
H BM+HmB` H 2+m+BƦM T` H 2M2`;ő 9XR3 Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QM@

iQ`MQ 2bi#H2+B/b 2M 2H 2b+2M`BQ BbQiû`KB+Q /2#2M KQ/B}+`b2X .B+?
KQ/B}++BƦM v bmb +QMb2+m2M+Bb bQM /2b+`BTib 2M 2bi b2++BƦMX
1M T`BK2` Hm;`- H 2MiHTő 7m2` /2H +ȹKmHQ /2#2 b2` +QMbiMi2-

Tm2b //Q [m2 2H +m/H q 2b +QMbiMi2 /2#B/Q H 7Hi /2 7m2Mi2b /2
Ki2`B-
d(qh) dh
=q = 0. U9XkeV
dr dr
1M TìB+mH`- h∞ = ht - /QM/2 ht 2b 2H pHQ` /2 H 2MiHTő 2M 2H `@
/BQ /2 K`2 /2H +ȹKmHQX aB b2 `2HBx mM MHBbBb /2H +QKTQìKB2MiQ
bBMiƦiB+Q /2 +/ mMQ /2 HQb iû`KBMQb /2 H 2+m+BƦM 9XR3- bmD2iQ
H +QM/B+BƦM T`2pBK2Mi2 2bi#H2+B/- 2b TQbB#H2 +QM+HmB` +2`+ /2 H
2tBbi2M+B v HQ+HBx+BƦM /2H `/BQ bƦMB+Q /2 2bi2 ~mDQX 6m2` /2H +ȹKmHQ
2H TQi2M+BH φ(r) 2b 2H /2 mM Kb TmMimH /2 Kb Mcum + MBH - TQ`
RyR
Ryk 9XeX JQ/2HQ +mbB@/B#iB+Q
HQ [m2 bm pHQ` bBMiƦiB+Q 2b φ∞ = 0X SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- H p2HQ+B// /2H

bQMB/Q c2s = dP/dρ `2bmHi T`QTQ`+BQMH H i2KT2ìm` T∞ /2H K2/BQ
2ti2`MQ H +ȹKmHQ- H +mH ?2KQb 2bi#H2+B/Q /2H Q`/2M ∼ 100 KX .@
/Q 2bi2 pHQ`- `2bmHi mM #m2M T`QtBK+BƦM bmTQM2` T∞ ∼ 0- Tm2b
T∞ << Tef X .2 2bi KM2`- MB 2H iû`KBMQ T`QTQ`+BQMH c2s MB 2H iû`@
KBMQ /2H TQi2M+BH +QMi`B#mv2M H pHQ` bBMiƦiB+Q /2 H 2MiHTőX
S` 2H +bQ /2 mM #`Bb- u∞ = 0 v 2MiQM+2b- HQb i`2b iû`KBMQb /2

H 2+m+BƦM 9XR3 iB2M/2M +2`Q 2M BM}MBiQ- HQ [m2 TQM2 mM +QM/B+BƦM
7m2ì2 bQ#`2 2H pHQ` +QMbiMi2 [m2 /2#2 i2M2` H 2MiHTő, ht /2#2 b2`
MmH T` Q#i2M2` mM bQHm+BƦM /2 #`Bb 2M H `2;BƦM 2ti2`M H `/BQ
/2 2biM+KB2MiQX G 7mM+BƦM 2MiHTő- v 2M TìB+mH` bm pHQ` 2M 2H
`/BQ /2 K`2- /2T2M/2M /2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ i`pûb H BM@
i2;`+BƦM /2 H 2+m+BƦM 9XRN- /QM/2 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ 2b mMQ
/2 HQb HőKBi2b /2 BMi2;`+BƦM U2+m+BƦM 9XkyVX .2 2bi KM2`- Q#i2@
MB2M/Q H 2tT`2bBƦM BMi2;`H /2 H 2MiHTő T` mM ;`BHH /2 `/BQb
/2 2biM+KB2MiQ v #mb+M/Q biBb7+2` H +QM/B+BƦM ht = 0 2b TQbB#H2
2M+QMi`` 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ +Q``2+iQX
LQ Q#biMi2- bƦHQ [m2HHb bQHm+BQM2b [m2 +Q``2bTQM/M mM ~mDQ /2

+`2+BƦM 2M H `2;BƦM BMi2`M rest `2bmHiM `2H2pMi2b T` 2H 2b+2M`BQ
bi`Q7őbB+Q /2 BMi2`ûbX .2 2bi KM2`- 2b M2+2b`BQ BMp2biB;` bQ#`2 H
2tBbi2M+B v HQ+HBx+BƦM /2 HQb `/BQb bƦMB+Qb BMi2`MQb- Tm2b H +`2+BƦM
bQ#`2 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q bƦHQ 2b +QKTiB#H2 +QM ~mDQb i`MbƦMB+Qb 2M H
`2;BƦM r < rest X TìB` /2 H 2+m+BƦM 9Xkj b2 /2}M2 2H `/BQ bƦMB+Q
+QKQ [m2H T` 2H +mH H 7mM+BƦM fs (ξ) b2 MmH- BX2X-
2ψ 2 dφad dω/dξ ψs2

! "
d
fs (ξ) = − (γ − 1) (had − φad ) + s − γ − +γ .
dr ξ dξ ω ψ2
U9XkdV
1M H };m` 9XeXR b2 Km2bi`M /BbiBMib +m`pb /2 fs (ξ) T` J R8- +/
Ryk
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ Ryj
T = 100000 K
6 T = 50811 K
T = 10000 K
T = 2000 K
5 T = 1000 K
4
fs
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
r(r0)
6B;m` 9XeXR, fs (ξ) T` J R8- +QMbB/2`M/Q /BbiBMib i2KT2ìm`b U1 × 103 -

2 × 103 - 1 × 104 - 5 × 104 v 1 × 105 KVX a2 bmTQM2 2M iQ/Qb HQb +bQb mM AJ">
/2 jN3R M⊙ 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQX
mM +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 /BbiBMib i2KT2ìm`b U1 × 103 - 2 × 103 - 1 × 104 -

5 × 104 v 1 × 105 KV- iQ/b T` mM AJ"> /2 jN3R M⊙ X Sm2/2 Q#@
b2`p`b2 [m2 T` Hb i2KT2ìm`b Kb Hib- H +QM/B+BƦM fs = 0 MQ
b2 biBb7+2 T` MBM;ȹM `/BQ r < rest c 2biQ BKTHB+ H BM2tBbi2M+B /2
mM `/BQ bƦMB+Q BMi2`MQX ./Q [m2 H p2HQ+B// 2M H `2;BƦM /2 +`2+BƦM
/2#2 b2` i`MbƦMB+ T` [m2 2H ;b b2 +`2i/Q TQ` 2H AJ">- 2bi 7Hi
/2 mM `/BQ bƦMB+Q BMi2`MQ Tm2/2 b2` BMi2`T`2i/ /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2@
`, bB 2H ;b 2b /2TQbBi/Q +QM KvQ` 2M2`;ő 2M 2H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹKmHQ-
v //Q [m2 MQ Tm2/2 T2`/2` 2M2`;ő v [m2 2H ~mDQ 2b +mbB@/B#iB+Q-
bQHQ Tm2/2 2b+T` /2H TQi2M+BH ;`pBiQ`BQ /2H bBbi2K- BM+HmbQ /2 Hb `2@
;BQM2b +2Mi`H2b- 2pBiM/Q bő H +`2+BƦM /2H ~mB/Q TQ` Tì2 /2H AJ">X
S` i2KT2ìm`b 2t+2bBpK2Mi2 #Db UT % 2×103 KV- 2H ;b MQ TQb22
bm}+B2Mi2 2M2`;ő T` 2b+T`- bB2M/Q +`2i/Q TQ` 2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q v
H+MxM/Q H p2HQ+B// /2H bQMB/Q 2M ξsonint
X
Ryj
Ry9 9XdX *QM+HmbBQM2b TìB+mH`2b
SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- H;Q bBKBH` Q+m``2 2M H `2;BƦM 2ti2`M rest , bQHQ T`
i2KT2ìm`b T ! 30000 K 2H ;b TQb22 bm}+B2Mi2 2M2`;ő T` H+Mx`
H p2HQ+B// /2H bQMB/Q Q H+Mx` 2H KtBK HQ+H [m2 /2}M2 mM #`Bb-
v biBb7+2` H +QM/B+BƦM fs (ξ) = 0 T` ξ < ξtidal X .2 2bi KM2`-
#Db i2KT2ìm`b MQ 2tBbi2M TmMiQb +`őiB+Qb /2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQX _2bi-
ȹM- 2tTHQ`` H TQbB#BHB// [m2 fs (ξ) = 0 7m2` /2H +ȹKmHQX aB b2 MHBx
H 7mM+BƦM [m2 /2}M2 HQb `/BQb bƦMB+Qb 7m2` /2H +ȹKmHQ- +QMbB/2`M/Q
[m2 H 2MiHTő h /2#2 b2` +QMbiMi2 v [m2 H /2MbB// /2 2bi`2HHb 2b
MmH Uρ∗ ≡ 0V- b2 Q#iB2M2
dφad (had − φad )

fs (ξ) = − + tidal , U9Xk3V
dξ ξ
/QM/2 b2 ? miBHBx/Q H 2tT`2bBƦM T` H p2HQ+B// /2H bQMB/Q c2s =
t −φ )/2X ./Q [m2 7m2` /2H +ȹKmHQ b2 +mKTH2 H B;mH// dφ /dr =
(had ad ad
−φad /r- `2bmHi
had
t
= 0. U9XkNV
ξ
1bi B;mH// b2 biBb7+2 T` iQ/Q ξ 2M 2H +bQ /2 Hb #`Bbb UTm2b
ht = 0V v- 2MiQM+2b- H p2HQ+B// u `2bmHi +QMbiMi2 7m2` /2H +ȹKmHQ-
Tm2b dψ/dξ = 0 T` iQ/Q ξ > ξmarea X 1biQ pBQH H +QM/B+BƦM u∞ = 0X
1M 2H +bQ i`MbƦMB+Q- H 2+m+BƦM 9XkN MQ b2 biBb7+2 T` MBM;ȹM
pHQ` /2 ξX 1MiQM+2b Tm2/2 +QM+HmB`b2 [m2 MQ 2b TQbB#H2 /2b+`B#B` 2H
72MƦK2MQ /2 +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 mM AJ"> +QM mM ~mDQ /B#iB+Q- T`
MBM;mM +QM/B+BƦM /2 +QMiQ`MQX
9XdX *QM+HmbBQM2b TìB+mH`2b
1M 2bi2 +TőimHQ b2 T`2b2MiƦ- 2M T`BK2` Hm;`- mM KQ/2HQ BbQiû`KB@

+Q T` H +`2+BƦM /2H K2/BQ BMi2`2bi2H` /2 mM +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` bQ#`2
mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q /2 Kb BMi2`K2/B m#B+/Q 2M bm +2Mi`QX a2 +QM@
bB/2``QM /BbiBMiQb iBTQb /2 +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ [m2 /M Hm;`
Ry9
9X +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ Ry8
/B72`2Mi2b +m`pb /2 p2HQ+B// 2M H `2;BƦM 2ti2`BQ` /2H +ȹKmHQc pB2MiQb

v #`BbbX TìB` /2 /B+?Qb KQ/2HQb- b2 ? 2biBK/Q H ib /2 +`2@
+BƦM v- TìB` /2 ûbi- H HmKBMQbB// 2M `vQb s T` b2` +QKT`/
+QM Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /BbTQMB#H2bX a2 2M+QMi`Ʀ [m2- bmTQMB2M/Q pHQ`2b
2biM/`N T` H 2}+B2M+B /2 2KBbBƦM- HQb KQ/2HQb [mő T`2b2Mi/Qb
`2T`Q/m+2M /2+m/K2Mi2 HQb pHQ`2b /2 H HmKBMQbB// 2M `vQb s
Q#b2`p/ 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2 L:* ej33 `2TQì/ iMiQ TQ` Lm+Bi 2i
HX Ukyy3V +QKQ TQ` *b2? 2i HX UkyRyVX bBKBbKQ- bB b2 bmTQM2M p@
HQ`2b /2 H ib /2 BMv2++BƦM /2 Kb TQ` Tì2 /2 Hb ;B;Mi2b `QDb
/2H +ȹKmHQ H2p2K2Mi2 K2MQ`2b- T2`Q ȹM 2M +m2`/Q +QM 2biBK+BQM2b
i2Ʀ`B+b v Q#b2`p+BQMH2b /2 /B+?Q T`K2i`Q- 2H pHQ` 2biBK/Q /2 H
HmKBMQbB// T`Q/m+B/ TQ` +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 mM AJ"> `2bmHi K2MQ` Hb
+Qib bmT2`BQ`2b 2biBK/b T` Qi`Qb +ȹKmHQb- /QM/2 MQ b2 ?M /2i2+@
i/Q 7m2Mi2b +2Mi`H2bX 1bi ȹHiBK 2biBK+BƦM 2tTHB+`ő H /B}+mHi/
2M /2i2+i` 2biQb 2HmbBpQb ;mD2`Qb M2;`QbX SQ` ȹHiBKQ- b2 2tTHQ`Ʀ H
TQbB#BHB// /2 /2b+`B#B` 2H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 mM AJ"> +QM mM
~mDQ +mbB@/B#iB+QX 1M 2bi2 +bQ- MQ 2b TQbB#H2 biBb7+2` iQ/b Hb
+QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ bBKmHiM2K2Mi2- #DQ Hb ?BTƦi2bBb #bB+b /2
2bi2 KQ/2HQX 1MiQM+2b- /2#2 +QMbB/2``b2 H TQbB#BHB// /2 T`QTQM2` 7m@
im`b K2DQ`b /B+?Q KQ/2HQ +QM 2H }M /2 Q#i2M2` mM /2b+`BT+BƦM [m2
+QKTH2K2Mi2 H KQ/2HQ BbQiû`KB+Q T`2b2Mi/Q H +QKB2MxQ /2H +TőimHQX
N
a2 2MiB2M/2 TQ` 2biM/` [m2HHQb pHQ`2b `2TQì/Qb 2M H HBi2ìm`X
Ry8
Rye 9XdX *QM+HmbBQM2b TìB+mH`2b
Rye
172+iQb /2H AJ"> bQ#`2 2H K2/BQ
5
BMi`+ȹKmHQX bT2+iQb
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX
1M +TőimHQb Mi2`BQ`2b b2 ? 2bim/B/Q H /BMKB+ /2H ;b BMi`+ȹ@

KmHQ 2M T`2b2M+B /2 mM AJ"> +`2iMi2 v b2 ?M Q#i2MB/Q +Qib T`
H HmKBMQbB// +QMb2+m2Mi2 /2H T`Q+2bQ /2 +`2+BƦM 2M /BbiBMiQb 2b+2@
M`BQb i2`KQ/BMKB+QbX aBM 2K#`;Q- 2M H;mMQb +bQb 2H HőKBi2 BM72`BQ`
/2H `M;Q Q#i2MB/Q b2 2M+m2Mi` TQ` /2#DQ /2H HőKBi2 /2 Q#b2`p+BƦM
/2 HQb BMbi`mK2MiQb +imH2bX aB #B2M 2bi2 ?2+?Q `2bmHi +QKTiB#H2 +QM
Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b `2HBx/b 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b- BKTB/2 H M2+2b`B
+QKT`+BƦM 2Mi`2 HQb `2bmHi/Qb 2ti`ő/Qb /2 KQ/2HQb MmKû`B+Qb +QM
Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /BbTQMB#H2bX am`;2- 2MiQM+2b- H M2+2bB// /2 2M+QM@
Ryd
Ry3
i`` Qi`Qb K2+MBbKQb /2 +QMi`bi2X
1M 2bi2 +TőimHQ b2 T`2b2MiM /BbiBMib THB++BQM2b /2 HQb KQ/2HQb

/2b``QHH/Qb 2M 2H *TőimHQ 9- 2M Hb +mH2b b2 `2HBxM T`2/B++BQM2b
/2 /BbiBMiQb Q#b2`p#H2b- [m2 T2`KBi2M /Bb+`BKBM` 2Mi`2 H 2tBbi2M+B Q
MQ /2 mM AJ">X 1bib T`2/B++BQM2b b2 #bM 2M Hb /B72`2M+Bb 2M+QM@
i`/b 2M HQb T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB// /2H K2/BQ BMi2`2bi2H` +2`+ /2H +2Mi`Q
/2 HQb +ȹKmHQb Ub2++BƦM 9XkXjVX SQ` mM H/Q- b2 +QM72++BQMM KTb /2H
2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ /2#B/Q H #bQ`+BƦM /2 H Hmx 2bi2H` /2H +ȹKmHQ T`Q@
/m+B/ TQ` 2H TQHpQ /2H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹKmHQX ./Q [m2 Mm2bi`Qb KQ/2HQb
T`2/B+2M H /2MbB// /2H K2/BQ- 2b TQbB#H2 Q#i2M2` TìB` /2 2HHQb H
T`Q7mM/B// ƦTiB+ /2H TQHpQ v mb`H T` +H+mH` 2H 2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ
T`Q/m+B/Q TQ` 2H KBbKQX úbiQb `2bmHi/Qb bQM +QKT`/Qb +QM KTb
Q#b2`p+BQMH2b `2HBx/Qb T` mM Km2bi` /2 k8 +ȹKmHQb TQ` HQMbQ@
:`+ő 2i HX UkyRkVX SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- b2 +QKT`M Hb T`2/B++BQM2b /2H
KQ/2HQ /2H +TőimHQ 9 T` H /2MbB// /2H ;b +QM Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2
H K2/B/ /2 /BbT2`bBƦM- Q#i2MB/b TìB` /2 Hb bQHm+BQM2b i2KTQ`H2b
/2 TȹHb`2b /2 KBHBb2;mM/QX
1bi2 *TőimHQ b2 2M+m2Mi` /BpB/B/Q 2M /Qb ;`M/2b b2++BQM2bX 1M H

T`BK2` Ub2++BƦM 8XRV b2 /Bb+mi2M Hb +QMb2+m2M+Bb Q#b2`p+BQMH2b /2 H
T`2b2M+B /2 TQHpQ 2M 2H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹKmHQ v b2 /2iHHM HQb 7mM/K2M@
iQb i2Ʀ`B+Qb bQ+B/Qb H 72MƦK2MQ /2 2tiBM+BƦM TQ` 2H TQHpQX bBKBbKQ-
2M H b2++BƦM 8XRXj b2 2tTHB+ 2H H;Q`BiKQ /2b``QHH/Q T` H +QM72+@
+BƦM /2 HQb KTb /2 2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ- b2 T`2b2MiM HQb `2bmHi/Qb v b2
/Bb+mi2 2H BKT+iQ /2 HQb KBbKQbX G b2;mM/ b2++BƦM 2b /2/B+/ H
Dmbi2 /2 Hb T`2/B++BQM2b /2 HQb KQ/2HQb ?B/`Q/BMKB+Qb T`2b2Mi/Qb
2M 2H +TőimHQ 9 Hb K2/B/b /2 /BbT2`bBƦM U.J- /2 bm MQK#`2 2M BM;Hûb
/BbT2`bBQM K2bm`2V /2 TȹHb`2b /2 KBHBb2;mM/Q UJaSb- /2 bm MQK#`2
2M BM;Hûb KBHBb2+QM/ TmHb`bVX G b2++BƦM +QKB2Mx +QM mM #`2p2 `2b2Ƣ
bQ#`2 H #ȹb[m2/ v /2i2++BƦM /2 TȹHb`2b /2 KBHBb2;mM/Q 2M +ȹKmHQb
Ry3
8X 172+iQb /2H AJ"> bQ#`2 2H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹKmHQX bT2+iQb
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX RyN
;HQ#mH`2bX Gm2;Q- 2M H b2++BƦM 8XkXR b2 /Bb+mi2- /2b/2 mM TmMiQ /2

pBbi /BMKB+Q- H TQbB#BHB// /2 B/2MiB}+` H T`2b2M+B /2 mM AJ">
MHBxM/Q Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2 JaSbX SQ` ȹHiBKQ- 2M H b2++BƦM 8XkXk
b2 2tTQM2 2H KQ/2HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 2biBK` 2H pHQ` /2 .J TìB` /2
Hb bQHm+BQM2b i2KTQ`H2b /2 HQb JaSb- DmMiQ H KûiQ/Q /2 Dmbi2 v HQb
`2bmHi/Qb Q#i2MB/QbX
8XRX 172+iQb /2H TQHpQ 2M Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b
1bim/BQb bQ#`2 H 2tiBM+BƦMR /2 H Hmx TQ` Tì2 /2H K2/BQ [m2 ûbi
i`pB2b ?M bB/Q `2HBx/Qb /2b/2 HQb ƢQb jyX 1M TìB+mH`- H 2pB@
/2M+B +H` /2 H 2tBbi2M+B /2H Qb+m`2+BKB2MiQ BMi2`2bi2H` 7m2 T`QpBbi
TQ` h`mKTH2` URNjyV- [mB2M `2HBxƦ mM 2bim/BQ 2bi/őbiB+Q 2M +ȹKmHQb
#B2ìQbX úbiQb- /B72`2M+B /2 HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b- 2biM m#B+/Qb
T`BM+BTHK2Mi2 2M 2H /Bb+Q /2 H :HtBX h`mKTH2` URNjyV 2M+QMi`Ʀ [m2
Hb 2bi`2HHb 2M HQb +ȹKmHQb Kb H2DMQb Hm+őM Kb /û#BH2b [m2 HQ [m2
b2 2bT2` /2 H H2v /2 /2+BKB2MiQ T` H BMi2MbB// 2M 2H p+őQ- BM@
/B+M/Q +H`K2Mi2 [m2 H Hmx T`Qp2MB2Mi2 /2 +ȹKmHQb /BbiMi2b ?#ő
2tT2`BK2Mi/Q H;ȹM iBTQ /2 i2Mm+BƦMX P#b2`pƦ [m2 H #bQ`+BƦM /2
H Hmx +`2+2 +QM H /BbiM+B v 2b Kb BMi2MbQ T` HQM;Bim/2b /2 QM/
Kb +Qìb 2M 2H `M;Q /2H pBbB#H2X 1bi /2T2M/2M+B ?+2 [m2 H Hmx /2
HQM;Bim/ /2 QM/ H`; U`QDQV b2 K2MQb i2Mm/ [m2 H /2 QM/ +Qì
UxmHV- T`Q/m+B2M/Q mM mK2MiQ /2H BM/B+2 /2 +QHQ` U2M`QD2+BKB2MiQV
/2 Hb 7m2Mi2bX G BMi2`T`2i+BƦM /2 2biQb T`BK2`Qb `2bmHi/Qb v ?#ő
HH2p/Q- TQ` [m2H 2MiQM+2b- H +QM+HmbBƦM [m2 H +mb /2 2bi2 72MƦ@
K2MQ BMpQHm+`# T2[m2Ƣb Tìő+mHb bƦHB/b- +QM /BK2i`Qb /2H Q`/2M
/2 K;MBim/ /2 H HQM;Bim/ /2 QM/ /2 H Hmx- BX2- TQHpQX
G 2tiBM+BƦM b2 /2}M2 +QKQ H /B72`2M+B 2Mi`2 H K;MBim/ Q#b2`p/

/2 H 7m2Mi2 Umλ V v H [m2 i2M/`ő H KBbK bB 2H K2/BQ 2Mi`2 2HH v 2H
R
a2 2MiB2M/2 TQ` 2tiBM+BƦM- #bQ`+BƦM v b+ii2`BM;X
RyN
RRy 8XRX 172+iQb /2H TQHpQ 2M Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b
Q#b2`p/Q` 2bimpB2` p+őQ Umλ0 VX lbmHK2Mi2- b2 2tT`2b H 2tiBM+BƦM

2M H #M/ pBbmH
AV = V − V 0 . U8XRV
*QKQ b2 2tT`2bƦ Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2- 2bi2 72MƦK2MQ /2T2M/2- /2Kb- /2

H HQM;Bim/ /2 QM/- Q#b2`pM/Qb2 [m2 b2 +2Miȹ T` Hb HQM;Bim/2b
/2 QM/ Kb +Qìb Up2`/2- xmH- pBQH2iVX 1biQ ?+2 [m2 Hb 2bi`2HHb
T`2b2Mi2M őM/B+2b /2 +QHQ`k Kb ;`M/2b [m2 HQb BMi`őMb2+Qb /2 bm iBTQ-
2b /2+B`- b2 Q#b2`p mM 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ` TQbBiBpQX S` Hb #M/b " v o
b2 2b+`B#2- 2MiQM+2b
EB−V = (B − V ) − (B − V )0 . U8XkV
1H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ` iK#BûM Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M 7mM+BƦM /2 H 2t@

iBM+BƦM T` +/ mM /2 Hb HQM;Bim/2b /2 QM/ Aλ = ∆mλ - 2M 2bi2
+bQ
EB−V = (B − B0 ) − (V − V0 ) = AB − AV . U8XjV
G H2v /2 2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ /2i2`KBM +ƦKQ H 2tiBM+BƦM KQMQ+`QKiB+

Aλ +K#B +QM H HQM;Bim/ /2 QM/ λX lbmHK2Mi2- 2bi H2v 2b /2b+`BTi
TQ` HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 2tiBM+BƦM Rλ /2}MB/Qb +QKQ
Rλ = Aλ /E(B − V ). U8X9V
G MQ`KHBx+BƦM E(B − V ) 2b 2H2;B/ +QM 2H }M /2 Q#i2M2` pHQ`2b

`2T`2b2MiiBpQb /2 Hb T`QTB2//2b /2H TQHpQ HQ H`;Q /2 H HőM2 /2 H
pBbmH T2`Q BM/2T2M/B2Mi2 /2 H +MiB// /2 TQHpQ [m2 b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M
2b2 +KBMQX
.2 [mû KM2` Rλ p`ő +QM H HQM;Bim/ /2 QM/ 2bi /2i2`KBM/Q

k
úbiQb bQM +H+mH/Qb +QKQ H /B72`2M+B 2Mi`2 /Qb K;MBim/2b- `2biM/Q H /2
HQM;Bim/ /2 QM/ Kb H`; H /2 HQM;Bim/ /2 QM/ Kb +QìX
RRy
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX RRR
TQ` H Mim`H2x /2H TQHpQ BMi2`2bi2H`X SQ` 2D2KTHQ- 2M iQ/b Hb /B@
`2++BQM2b /2 H oő G+i2- Rλ +`2+2 ?+B 2H mHi`pBQH2iX 1M 2H +bQ /2
TQHpQ BMi2`2bi2H` /B7mbQ- [m2 2b 2H `2bTQMb#H2 /2 H 2tiBM+BƦM HQ H`;Q
/2 H KvQ`ő /2 Hb HőM2b /2 pBbBƦM- H H2v /2 2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ T`Q/m+B@
/ TQ` 2bi2 TQHpQ b2 H HHK MQ`KHX 1H pHQ` /2 RV b2 ? 2biBK/Q-
TìB` /2 Q#b2`p+BQM2b 2M RV ∼ 3,1 U*`/2HHB 2i HX- RN3N- ap;2
Ji?Bb- RNdNVX aBM 2K#`;Q- 2bi2 pHQ` MQ 2b mMBp2`bHX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- 2H
KBbKQ H+Mx pHQ`2b 2M 2H `M;Q 9Ĝ8 2M 2H +bQ /2 Mm#2b KQH2+mH`2b
/2Mbb UG`bQM 2i HX- RNNe- Ji?Bb- RNNy- q?Bii2i 2i HX- kyyRV KB2M@
i`b [m2 2tBbi2M BM/B++BQM2b [m2 Mm#2b +B``mb 2M Hib HiBim/2b Tm2/2M
i2M2` pHQ`2b /2 RV iM #DQb +QKQ k U6BixTi`B+F Jbb- RNNy- G`@
bQM 2i HX- RNNe- axQKQ`m :m?i?Fmì- RNNNVX 1bim/BQb #b/Qb
2M 7QiQK2i`ő 2bi2H` Q#i2MB/ /2 PTiB+H :`pBiiBQMH G2Mb 1tT2`B@
K2Mi UP:G1V v JbbBp2 *QKT+i >HQ P#D2+ib UJ*>PV bm;B2`2M
[m2 RV 2b +QMbB/2`#H2K2Mi2 K2MQ` [m2 j 2M H /B`2++BƦM /2H #mH#Q
:H+iB+Q USQTQrbFB- kyyy- amKB- kyy9- l/HbFB- kyyjVX *#2 /2bi+`
[m2 HQb 2bim/BQb K2M+BQM/Qb Km2bi`2M 2H TQHpQ 2M mM KTHBQ `M;Q
/2 /BbiM+Bb H aQH, H;mMQb 2bim/BM 2H K2/BQ BMi2`2bi2H` /B7mbQ 2M bmb
H`2/2/Q`2b- KB2Mi`b Qi`Qb- 2bT2+BHK2Mi2 [m2HHQb `2HBx/Qb #Db
HiBim/2b :H+iB+b- Tm2/2M 2bim/B` 2H TQHpQ /BbiM+Bb Km+?Q Kb
;`M/2bX
8XRXRX h`MbTQì2 `/BiBpQ
S` +H+mH` H 2tiBM+BƦM T`Q/m+B/ TQ` 2H TQHpQ /2H K2/BQ BMi2`2bi2@

H` 2M mM +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` 2b M2+2b`BQ BMi2;`` H 2+m+BƦM /2 i`Mb@
TQì2 `/BiBpQ 2M 2H KBbKQX S` Q#i2M2` iH 2+m+BƦM /2 i`MbTQì2
`/BiBpQ b2;mBKQb mM `vQ /2 7`2+m2M+B ν 2M H HőM2 /2 H pBbmH /2H
Q#b2`p/Q`X 1H +Q2}+B2Mi2 /2 2KBbBƦM 2b ǫν /2 KM2` [m2 ǫν dω 2b H 2M@
2`;ő /2 `/B+BƦM 2KBiB/ TQ` mMB// /2 pQHmK2M- iB2KTQ v 7`2+m2M+B
RRR
RRk 8XRX 172+iQb /2H TQHpQ 2M Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b
2M 2H 2H2K2MiQ /2 M;mHQ bƦHB/Q dω UQ`B2Mi/Q /2 7`2Mi2 H Q#b2`p/Q`VX

G BMi2MbB// /2 H `/B+BƦM 2b Iν - /2 KM2` [m2 Iν dω 2b H 2M2`;ő
TQ` mMB// /2 iB2KTQ v 7`2+m2M+B i`p2bM/Q mM `2 mMB// T2`@
T2/B+mH` H HBM2 /2 pBbBƦM- 2M mM M;mHQ bƦHB/Q dωX HQ H`;Q /2H
2H2K2MiQ /2 +KBMQ 2Mi`2 ℓ v ℓ + dℓ H BMi2MbB// +`2+2 ǫν dωdlX S2`Q-
TQ` 2H Qi`Q H/Q- iK#BûM bm7`2 mM i2Mm+BƦM T`QTQ`+BQMH Iν U+mM@
iQ Kb 2M2`;ő ?v /BbTQMB#H2- Kb 2M2`;ő b2 #bQ`#2V [m2 b2 2b+`B#2
+QKQ κν Iν dωds- /QM/2 κ 2b 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 /2 2tiBM+BƦM v- 2M ;2M2`H-
/2T2M/2 /2 H 7`2+m2M+BX "HM+2M/Q 2KBbBƦM v #bQ`+BƦM b2 Q#iB2M2
H 2+m+BƦM /2 i`MbTQì2 `/BiBpQ
dIν
= −κν Iν + ǫν . U8X8V
ds
1M 2H +bQ /2 2tiBM+BƦM Tm` ǫν = 0 v T` mM BMi2MbB// BM+B/2Mi2
Iν,0 - H BMi2;`+BƦM /2 H 2+X 8X8 HH2p H H2v /2 #bQ`+BƦM
! # s∗ "
∗
Iν (s ) = Iν,0 exp − κν ds , U8XeV
0
/QM/2 s∗ 2b H /BbiM+B `2+Q``B/ TQ` H HmxX 1H pHQ` /2 H BMi2;`H /2H

+Q2}+B2Mi2 /2 #bQ`+BƦM [m2 T`2+2 2M H 2tTQM2M+BH /2 H 2+m+BƦM
8Xe 2b H T`Q7mM/B// ƦTiB+ /2H K2/BQ Tν v 2bi `2H+BQM/ +QM H
2tiBM+BƦM- +QKQ b2 p2` 2M H b2++BƦM bB;mB2Mi2X
_2bi- 2MiQM+2b- KQ/2H` T`QTB/K2Mi2 HQb iû`KBMQb /2 2KBbBƦM v

#bQ`+BƦM /2 H 2+m+BƦM /2 i`MbTQì2 2M Mm2bi`Q T`Q#H2KX aB b2 2b@
im/B H BMi2MbB// 2KBiB/ TQ` +/ 2bi`2HH TQ` b2T`/Q b2 Q#iB2M2
mM H2v /2 #bQ`+BƦM +QKQ H 2+m+BƦM 8Xe- /2#B/Q H mb2M+B /2
7m2Mi2b 2M 2H +KBMQX .2 2bi KM2`- H 2+m+BƦM /2 i`MbTQì2 iB2M2
bQHm+BƦM MHőiB+ v H +QKTH2DB// MmKû`B+ b2 /2#2 2bi`B+iK2Mi2 H
BMi2;`+BƦM /2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 /2 #bQ`+BƦMX
RRk
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX RRj
1H +Q2}+B2Mi2 /2 2tiBM+BƦM 2M H 2+m+BƦM 8X8 Tm2/2 2biBK`b2 +QKQ
κν = nσe , U8XdV
/QM/2 σe 2b H b2++BƦM 2}+x T` 2H T`Q+2bQ /2 2tiBM+BƦM v n = ρpolvo /mpolvo

2b H /2MbB// /2 Tìő+mHb /2 TQHpQX úbi Tm2/2 2biBK`b2 2M ∼ 10−3 ρgas
U_Q#2ìb- RN3NV- /QM/2 ρgas 2b /2MbB// /2H ;b v Tm2/2 Q#i2M2`b2 /2
HQb KQ/2HQb T`2b2Mi/Qb 2M 2H *TőimHQ 9X G b2++BƦM 2}+x /2 H 2tiBM@
+BƦM 2b +H+mH/ +QKQ H b2++BƦM 2}+x ;2QKûi`B+ /2 Hb Tìő+mHb /2
TQHpQ U/2 `/BQ aV- T2b/ TQ` mM 7+iQ` q [m2 /2i2`KBM H 2}+B2M+B
/2 H #bQ`+BƦM-
σe = qπa2 . U8X3V
oH2 +H`` [m2 bQHQ HQb 272+iQb /2 #bQ`+BƦM TQ` 2H TQHpQ bQM i2MB/Qb
2M +m2Mi- /2bT`2+BM/Q HQb 272+iQb /2 b+ii2`BM; UETHM- RNdyVX .2
2bi2 KQ/Q- 2H `/BQ /2 H Tìő+mHj v H 2}+B2M+B /2H T`Q+2bQ `2bmHiM
T`K2i`Qb HB#`2b /2H KQ/2HQ v H H2v /2 #bQ`+BƦM 2bi // TQ`
! s∗
n(s)ds
Iν = Iν,0 exp−σe 0 . U8XNV
8XRXkX 1biBK+BƠM /2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ`
1M H b2++BƦM T`2+2/2Mi2 b2 KQ/2HƦ H BMi2MbB// /2 `/B+BƦM T`Qp2@

MB2Mi2 /2 mM 2bi`2HH 2M T`2b2M+B /2 TQHpQX TìB` /2 ûbi `2bmHi
TQbB#H2 2biBK` 2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ` v- 2M +QMb2+m2M+B- 2H 2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ
/2 H `/B+BƦM 2KBiB/ TQ` H 2bi`2HHX
G BMi2MbB// /2 `/B+BƦM Iν v H K;MBim/ Q#b2`p/ m b2 `2H+BQ@

MM b2;ȹM m = −2,5 log Iν +cteX liBHBxM/Q H 2+m+BƦM 8XN- H #bQ`+BƦM
j
a2 bmTQM2M iKƢQb +`+i2`őbiB+Qb /2 ∼ 1 µm
RRj
RR9 8XRX 172+iQb /2H TQHpQ 2M Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b
2M H #M/ s Tm2/2 2b+`B#B`b2

+ ! s∗ ,
κX (s)ρ(r)ds
IX0 × exp− 0
m − m0 = X − X0 = −2,5 log U8XRyV
IX0
# s∗
= −2,5 log(exp −κX ρ(r)ds) U8XRRV
0
# s∗
= −2,5 log(exp −σe,X n(r)ds) U8XRkV
0
U8XRjV
/QM/2 m0 2b H K;MBim/ Q#b2`p/ bBM 2tiBM+BƦM v b2 2b+`B#BƦ 2tTHB+B@

iK2Mi2 H /2T2M/2M+B /2 H b2++BƦM 2}+x σ +QM H HQM;Bim/ /2 QM/X
G #bQ`+BƦM Aλ - `2bmHi 2MiQM+2b
# s∗
Aλ = 1,08σeλ n(r)ds. U8XR9V
0
.2 2bi2 KQ/Q- 2H +Q+B2Mi2 2Mi`2 H 2tiBM+BƦM #bQHmi 2M +B2ì #M/ v

H 2tiBM+BƦM #bQHmi 2M 2H pBbmH AV - `2bmHi
Aλ σe,λ
= . U8XR8V
AV σe,V
.2 +m2`/Q Hb /2}MB+BQM2b T`2pBb- 2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ` 8Xj Tm2/2 2b@
+`B#B`b2- 2MiQM+2b-
# s∗ # s∗
Eλ−V = 1,08σe,λ n(s)ds − 1,08σe,V n(s)ds U8XReV
0 0
# s∗
= 1,08 n(s)ds(σe,λ − σe,V ) U8XRdV
#0 s∗
σe,λ
= 1,08 n(s)ds σe,V ( − 1) U8XR3V
σe,V
#0 s∗
Aλ
= 1,08 n(s)ds σe,V ( − 1). U8XRNV
0 AV
RR9
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX RR8
*`/2HHB 2i HX URN3NV 2M+QMi``QM mM +Q``2H+BƦM 2Mi`2 H H2v /2 2M`Q@

D2+BKB2MiQ- Aλ /AV - v 2H T`K2i`Q RV X .2iHHM- /2Kb- mM 7Ʀ`KmH
MHőiB+ [m2 T2`KBi2 +H+mH` 2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ`X G H2v /2 2tiBM+BƦM
THMi2/ 2b /2 H 7Q`K
|Aλ /AV | = a(x) + b(x)/RV , U8XkyV
/QM/2 x = λ−1 v H HQM;Bim/ /2 QM/ λ 2bi // 2M µm−1 X

GQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b a(x) v b(x) /2 *`/2HHB 2i HX URN3NV T2`KBi2M `22K@
THx` 2H pHQ` /2 Aλ /AV 2M H 2+m+BƦM 8XRN b2;ȹM H #M/ /2H 2bT2+i`Q
2M H [m2 b2 2biû i`#DM/QX 1M Mm2bi`Q +bQ- 2H2;BKQb H #M/ " Tm2b
HQb KTb Q#b`p+BQMH2b /2 HQMbQ@:`+ő 2i HX UkyRkV 7m2`QM +QM72+@
+BQM/Qb K2/BMi2 E(B − V )X
8XRXjX JTb /2 2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ
S` +QMbi`mB` 2H KT /2 2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ- 2H +ȹKmHQ b2 /BpB/2 2M

+2H/b /2 iKƢQ ∼ 0,1 r0 X 1H 2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ 2b +H+mH/Q T` mM
p2MiM /2 4 r0 × 4 r0 +2Mi`/Q 2M 2H +ȹKmHQ /2 KQ/Q [m2 2H ;`}+Q
+Q``2bTQM/2 H BK;2M /2H +ȹKmHQ 2M 2H THMQ /2H +B2HQX a2 bmTQM2M
pHQ`2b 2biM/` T` 2H iKƢQ v H Kb /2 Hb Tìő+mHb /2 TQHpQ
Urp ∼ 1µm- mp ∼ 10−14 gV v mM pHQ` q = 0,1 T` H 2}+B2M+B /2H
T`Q+2bQ /2 #bQ`+BƦMX
1H KûiQ/Q /2b``QHH/Q b2 #b 2M 2H +H+mHQ /2 H BMi2;`H 2M H

2+m+BƦM 8XRN ?bi H TQbB+BƦM /2 H 2bi`2HH s∗ X SQ` 2bi `xƦM- `2bmHi
#bQHmiK2Mi2 M2+2b`BQ +QMQ+2` Hb TQbB+BQM2b /2 Hb 2bi`2HHb 2M 2H +ȹ@
KmHQX *QM mM KûiQ/Q /2 JQMi2 *`HQ b2 ;2M2` mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2bi2H`
bBMiûiB+- miBHBxM/Q T` H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 Hb +QQ`/2M/b `/BH2b H
/2MbB// 2bi2H` `2bmHiMi2 /2H KQ/2HQ /2 JBQ++?B UkyydV T`2b2Mi/Q 2M
2H *TőimHQ k Up2` 2+m+BƦM kXeVX S` H +QQ`/2M/ TQH` b2 miBHBx mM
RR8
RRe 8XRX 172+iQb /2H TQHpQ 2M Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b
/Bbi`B#m+BƦM mMB7Q`K2- KB2Mi`b [m2 H +QQ`/2M/ xBKmiH `2bTQM/2

mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM ∼ senθX lM p2x Q#i2MB/ H TQbB+BƦM i`B/BK2MbBQMH
/2 H 2bi`2HH b2 `2HBx mM T`Qv2++BƦM /2 H KBbK bQ#`2 H HőM2 /2 H
pBbmH v b2 Q#iB2M2 mM T`Q7mM/B// p [m2 BM/B+ bB H 2bi`2HH b2 2M+m2M@
i` 2M H KBi/ +2`+M Q H2DM /2H +ȹKmHQ9 X G BMi2;`H /2 H 2+m+BƦM
8XRN /2#2 `2HBx`b2 ?bi 2H pHQ` p +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 T` +/ 2bi`2HHX
1H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ` /2 iQ/b Hb 2bi`2HHb /2 +/ +2H/ b2 T`QK2/B T`
Q#i2M2` 2H KT /2 2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ }MH 2M +/ +2H/ /2 iKƢQ ∆Rt
v ∆z 8 X
1M Hb };m`b 8XRXR- 8XRXj v 8XRX8 b2 T`2b2MiM HQb KTb Q#i2MB/Qb

T` 2H +mKmHQ J R8 T` /BbiBMib i2KT2ìm`b /2H ;b UT = 5000, 9976
v 12559 K- `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2V v- 2M +/ mMQ /2 HQb +bQb T` /BbiBMiQb
pHQ`2b /2 H Kb /2H AJ"> UMBH = 0, 398, 1000 v 3981 M⊙ VX G 2b@
+H /2 +QHQ`2b `2T`2b2Mi 2H HQ;`BiKQ /2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ` E(B −V )X lM
`2bmHi/Q MQi#H2 2b 2H pHQ` [m2 H+Mx 2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ` E(B − V ) 2M
2H +bQ bBM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q T` H i2KT2ìm` Kb #D UT = 5000 KVX
1biQb pHQ`2b `2bmHiM Ʀ`/2M2b /2 K;MBim/ TQ` 2M+BK /2 Hb 2biBK@
+BQM2b Q#b2`p+BQMH2b- HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 /2b+ì` 2bi +QK#BM+BƦM /2
T`K2i`QbX LQ Q#biMi2- /B+?Qb pHQ`2b Tm2/2M `2+QM+BHB`b2 +QM Hb
Q#b2`p+BQM2b- bB H i2KT2ìm` /2H ;b 2b KvQ`X 1bi +`+i2`őbiB+
2b +QMb2+m2M+B /2H HiQ pHQ` /2 H /2MbB// [m2 bm`;2 /2 HQb KQ/2HQb
/2H +TőimHQ 9 +mM/Q MQ b2 +QMbB/2` H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2H
+ȹKmHQX 1b /2+B`- 2H 2b+2M`BQ bBM AJ"> bQHQ Tm2/2 b2` +QKTiB#H2 +QM
Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b bB H i2KT2ìm` /2H ;b BMi`+ȹKmHQ 2b T ! 10000 K-
[m2 T2`KBi2 2tTmHb` H KvQ` Tì2 /2H K2/BQ /2H +ȹKmHQX 1H MHBbBb
9
a2 2MiB2M/2 TQ` KBi/ +2`+M H KBi/ /2H +ȹKmHQ [m2 b2 2M+m2Mi` 2Mi`2 2H
+2Mi`Q /2H KBbKQ v 2H Q#b2`p/Q` 2M H hB2``X
8
Rt v z bQM +QQ`/2M/b T`Qv2+i/b 2M 2H THMQ /2H +B2HQX
RRe
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX RRd
6B;m` 8XRXR, JTb /2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ` E(B − V ) T` J R8- +QMbB/2`M/Q
mM i2KT2ìm` /2 5000 K T` 2H ;bX 1H T`BK2` KT U``B#V +Q``2bTQM/2
H +bQ bBM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q KB2Mi`b [m2 HQb KTb `2biMi2b +Q``2bTQM/2M HQb
+bQb M = 398 U#DQV- 1000 U};m` bB;mB2Mi2- ``B#V v jN3R M⊙ U};m`
bB;mB2Mi2- #DQV- `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X 1H MBp2H /2 2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ T`2/B+?Q 2M 2H
+bQ bBM AJ"> T2`KBi2 /2b+ì` /B+? TQbB#BHB// KB2Mi`b [m2- 2M 2H `2biQ
/2 HQb +bQb- H T`2/B++BƦM b2 2M+m2Mi` TQ` /2#DQ /2H HőKBi2 /2 Q#b2`p+BƦM
+imHX RRd
RR3 8XRX 172+iQb /2H TQHpQ 2M Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b
6B;m` 8XRXk, *QMiBMm+BƦM };m` 8XRXRX ``B#, MBH = 1000 M⊙ X #DQ,

MBH = 3981 M⊙ X
RR3
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX RRN
6B;m` 8XRXj, JTb /2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ` E(B − V ) T` J R8- +QMbB/2`M@
/Q mM i2KT2ìm` /2 9976 K T` 2H ;bX 1H T`BK2` KT U``B#V +Q``2@
bTQM/2 H +bQ bBM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q KB2Mi`b [m2 HQb KTb `2biMi2b +Q``2bTQM@
/2M HQb +bQb M = 398 U#DQV- 1000 U};m` bB;mB2Mi2- ``B#V v 3981 M⊙
U};m` bB;mB2Mi2- #DQV- `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X /B72`2M+B /2 HQb KTb T`
T = 5000 K- 2H MBp2H /2 2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ T`2/B+?Q 2M iQ/Qb HQb +bQb b2 2M@
+m2Mi` TQ` /2#DQ /2H HőKBi2 /2 Q#b2`p+BƦM +imHX
RRN
Rky 8XRX 172+iQb /2H TQHpQ 2M Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b
6B;m` 8XRX9, *QMiBMm+BƦM /2 H };m` 8XRXjX ``B#, MBH = 1000 M⊙ X

#DQ, MBH = 3981 M⊙ X
Rky
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX RkR
[m2 bB;m2 b2 `2}2`2 2t+HmbBpK2Mi2 HQb KQ/2HQb [m2 bmTQM2M mM AJ">

2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQX
1M T`BK2` Hm;`- b2 Q#b2`p [m2 2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ` T`Q/m+B/Q TQ` H

#bQ`+BƦM TQ` 2H TQHpQ b2 2M+m2Mi` Kmv TQ` /2#DQ /2H HőKBi2 T`
H b2MbB#BHB//- b2;ȹM Hb iû+MB+b Q#b2`p+BQMH2b +imH2b U∼ 10−2 -
HQMbQ@:`+ő 2i HX- kyRkVX /2Kb- b2 `2T`Q/m+2 H bBK2i`ő 2b7û`B+
/2 HQb KQ/2HQb ?B/`Q/BMKB+Qb /2b``QHH/Qb T` 2H ;b 2M 2H +TőimHQ
9X SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- TìB` /2 HQb KTb +QM72++BQM/Qb T` J R8- MQ b2
Q#b2`p mM +QKTQìKB2MiQ +H`Q 7`2Mi2 p`B+BQM2b /2 H i2KT2ìm@
` /2H ;bX aBM 2K#`;Q- b2 2M+m2Mi` [m2 H BM+`2K2Mi` H Kb /2H
AJ">- H T2M/B2Mi2 /2H T2`}H /2 2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ mK2MiX bBKBbKQ-
2H pHQ` KtBKQ /2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ` /2+`2+2 +QM H Kb /2H AJ">X
K#b +`+i2`őbiB+b Tm2/2M 2tTHB+`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 HQb T2`}H2b /2
/2MbB// Q#i2MB/Qb, H mK2Mi` H Kb /2H AJ">- H T2M/B2Mi2 /2H
T2`}H /2 /2MbB// `2bmHi Kb T`QMmM+B/ v- /2Kb- /2+`2+2 2H pHQ`
/2 H /2MbB// /2 Kb 2M Hb `2;BQM2b +2Mi`H2bX aB b2 bmTQM2 [m2 H
/Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 TQHpQ bB;m2 H /2H ;be - /B+? /BbKBMm+BƦM 2M 2H pHQ`
/2 H /2MbB// BKTHB+ /B`2+iK2Mi2 mM pHQ` K2MQ` /2 H #bQ`+BƦM
TQ` 2H TQHpQX /2Kb- T2M/B2Mi2b Kb T`QMmM+B/b BKTHB+M mM Kb
`TB/Q /2+BKB2MiQ /2 H /2MbB// /2 TQHpQ- /2 KQ/Q [m2 H T2M/B2Mi2
/2H KT /2 2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ mK2Mi bB b2 mK2Mi 2H pHQ` /2 MBH X
1M T`BM+BTBQ- 2bib /Qb K;MBim/2b TQ/`őM /2}MB` Q#b2`p#H2b T`
H /2i2`KBM+BƦM /2 Hb Kbb /2 HQb AJ">bX aBM 2K#`;Q- 2H Q`/2M
/2 K;MBim/ /2 HQb pHQ`2b Q#i2MB/Qb BKTB/2 +mH[mB2` /2i2`KBM+BƦM
Q#b2`p+BQMH /2 HQb KBbKQb 2M 2H 7mim`Q +2`+MQX ./Q [m2 H /B72`2M@
+B 2Mi`2 HQb pHQ`2b 2biBK/Qb +QM 2bi2 KûiQ/Q v HQb pHQ`2b Q#i2MB/Qb
TQ` HQMbQ@:`+ő 2i HX UkyRkV 2b 2t+2bBp- 2M H i#H 8XRXR b2 HBbiM
HQb +ȹKmHQb +mvQb KTb Q#b2`p+BQMH2b bm;B2`2M +B2ì bBK2i`ő /2 H
1bi bmTQbB+BƦM 2b pHB/ ȹM bB2M/Q [m2 H /2MbB// /2 TQHpQ `2bmHi 10−3 p2+2b
e
Kb +?B+ [m2 H /2 ;bX
RkR
Rkk 8XRX 172+iQb /2H TQHpQ 2M Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b
*ȹKmHQ max{E(B − V })
L:* eeke 1,32 × 10−6
L:* eejd 1,13 × 10−7
L:* ekee 5,52 × 10−5
L:* ee3R 1,38 × 10−7
*m/`Q 8XRXR, oHQ`2b KtBKQb /2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ` E(B − V ) T` mM bm#@
+QMDmMiQ /2 H HBbi /2 +ȹKmHQb /2 HQMbQ@:`+ő 2i HX UkyRkVX hQ/Qb b2 2M@
+m2Mi`M TQ` /2#DQ /2 HQb HőKBi2b /2 Q#b2`p+BƦMX
/Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 TQHpQ- DmMiQ H pHQ` KtBKQ Q#i2MB/Q +QM 2bi2 KûiQ@

/Q T` mM pHQ` +QMb2`p/Q` /2 1000 M⊙ T` H Kb /2H AJ"> v
T = 9976 K T` H i2KT2ìm` /2H ;b- 2t+2TiQ NGC 6681 [m2 b2
bmTmbQ mM AJ"> /2 100 M⊙ d X 1M iQ/Qb HQb +bQb /B+?Q KtBKQ 2b k@j
Ʀ`/2M2b /2 K;MBim/ K2MQ` [m2 H `2bQHm+BƦM /2 HQMbQ@:`+ő 2i HX
UkyRkVX aBM 2K#`;Q- H bBK2i`ő /2 HQb KTb bm;B2`2 [m2 TQ/`ő ?#2`
H;ȹM iBTQ /2 ~mDQ ;HQ#H- TQ` HQ [m2 2biQb +ȹKmHQb b2`őM +M/B/iQb
Kb /2+m/Qb T` HH2p` +#Q TQbi2`BQ`2b BMp2biB;+BQM2bX
1M 2bi b2++BƦM b2 /2b``QHHƦ mM KûiQ/Q T` +QMbi`mB` KTb /2

2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ- TìB` /2 mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 ;b //X amTQMB2M/Q
mM H2v /2 2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ 2biM/`- b2 2M+QMi`Ʀ [m2 2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ`
2biBK/Q b2 2M+m2Mi` TQ` /2#DQ /2 H b2MbB#BHB// /2 Hb Q#b2`p@
+BQM2b3 - HQ [m2 BKTB/2 2H M2+2b`BQ +QMi`bi2 +QM HQb KTb `2HBx/Qb
TQ` HQMbQ@:`+ő 2i HX UkyRkVX GQb T`K2i`Qb HB#`2b /2H KQ/2HQ MQ
T2`KBi2M K2DQ`` 2bi bBim+BƦM- Tm2b b2 `2[m2`B`ő /2 Tìő+mHb /2 TQH@
pQ +QM iKƢQb v 2}+B2M+Bb /2 #bQ`+BƦM 2t+2bBpK2Mi2 ;`M/2bX .2
iQ/b KM2`b- b2 2M+QMi`Ʀ [m2 H T2M/B2Mi2 /2H T2`}H /2 2M`QD2+BKB2M@
d
1M 2bi2 +ȹKmHQ 2H KQ/2HQ /2 JBQ++?B UkyydV T`2b2Mi BM2bi#BHB//2b bB MBH !
600 M⊙ v MQ /2b+`B#2 /2+m/K2Mi2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2bi2H` /2H KBbKQX
3
Sm2/2- 2MiQM+2b- `2bmHi` `2H2pMi2 BMp2biB;` bQ#`2 2H BKT+iQ [m2 iH H2v /2
2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ iB2M2 bQ#`2 Hb 2biBK+BQM2b `2HBx/bX
Rkk
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX Rkj
6B;m` 8XRX8, JTb /2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ` E(B − V ) T` J R8- +QMbB/2`M@
/Q mM i2KT2ìm` /2 12556 K T` 2H ;bX 1H T`BK2` KT U``B#V +Q``2@
bTQM/2 H +bQ bBM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q KB2Mi`b [m2 HQb KTb `2biMi2b +Q``2bTQM@
/2M HQb +bQb M = 398 U#DQV- 1000 U};m` bB;mB2Mi2- ``B#V v 3981 M⊙
U};m` bB;mB2Mi2- #DQV- `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X /B72`2M+B /2 HQb KTb T`
T = 5000 K- 2H MBp2H /2 2M`QD2+BKB2MiQ T`2/B+?Q 2M iQ/Qb HQb +bQb b2 2M@
+m2Mi` TQ` /2#DQ /2H HőKBi2 /2 Q#b2`p+BƦM +imHX
Rkj
Rk9 8XRX 172+iQb /2H TQHpQ 2M Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b
6B;m` 8XRXe, *QMiBMm+BƦM };m` 8XRX8X ``B#, MBH = 1000 M⊙ X #DQ,

MBH = 3981 M⊙
Rk9
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX Rk8
iQ TQ` 2H TQHpQ /2T2M/2 /2 H Kb /2H AJ">- HQ [m2 2bi#H2+2 /B+?Q

T`K2i`Q +QKQ mM TQbB#H2 Q#b2`p#H2 T` Q#b2`p+BQM2b 7mim`b- 2M
+bQ /2 K2DQ``b2 Hb iû+MB+b /2 K2/B+BƦMX
8XkX SȳHb`2b 2M +ȳKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
Gb 2bi`2HHb /2 M2mi`QM2b MQ bQM Kb [m2 mMQ /2 HQb TQbB#H2b }@

MH2b /2 H 2pQHm+BƦM Mim`H /2 mM 2bi`2HH KbBpX lM p2x ;Qi/Q
2H +QK#mbiB#H2 Mm+H2` /2 H 2bi`2HH- H KBbK 2KTB2x +QMi`2`b2
bHpQ [m2 mM 7m2Mi2 2ti` /2 T`2bBƦM /2i2M; 2bi2 +QHTbQX hH 2b 2H
+bQ 2M Hb 2bi`2HHb /2 M2mi`QM2bX Gb /2MbB//2b H+Mx/b bQM HiőbB@
Kb U∼ 1017 kg m−3 V- /2 KQ/Q iH [m2 HQb 2H2+i`QM2b b2 +QK#BMM +QM
HQb T`QiQM2b- /M/Q Hm;` H 7Q`K+BƦM /2 M2mi`QM2b i`pûb /2 H
`2++BƦM
p + e → n + ν. U8XkRV
.2 2bi KM2`- +mM/Q H /2MbB// H+Mx pHQ`2b TQ` 2M+BK /2H

pHQ` +`őiB+Q Uρc = 3,2 1014 kg m−3 V- H Ki2`B 2bi2H` b2 2M+m2Mi` 7Q`@
K/ T`BM+BTHK2Mi2 /2 M2mi`QM2bX úbiQb- H B;mH [m2 HQb 2H2+i`QM2b-
bQM 72`KBQM2b [m2 Q#2/2+2M 2H S`BM+BTBQ /2 1t+HmbBƦM /2 SmHB v- 2bib
Hib /2MbB//2b- b2 2M+m2Mi`M /2;2M2`/QbN X 1bi2 ;b /2;2M2`/Q /2
62`KB 2b 2H [m2 2D2`+2 mM T`2bBƦM /2 /2;2M2`+BƦM v /2iB2M2 2H +QHTbQ
;`pBiiQ`BQ /2 H 2bi`2HH +mM/Q ûbi H+Mx mM `/BQ R ∼ 106 cmX
aBM 2K#`;Q- MQ 7m2 bBMQ ?bi RNe3 [m2 b2 Q#impQ H T`BK2` v /2}MBiB@
p 2pB/2M+B Q#b2`p+BQMH /2 H 2tBbi2M+B /2 Hb 2bi`2HHb /2 M2mi`QM2bX
>2rBb? 2i HX URNe3V /2b+m#`B2`QM 7m2Mi2b /2 `/BQ [m2 2KBiőM TmHbQb
+/- T`QtBK/2K2Mi2- mM b2;mM/QX H 7m2Mi2 /2 2b b2ƢH TmHb/
b2 H2 /BQ 2H MQK#`2 /2 TȹHb`X aB 2H T2`őQ/Q /2H TmHb` /2#ő b2` B/2M@
N
1H HőKBi2 i2Ʀ`B+Q /2 /Qb Tìő+mHb TQ` MBp2H /2 2M2`;ő 2b T`+iB+K2Mi2 H+M@
x/QX
Rk8
Rke 8XkX SȹHb`2b 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
iB}+/Q +QM 2H T2`őQ/Q /2 `Qi+BƦM /2 H;ȹM Q#D2iQ- ûbi2 /2#ő i2M2`

mM /2MbB// iH [m2 MQ 7m2b2 /2bi`mő/Q TQ` H 7m2`x +2Mi`ő7m; /2 H
`Qi+BƦM Uρ > 1011 kg m−3 VX .2 2bi KM2`- MQ [m2/#M /m/b, HQb
TmHb`b bQM 2bi`2HHb /2 M2mi`QM2b `QiMi2bX
G 2M2`;ő `Qi+BQMH /2 H 2bi`2HH /2 M2mi`QM2b 2b H 7m2Mi2 /2 2M@

2`;ő `/B/ TQ` 2H Q#D2iQX K2/B/ [m2 2bi 2M2`;ő 2b +QMbmKB/-
H p2HQ+B// /2 `Qi+BƦM /2+`2+2X 1M +QMb2+m2M+B- 2H T2`őQ/Q /2 iQ/Qb
HQb TȹHb`2b +`2+2 H2MiK2Mi2- bB2M/Q H p`B+BƦM iőTB+ Ṗ ∼ 10−15 s−1 X
bő- Tm2/2 2biBK`b2 H 2// /2 HQb TȹHb`2b 2M P/Ṗ ∼ 107 yrc /2bTmûb
/2 2bi2 iB2KTQ- T`Q##H2K2Mi2 H `Qi+BƦM /2 H 2bi`2HH b2 iM H2Mi
[m2 MQ Tm2/ v 2KBiB` +QKQ mM TȹHb`X
ƢQb /2bTmûb /2H i`#DQ /2 >2rBb? 2i HX URNe3V- b2 `2TQì`QM /2b@

+m#`BKB2MiQb bQ+B/Qb HQb TȹHb`2bX >mHb2 hvHQ` URNd8V 2M+QM@
i``QM mM TȹHb` /2 T2`őQ/Q yXy8N bX Jb i`/2- "+F2` 2i HX URN3kV-
/2b+m#`B2`QM mM TȹHb` +QM mM T2`őQ/Q /2 RX8e Kb- +QMbB/2`#H2K2Mi2
K2MQ` [m2 2H T2`őQ/Q /2 +mH[mB2` TȹHb` /2i2+i/Q ?bi [m2H KQ@
K2MiQX SQ+Q TQ+Q- 7m2`QM /2b+m#`BûM/Qb2 Qi`Qb TȹHb`2b +QM T2`őQ/Qb
K2MQ`2b Ry Kb- H KvQ`ő /2 2HHQb 2M+QMi`/Qb 2M bBbi2Kb #BM`BQbX
SQ+Q iB2KTQ /2bTmûb /2H /2b+m#`BKB2MiQ /2 "+F2` 2i HX URN3kV- H@
T` 2i HX URN3kV bm;B`B2`QM [m2 HQb TȹHb`2b /2 KBHBb2;mM/Q UJaSb- /2
bm MQK#`2 2M BM;Hûb KBHBb2+QM/ TmHb`bV MQ bQM Kb [m2 HQb 2bi/őQb
}MH2b /2 #BM`Bb /2 `vQb s /2 #D Kb UGJs"b- /2 bm MQK#`2
2M BM;Hûb HQr@Kbb s@`v #BM`B2bVX aBM 2K#`;Q- H /ő /2 ?Qv- MQ ?v
2tTHB++BƦM biBb7+iQ`B T` HQb JaSb BbH/QbX
+QKB2MxQb /2 H /û+/ /2H dy- HQb biûHBi2b /2 `vQb s l?m`m

v PaP@d- /2i2+i`QM p`Bb 7m2Mi2b /2 `vQb s 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH@
`2b U:B++QMB 2i HX- RNd9VX 1M RNd8- mMQ /2 HQb +QmiQ`2b- :X *H`F-
bm;B`BƦ [m2- //b Hb Hib /2MbB//2b 2bi2H`2b 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2 H@
Rke
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX Rkd
;mMQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b- `2bmHi 2bT2`#H2 [m2 H;mMb 2bi`2HHb /2

M2mi`QM2b pB2Db +QHBbBQM2M +QM mM #BM`B- `QKTBûM/QH v /[mB2`B2M@
/Q- 2MiQM+2b- mM Mm2p +QKTƢ2`X úbi 2pQHm+BQM- v H HH2M` bm
HƦ#mHQ /2 _Q+?2 +QKB2Mx i`Mb72`B` Ki2`B H 2bi`2HH /2 M2m@
i`QM2b- 7Q`KM/Q bő mM GJs"X aB HQb JaSb `2HK2Mi2 bm`;2M /2 H
2pQHm+BƦM /2 Hb GJs"b- 2MiQM+2b HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b +QM bm Hi
#mM/M+B /2 GJs"b- /2#2`őM iK#BûM H#2`;` mM ;`M MȹK2`Q /2
JaSbX
G /2i2++BƦM /2 JaSb 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b `2bmHi /ő}+BH +QKQ

+QMb2+m2M+B /2 Hb ;`M/2b /BbiM+Bb Hb [m2 b2 2M+m2Mi`M 2biQb
bBbi2Kb 2bi2H`2bX mM[m2 2biQ /2pB2M2 2M HBKBi+BQM2b `2H+BQM/b
H b2MbB#BHB// /2 HQb `/BQi2H2b+QTBQb- 2bi2 ?2+?Q 2b +QKT2Mb/Q TQ`
2H ?2+?Q [m2 H KvQ`ő /2 HQb TȹHb`2b b2 2M+m2Mi`M m#B+/Qb 2M mM
T2[m2Ƣ `2;BƦM +2`+ /2H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQ U+QKQ +QMb2+m2M+B /2 H
b2;`2;+BƦM /2 KbV [m2- 2M ;2M2`H- +2 2M mM ȹMB+Q ?x ȹM T` HQb
i2H2b+QTBQb Kb ;`M/2bX 1biQ T2`KBi2 `2HBx` Q#b2`p+BQM2b T`Q7mM/bX
1b TQ` 2bi `xƦM [m2 2M HQb ȹHiBKQb ky ƢQb b2 ?M 2M+QMi`/Q Kb
JaSb 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b [m2 2M 2H /Bb+Q ;H+iB+QX
1H T`BK2` +ȹKmHQ 2M 2H [m2 b2 `2HBx`QM /2i2++BQM2b /2 JaSb 7m2

9d hm+M2 [m2- H /ő /2 ?Qv- +m2Mi +QM kj TȹHb`2b `2TQì/QbX Gb
bQHm+BQM2b i2KTQ`H2b /2 2biQb TȹHb`2b T2`KBiB2`QM `2HBx` 2bim/BQb bQ@
#`2 H /BMKB+ /2H +ȹKmHQ U6`2B`2 i HX- kyyjV v H T`BK2` /2i2++BƦM
/2H K2/BQ BMi`+ȹKmHQ- i`pûb /2H 2bim/BQ /2 H K2/B/ /2 /BbT2`@
bBƦM U.JV /2 HQb KBbKQb- /2bTmûb /2 +bB ey ƢQb /2 #ȹb[m2/b U6`2B`2
2i HX- kyyRVX SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- KTb /2 H 2KBbBƦM 2M `/BQ /2 +ȹKmHQb
bm;B`B2`QM [m2 h2`xM 8 /2#ő +QMi2Mi2` mM ;`M TQ#H+BƦM /2 JaSbX
.2b/2 2MiQM+2b- jk JaSb ?M bB/Q `2TQì/Qb T` 2bi2 +ȹKmHQ U>2bb2Hb
2i HX- kyye- _MbQK 2i HX- kyy8VX lbM/Q 2H KBbKQ bBbi2K /2 Q#b2`@
p+BƦM- b2 /2i2+i`QM 3 Mm2pQb TȹHb`2b 2M L:* e99y v L:* e99R v RR
Rkd
Rk3 8XkX SȹHb`2b 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
2M Jk3 Up2` 2H `2pB2r /2 6`2B`2 UkyRjV TQ` mM /Bb+mbBƦM /2iHH/VX 1M

H 6B;X 8XkXR b2 Km2bi` H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 JaSb TQ` +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH`
v TQ` ƢQ /2 /2b+m#`BKB2MiQX Gb Q#b2`p+BQM2b +QKTH2ib /2 JaSb 2M
+ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b b2 2M+m2Mi`M +QKTBH/b 2M 2H +iHQ;Q QMHBM2 /2
SX 6`2B`2 Uhttp : //www.naic.edu/pf reire/GCpsr.htmlVX
6B;m` 8XkXR, .Bbi`B#m+BƦM TQ` +ȹKmHQ v ƢQ /2 /2b+m#`BKB2MiQ /2 JaSb-

iQK/ /2 _MbQK Ukyy8VX
1M 2bi h2bBb b2 T`Qp2+? H 2tBbi2M+B /2 JaSb 2M HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ@

#mH`2b T` TQM2` T`m2# 2H KQ/2HQ /2b``QHH/Q 2M 2H +TőimHQ 9X
./Q [m2 ûbiQb T`2/B+2M /B72`2Mi2b T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB// 2M H xQM +2M@
i`H /2H +ȹKmHQ- v [m2 Hb .Jb Q#b2`p/b 2M HQb JaSb /2T2M/2M /2 H
/2MbB// HQ H`;Q /2 H pBbmH- 2b TQbB#H2 mb` 2bib Q#b2`p+BQM2b T`
+QMi`bi` HQb KQ/2HQbX aBM 2K#`;Q- 2biQ `2[mB2`2 /2H +QMQ+BKB2MiQ /2
Hb TQbB+BQM2b /2 HQb JaSb HQ H`;Q /2 H pBbmH- HQ [m2 Tm2/2 ?HH`b2
TìB` /2 +QMbB/2`+BQM2b /BMKB+b v Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2 H p`B+BƦM
/2H T2`őQ/Q /2 HQb KBbKQb JaSbX 1b TQ` 2HHQ [m2- 2M H bB;mB2Mi2 b2+@
+BƦM- b2 MHBx /B+?Q bT2+iQ /BMKB+Q T` Hm2;Q U8XkXkV BMp2biB;` H
Rk3
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX RkN
+QM+Q`/M+B 2Mi`2 Hb T`2/B++BQM2b /2 HQb KQ/2HQb v H Q#b2`p+BQM2b

/2 H K2/B/ /2 /BbT2`bBƦMX
8XkXRX bT2+iQb /BM{KB+Qb
a2 ?M /2i2+i/Q p`B+BQM2b /2H T2`őQ/Q M2;iBpb UṖ < 0V T`

Km+?Qb /2 HQb JaSb 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2bX úbib bQM +mb/b TQ` H
+2H2`+BƦM /2H TȹHb` ?+B H hB2``- ;2M2`/ TQ` 2H TQi2M+BH ;`pB@
iiQ`BQ /2H +ȹKmHQX .2 2bi KM2`- Hb p`B+BQM2b 2M 2H T2`őQ/Q /2 HQb
TȹHb`2b /2 KBHBb2;mM/Q UJaSbV Tm2/2M b2` miBHBx/b +QKQ i`x/Q`2b
/2H +KTQ ;`pBi+BQMH /2H +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` U6`2B`2 2i HX- kyyRV v- TQ`
HQ iMiQ- /2 bmb T`QTBb TQbB+BQM2b 2M 2H +ȹKmHQX aB #B2M b2 ?M Q#i2MB/Q
2biBK+BQM2b Q#b2`p+BQMH2b /2 /B+?Q T`K2i`Q T` HQb TȹHb`2b /2
/BbiBMiQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b- bQHQ d /2 2HHQb +m2MiM +QM /iQb T` 9
Q Kb TȹHb`2bX aQHQ /B+?Q +ȹKmHQb bQM +QMbB/2`/Qb 2M 2bi b2++BƦMX
/2Kb- b2 +QMbB/2`M bƦHQ [m2HHQb TȹHb`2b [m2 b2 2M+m2Mi`M 2M H
`2;BƦM +2Mi`H /2H +ȹKmHQ Ur % 3 r0 V- HHő /QM/2 HQb T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB//
T`2b2MiM /B72`2M+Bb 2Mi`2 HQb +bQb +QM v bBM AJ">- Tm2b +QMi`bi`
2H KQ/2HQ /2b``QHH/Q 2b 2H Q#D2iBpQ ȹHiBKQ /2 2bi2 MHBbBbX
G p`B+BƦM /2H T2`őQ/Q Q#b2`p/ Ṗ 2b H bmK /2 H p`B+BƦM BM@

i`őMb2+ Ṗint UbTBM@/QrMV v 2H 272+iQ /2 H +2H2`+BƦM HQ H`;Q /2 H
HőM2 /2 H pBbmH- al X 1bi bmK b2` M2;iBp bB mM +2H2`+BƦM al M2@
;iBp MQ 2b bmT2`/ TQ` mM +QMi`B#m+BƦM Ṗint TQbBiBp Up2` 6B;X 8XkXkVX
G +2H2`+BƦM HQ H`;Q /2 H HőM2 /2 H pBbmH b2 +QKTQM2 /2 mM

+2H2`+BƦM +2Mi`ő7m; Uas V- H /B72`2M+B 2Mi`2 H +2H2`+BƦM :H+iB+
HQ H`;Q /2 H pBbmH 2Mi`2 +B2ìQ Q#D2iQ v 2H #`B+2Mi`Q /2H bBbi2K
bQH` UaG V v- }MHK2Mi2- H +2H2`+BƦM /2#B/ H +KTQ ;`pBi+BQMH
RkN
Rjy 8XkX SȹHb`2b 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
6B;m` 8XkXk, S`K2i`Qb ;2QKûi`B+Qb /2H KQ/2HQX π 2b mM THMQ T2`T2M/B+m@

H` H HőM2 /2 H pBbmH [m2 Tb i`pûb /2H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQ- 2M 2H TmMiQ
Q- +QM `/BQ /2H Mȹ+H2Q rc X S` mM TmHb` 2M S- RT 2b H /BbiM+B H hB2``
T`Qv2+i/ v a 2b H +2H2`+BƦM /2H TmHb` ?+B H hB2``X G +QKTQM2Mi2 2M
H HőM2 /2 H pBbmH /2 H +2H2`+BƦM al 2b H ȹMB+ /2i2+i#H2 /2b/2 H hB2``
UiQK/Q /2 6`2B`2 i HX- kyyjVX
/2H +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` Uac V-
ab a: a+
(Ṗ /P )Q#b = + + + 0(Ṗ /P )BMi 1, U8XkkV
c c c
/QM/2 P 2b 2H T2`őQ/Q /2H TȹHb`X ab 2bi // TQ` Ua?FHQbFBB- RNdyV
ab µ2 D
= , U8XkjV
c c
/QM/2 D 2b H /BbiM+B H +ȹKmHQ- c 2b H p2HQ+B// /2 H Hmx v µ 2b 2H
KQpBKB2MiQ T`QTBQX
Rjy
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX RjR
G +2H2`+BƦM a: 2b 7mM+BƦM /2 H TQbB+BƦM /2H +ȹKmHQX S` 2biBK`

2bi2 pHQ` b2 miBHBx 2H KQ/2HQ /2 S+xvMbFv URNNyV [m2 /2b+`B#2 2H
TQi2M+BH ;`pBiiQ`BQ :H+iB+Q +QKQ H bmK /2 i`2b +QKTQM2Mi2b
φ1 (R, z) = G M1
{R2 +[a1 +(z 2 +b21 )1/2 ]2 }1/2
, U8Xk9V
φ2 (R, z) = G M2
{R2 +[a2 +(z 2 +b22 )1/2 ]2 }1/2
, U8Xk8V
0 6 2
7 6 71
φ3 (r) = − G rM
c
c 1
2
ln 1 + r
rc2
+ r
rc
arctan r
rc
, U8XkeV
/QM/2 Hb +QKTQM2Mi2b R- k v j +Q``2bTQM/2M H #mH#Q- /Bb+Q v ?HQ /2

H :HtB- `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2- v R v r bQM Hb +QQ`/2M/b ;H+iQ+ûM@
i`B+b +BHőM/`B+ v 2b7û`B+- `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X
Gb +QMi`B#m+BQM2b /2 as v aG H p`B+BƦM Q#b2`p/ Tm2/2M 2biB@

K`b2 T` +/ +ȹKmHQ- /2 KQ/Q [m2 (Ṗ /P )obs BM/B+ 2H pHQ` K2/B/Q
/2 (Ṗ /P ) K2MQb 2bb +QMi`B#m+BQM2b v al b2 `2}2`2 ȹMB+K2Mi2 ac X
úbi 2b H +QMi`B#m+BƦM Kb BMi2`2bMi2 /2b/2 2H TmMiQ /2 pBbi /2 2bi
h2bBbX *#2 +H`` [m2 [m2HHQb TȹHb`2b m#B+/Qb 2M H KBi/ H2DM
/2H +ȹKmHQ 2tT2`BK2Mi`M mM +2H2`+BƦM 2M /B`2++BƦM ?+B H hB2``
UM2;iBpV- [m2 2M ;2M2`H bmT2` H p`B+BƦM BMi`őMb2+- `2bmHiM/Q 2M
mM pHQ` M2;iBpQ /2 H p`B+BƦM Q#b2`p/ /2H T2`őQ/QX
1H Q#D2iBpQ /2 2bi b2++BƦM 2b +QMb2;mB` mM 2biBK+BƦM T`QtBK/

/2 H p`B+BƦM BMi`őMb2+ /2H T2`őQ/Q /2 +/ TȹHb`- TìB` /2H +H+mHQ
/2 H +2H2`+BƦM Q#i2MB/ /2 KQ/2HQb /BMKB+Qb 2bi+BQM`BQb /2b``Q@
HH/Qb TQ` Qi`Qb miQ`2b UEBM;- RNee- JBQ++?B- kyyd- TQ` 2D2KTHQVX bő-
b2 Tm2/2 BMp2biB;` H +QKTiB#BHB// /2 Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b +QM H T`2b@
2M+B /2 mM AJ"> 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQ 2M +m2biBƦMX /2Kb- iH
2biBK+BƦM 2b Hm2;Q +QKT`/ +QM 2H pHQ` T`2/B+?Q i2Ʀ`B+K2Mi2X 1M
TìB+mH`- 2tBbi2 mM `2H+BƦM 2Mi`2 2H bTBM@/QrM /2H TȹHb` v H 2//
RjR
Rjk 8XkX SȹHb`2b 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
τ /2H +ȹKmHQ [m2 HQ H#2`; // TQ` UGvM+? 2i HX- kyRRV
(Ṗ /P )BMi = P/(2 τ ). U8XkdV
/2Kb- H /2i2`KBM+BƦM /2 (Ṗ /P )BMi T2`KBi2 ?HH`- mbM/Q HQb

KBbKQb KQ/2HQb- H TQbB+BƦM /2H JaS bQ#`2 H HőM2 /2 H pBbmH [m2
b2`pB` T` BMp2biB;` H /2MbB// /2H K2/BQ BMi2`2bi2H`X 1H TQi2M+BH
;`pBiiQ`BQ /2H +ȹKmHQ +QM mM AJ"> 2M bm +2Mi`Q 2b Q#i2MB/Q- +QKQ
2M *TőimHQb Mi2`BQ`2b- /2H KQ/2HQ /2b``QHH/Q TQ` JBQ++?B UkyydVX
1M 2H +bQ [m2 b2 /2b22 2bim/B` H +2H2`+BƦM /2 mM TȹHb` 2M 2H +@
bQ /2 mM +ȹKmHQ bBM AJ">- b2 miBHBx 2H KQ/2HQ i`/B+BQMH /2 EBM;
URNeeV T` H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2bi2H`X K#Qb KQ/2HQb T2`KBi2M Q#i2M2`
mM +2H2`+BƦM `/BH a(r) TìB` /2 H +mH- b2 2biBK H +Q``2bTQM@
/B2Mi2 +QKTQM2Mi2 MQ`KH al TìB` /2
al = a+Qbθ = ar +Qb(`+b2M(RT /r)), U8Xk3V
/QM/2 RT 2b mM K;MBim/ K2/B/ T` +/ JaSX

1M H };m` 8XkXj b2 Km2bi`M +m`pb iőTB+b /2 al (r) T` 2H +ȹKmHQ
J R8- bmTQMB2M/Q mM AJ"> /2 M"> = 1000 M⊙ 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2H KBbKQX
./Q [m2 T` +/ mM /2 2bib +m`pb H /BbiM+B i`Mbp2`bH RT 2bi
}D- +/ pHQ` /2 r +Q``2bTQM/2 mM pHQ` /2 H +QQ`/2M/ z /B72`2Mi2
/2H JaSX Sm2/2 Q#b2`p`b2 [m2 H +m`p H+Mx mM pHQ` 2ti`2KQc ûbi2
b2` mM KtBKQ Q mM KőMBKQ /2T2M/B2M/Q /2H bB;MQ /2 H TQbB+BƦM
z- iQ/pő /2b+QMQ+B/X 1bi2 pHQ` Tm2/2 b2` miBHBx/Q T` 2biBK` 2H
`M;Q /2 pHQ`2b /2 H p`B+BƦM BMi`őMb2+ (Ṗ /P )int - Tm2b
aKBM
(Ṗ /P )Kt
BMi = (Ṗ /P )Q#b − U8XkNV
c
v
aKt
(Ṗ /P )KBM
BMi = (Ṗ /P )Q#b − , U8XjyV
c
Rjk
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX Rjj
Rt = 0.94 r0
✵ ✁
Rt = 0.27 r0
0.4
|anormal |(! /r0)
2
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
r (r0)
6B;m` 8XkXj, JƦ/mHQ /2 H +2H2`+BƦM MQ`KH 2M 7mM+BƦM /2 H /BbiM+B H

THMQ /2H +B2HQ T` 2H +ȹKmHQ J R8 2M H TQbB+ƦM i`Mbp2`bH /2 /Qb /2 bmb
TȹHb`2bX a2 bmTQM2 mM AJ"> /2 Ryyy M⊙ 2M bm +2Mi`QX a2 Q#b2`p H T`2b2M@
+B /2 mM 2ti`2KQ 2M iQ/Qb HQb +bQbX
+QM (Ṗ /P )KBM

BMi < (Ṗ /P )BMi < (Ṗ /P )BMi X 1M Hb };m`b 8XkX9 v 8XkX8 b2
Kt
+QKT`M 2MiQM+2b HQb `M;Qb /2 pHQ`2b Q#i2MB/Qb +QM KQ/2HQb T`

H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM [m2 BM+Hmv2M mM AJ"> 2M bm +2Mi`Q UJBQ++?B- kyydV +QM
[m2HHQb Q#i2MB/Qb +QM KQ/2HQb bBM AJ"> UEBM;- RNeeVX a2 Q#b2`p [m2
T` HQb ÉmKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b /2 H };m` 8XkX8 UJ ek- L:* ed8k v J R8V
2b M2+2b`BQ BMpQ+` H T`2b2M+B /2 mM AJ"> T` TQ/2` 2tTHB+` Hb
p`B+BQM2b /2H T2`őQ/Q Q#b2`p/bX *bQ +QMi``BQ- Hb +2H2`+BQM2b MQ
bQM bm}+B2Mi2b T` 2tTHB+` Hb p`B+BQM2b Q#b2`p/b v H p`B+BƦM
BMi`őMb2+ `2bmHi`ő M2;iBpX /2Kb- HQb BMi2`pHQb /2 (Ṗ /P )BMi 2biB@
K/Qb T` H KvQ`ő /2 HQb TȹHb`2b 2biM 2M +m2`/Q +QM 2H pHQ`
2biBK/Q b2;ȹM 2H KQ/2HQ /2 GvM+? 2i HX UkyRRV- bmTQMB2M/Q 2//2b
T`QK2/BQ T` HQb +ȹKmHQb iQK/b /2 aMiQb SBiiB Ukyy9VX GQb
`2bmHi/Qb b2 /2iHHM 2M H i#H 8XkXRX aBM 2K#`;Q- 2tBbi2M H;mMQb
TȹHb`2b HQb [m2 MQ b2 H2b Tm2/2 bB;M` /B+?Q pHQ` T`QK2/BQX 1b@
iQb TQ/`őM b2` TȹHb`2b Kb DƦp2M2b +mvb 2//2b /B}2`2M /2 H 2//
Rjj
Rj9 8XkX SȹHb`2b 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
*ȹKmHQ 0Ṗ /P 1int (s−1 )

9d hm+ 1,4 × 10−18
J ek 1,43 × 10−18
L:* e99y 1,66 × 10−18
L:* e99R 1,47 × 10−18
L:* e8Rd 1,33 × 10−18
L:* ed8k 1,41 × 10−18
J R8 1,29 × 10−18
*m/`Q 8XkXR, 0Ṗ /P 1int T` +/ +ȹKmHQ b2;ȹM 2H KQ/2HQ /2 GvM+? 2i HX
UkyRRVX GQb pHQ`2b b2 2M+m2Mi`M /2Mi`Q /2 HQb `M;Qb 2biBK/Qb TìB` /2
HQb KQ/2HQb /2 EBM; URNeeV Q JBQ++?B UkyydV- b2;ȹM b2 Q MQ M2+2b`BQ +QM@
bB/2`` mM AJ"> 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQX
/2H +ȹKmHQX aQHQ [m2HHQb TȹHb`2b +mvb 2//2b bQM +QMbBbi2Mi2b +QM H
2// /2H +ȹKmHQ bQM +QMbB/2`/Qb 2M HQ [m2 bB;m2X
8XkXkX 1biBK+BƠM /2 .J
1M 2H T`2b2Mi2 2tBbi2M- +QKQ b2 /BDQ T`2pBK2Mi2- /Bp2`bQb i`#DQb

2M HQb [m2 HQb miQ`2b Q#iB2M2M Hb bQHm+BQM2b i2KTQ`H2b /2 HQb JaSb
2M H;mMQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2bX 1M 2HHQb- iK#BûM 2biBKM H K2/B/
/2 /BbT2`bBƦM U.Jc /2 bm MQK#`2 2M BM;Hûb /BbT2`bBQM K2bm`2V T`
+/ TȹHb` [m2 MQ 2b Kb [m2 H BMi2;`H /2 H +QHmKM /2 /2MbB//
/2 2H2+i`QM2b HQ H`;Q /2 H HőM2 /2 H pBbmH- /2b/2 H hB2`` ?bi
2H TȹHb`X aB b2 bmTQM2 mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 ;b 2M 2H +ȹKmHQ- H .J
Tm2/2 b2` 2H Q#b2`p#H2 Dmbi` [m2 /2i2`KBM2 H THmbB#BHB// /2 H
/Bbi`B#m+BƦM bmTm2biX 6`2B`2 i HX UkyyjV bmTmbB2`QM mM T2`}H /2 /2M@
bB// +QMbiMi2 2M 9d hm+X aBM 2K#`;Q- bmb `2bmHi/Qb b2 2M+m2Mi`M
T`BM+BTHK2Mi2 /2i2`KBM/Qb TQ` HQb TȹHb`2b [m2 b2 2M+m2Mi`M 7m2`
/2H `/BQ /2H Mȹ+H2Q- T2`/B2M/Q H BM7Q`K+BƦM T`QTQ`+BQM/ TQ` [m2@
HHQb [m2 b2 2M+m2Mi`M /2Mi`Q /2 ûH [m2 2b /QM/2 HQb KQ/2HQb T`2/B+2M
Rj9
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX Rj8
6e-17 6e-17
47 Tuc Minimo 47 Tuc Minimo
Maximo Maximo
4e-17 4e-17
Variacion intrinseca (s )
-1
-1
2e-17
2e-17
0
0
-2e-17
-2e-17
-4e-17
-4e-17
-6e-17
-6e-17
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Pulsar # Pulsar #
5e-17
NGC 6440
Minimo
NGC 6440
Minimo 5e-17 Maximo

-1
-1
Maximo
-5e-17
-5e-17
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Pulsar # Pulsar #
1.5e-16
1.5e-16
Minimo Minimo
NGC 6441 Maximo NGC 6441 Maximo
-1
-1
1e-16 1e-16
5e-17 5e-17
0 0
-5e-17
-5e-17
-1e-16
-1 0 1 2 3 4 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Pulsar # Pulsar #
6B;m` 8XkX9, 1biBK+BƦM /2H `M;Q /2 (Ṗ /P )int /2 HQb JaSb 2M [m2HHQb
+ȹKmHQb /QM/2 iMiQ HQb KQ/2HQb bBM AJ"> UBx[mB2`/V +QKQ HQb [m2 bő +QM@
iB2M2M H AJ"> U/2`2+?V `2T`Q/m+2M Hb +2H2`+BQM2b KtBKb M2+2b`Bb
H+MxM T` 2tTHB+` Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2 Ṗ /P X
Rj8
Rje 8XkX SȹHb`2b 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
2e-16 2e-16
Minimo Minimo
M 62 Maximo M 62 Maximo
1e-16
1e-16
-1
-1
0
-1e-16
-1e-16
-2e-16
-2e-16 -3e-16
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Pulsar # Pulsar #
3e-16 3e-16
Minimo Minimo
M 15 Maximo
2e-16 Maximo
2e-16 M 15
1e-16
-1
-1
1e-16
0
0 -1e-16
-2e-16
-1e-16
-3e-16
-2e-16
-4e-16
-3e-16 -5e-16
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Pulsar # Pulsar #
2e-15
Minimo
NGC 6752 Maximo
Minimo
NGC 6752 Maximo
1e-16 1e-15
-1
-1
0 0
-1e-16 -1e-15
-2e-15
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Pulsar # Pulsar #
6B;m` 8XkX8, 1biBK+BƦM /2H `M;Q /2 (Ṗ /P )int /2 HQb JaSb 2M [m2HHQb +ȹ@
KmHQb /QM/2 bQHQ 2H KQ/2HQ +QM AJ"> U/2`2+?V `2T`Q/m+2 Hb +2H2`+BQM2b
KtBKb M2+2b`Bb T` 2tTHB+` Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2 Ṗ /P X 1H KQ/2HQ bBM
AJ"> UBx[mB2`/V `2[mB2`2 (Ṗ /P )int < 0 T` H;mMQb JaSbX
Rje
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX Rjd
Hb /B72`2M+Bb b2;ȹM H T`2b2M+B Q MQ /2 mM AJ">X 1M 2bi b2++BƦM

b2 T`2b2Mi mM KQ/2HQ [m2 BM+Hmv2 iH BM7Q`K+BƦM v +mvQ Q#D2iBpQ 2b
`2T`Q/m+B` Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2 H K2/B/ /2 /BbT2`bBƦM DM /2 HQb TȹH@
b`2b /2 /BbiBMiQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b TìB` /2 HQb T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB//
KQ/2H/Qb 2M 2H +TőimHQ 9X a2 BMp2biB;- 2MiQM+2b- bQ#`2 H 7+iB#BHB//
/2 T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB// [m2 p`őM `/BHK2Mi2X
a2;ȹM HQ 2tTm2biQ 2M H b2++BƦM T`2pB- bB b2 bmTQM2 mM pHQ` T`QK2@

/BQ T` H p`B+BƦM BMi`őMb2+ /2H T2`őQ/Q /2 mM TȹHb`Ry - b2 Tm2/2
Q#i2M2`- TìB` /2 mM KQ/2HQ /BMKB+Q 2bi+BQM`BQ T` H /Bbi`B#m@
+BƦM 2bi2H`- H /BbiM+B /2H TȹHb` H THMQ /2H +B2HQX 1M 2bi b2++BƦM
b2 /QTiM HQb pHQ`2b T`QK2/BQ /2 H p`B+BƦM BMi`őMb2+ T`2b2Mi/Qb
2M H i#H 8XkXRX
lM p2x Q#i2MB/ H /BbiM+B z H THMQ /2H +B2HQ [m2 Tb TQ` 2H
+2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQ- HQ H`;Q /2 H HőM2 /2 H pBbmH T` +/ TȹHb`- v
//Q HQb T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB// Q#i2MB/Qb /2 HQb KQ/2HQb ?B/`Q/BMKB+Qb
T`2b2Mi/Qb 2M 2H *TőimHQ 9- 2b TQbB#H2 BMi2;`` H 7mM+BƦM ρ(r) ?bi
H TQbB+BƦM z /2 +/ TȹHb` v- bmKB2M/Q mM pHQ` T` H K2/B/
/2 /BbT2`bBƦM [m2 Q+m``2 7m2` /2H +ȹKmHQ DMcum - Q#i2M2` mM pHQ`
2biBK/Q T` H DM /2 +/ TȹHb`- b2;ȹM
# zKt
DM = DMcum + ne (r(z ′ ))dz ′ . U8XjRV
zKBM
.2 2bi KM2`- HQb T`K2i`Qb /2H KQ/2HQ Uα- DMcum v (Ṗ /P )int VRR b2
/2i2`KBMM KBMBKBxM/Q
NP
2
8 (DMQ#b − DM )2
χ = , U8XjkV
1
∆DM 2
Ry
6`2B`2 2i HX UkyyRV KQbi``QM [m2 +QMbB/2`` mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 (Ṗ /P )int T`
+/ TȹHb`- MQ +K#B bB;MB}+iBpK2Mi2 HQb `2bmHi/QbX
RR
_2+Q`/` [m2 2b M2+2b`BQ 2H pHQ` /2 α T` `2+mT2`` H /2MbB//X
Rjd
Rj3 8XkX SȹHb`2b 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
/QM/2 P 2b H +MiB// /2 TȹHb`2b 2M 2H +ȹKmHQ- DMobs 2b H K2/B/

/2 /BbT2`bBƦM Q#b2`p/ v ∆DM bm 2``Q` bQ+B/QX ./Q [m2 HQb i`2b
T`K2i`Qb HB#`2b TQb22M 2biBK+BQM2b Q#b2`p+BQMH2b- 2H pHQ` /2 χ2
2b +H+mH/Q T` mM ;`BHH /2 pHQ`2b /2 HQb T`K2i`Qb- +mvQb `M;Qb
b2 2M+m2Mi`M +2Mi`/Qb 2M Hb 2biBK+BQM2b 2tBbi2Mi2bX
1M T`BK2` Hm;` b2 MHBxM HQb Dmbi2b T` [m2HHQb +ȹKmHQb /QM/2

iMiQ Hb +2H2`+BQM2b ;2M2`/b TQ` HQb KQ/2HQb /2 EBM; URNeeV +Q@
KQ HQb /2 JBQ++?B UkyydV `2bmHiM bm}+B2Mi2b T` 2tTHB+` Hb Q#b2`@
p+BQM2b /2 H p`B+BƦM /2H T2`őQ/QX u [m2 k /2 HQb 9 TȹHb`2b /2
L:* e99R `2[mB2`2M /2 2//2b /B72`2Mi2b H 2// T`QK2/BQ- 2bi2 +ȹ@
KmHQ 2b /2b+ì/Q 2M 2H MHBbBb [m2 bB;m2 /2#B/Q H 7Hi /2 j Q
Kb TmHb`2b /2Mi`Q /2H `/BQ /2H Mȹ+H2QX 1H Dmbi2 +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2
L:* e99y b2 Km2bi` 2M H };m` 8XkXeX L:* e99y `2bmHi mM +bQ
TìB+mH` Tm2b 2H T2`}H /2 H K2/B/ /2 /BbT2`bBƦM +`2+2 +QM H /Bb@
iM+B i`Mbp2`bH H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQX aB b2 bmTQM2 [m2 MQ 2tBbi2 mM
+Q``2H+BƦM /B`2+i 2Mi`2 H TQbB+BƦM i`Mbp2`bH RT v H /BbiM+B H
THMQ /2H +B2HQ z T` HQb TȹHb`2bRk - 2biQ BKTHB+ mM T2`}H /2 /2MbB//
+`2+B2Mi2 ?+B 7m2` /2H +ȹKmHQX *#2 `2+Q`/` [m2 KB2Mi`b [m2 HQb
T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB// bBM AJ"> T`2b2MiM mM T2`}H THMQ 2M H `2;BƦM
+2Mi`H- [m2HHQb [m2 BM+Hmv2M H AJ"> T`2b2MiM mM T2`}H /2+`2+B2Mi2
+QM H /BbiM+B H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQX .2 2bi KM2`- HQb T2`}H2b /2
/2MbB// Q#i2MB/Qb 2M 2H +TőimHQ 9 MQ `2bmHiM /2+m/Qb T` `2T`Q@
/m+B` Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2 .J 2M L:* e99yX SQ` 2bi `xƦM- 2H Dmbi2
``QD +QKQ K2DQ` pHQ` H T`QK2/BQ /2 Hb .Jb Q#b2`p/b v MQ T2`@
KBi2 b+` +QM+HmbBQM2b bQ#`2 H T`2b2M+B /2 mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q 2M 2H
+2Mi`Q /2 2bi2 +ȹKmHQX hH 2b 2H +bQ- iK#BûM /2 9d hm+X 1M H };m`
8XkXd b2 Km2bi`M Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2 H .J T` HQb TȹHb`2b [m2 b2
2M+m2Mi`M /2Mi`Q /2H `/BQ Mm+H2` /2H +ȹKmHQX X
Rk
1biQ 7m2 +QKT`Q#/Q T` Hb TQbB+BQM2b z Q#i2MB/b /2H MHBbBb /2 H /BMKB+
/2H +ȹKmHQX
Rj3
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX RjN
225
T = 5000 K 224 T = 5000 K

T = 9976 K T = 9976 K
224
T = 12559 K T = 12559 K
223 223
DM (pc cm )
DM (pc cm )
-3
-3
222
222
221
221
220
220
219
0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
Rt (arcmin) Rt (arcmin)
6B;m` 8XkXe, .J Q#b2`p/Q U+ő`+mHQb M2;`QbV v KQ/2H/Q U+ő`+mHQb- i`BM;m@

HQb v +`m+2bV T` 2H +ȹKmHQ L:* e99y bBM AJ"> UBx[mB2`/V v +QM mM AJ">
/2 100 M⊙ U/2`2+?VX a2 Q#b2`p [m2 2H KQ/2HQ /2b``QHH/Q 2M 2H +TőimHQ 9
MQ `2T`Q/m+2 /2+m/K2Mi2 Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b U+ő`+mHQbV /2 .J 2M 2bi2 +ȹ@
KmHQX 1bi2 T2`}H /2 .J BKTHB+- bmTQMB2M/Q [m2 MQ 2tBbi2 +Q``2H+BƦM 2Mi`2
Hb TQbB+BQM2b Rt v z /2 mM //Q TȹHb`- mM T2`}H /2 /2MbB// +`2+B2Mi2 ?+B
7m2`X
1M Hb };m`b 8XkX3- 8XkXN v 8XkXRy b2 Km2bi`M HQb Dmbi2b Q#i2MB/Qb

T` HQb +ȹKmHQb [m2 /BMKB+K2Mi2 bő `2[mB2`2M /2 mM AJ"> 2M bm
+2Mi`Q T` 2tTHB+` Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2 Hb p`B+BQM2b /2H T2`őQ/Q
UJ ek- J R8 v L:* ed8kVX J ek- H B;mH [m2 L:* e99y 2M 2H T``7Q
Mi2`BQ`- TQb22 mM T2`}H /2 .J +`2+B2Mi2 +QM H /BbiM+B i`Mbp2`bH
/2H TȹHb`X 1MiQM+2b- MQ 2b TQbB#H2 TìB` /2 2bi2 KûiQ/Q b+` +QM+Hm@
bBQM2b bQ#`2 H T`2b2M+B v iKƢQ /2 mM TQbB#H2 AJ">X /B72`2M+B /2
J ek- J R8 v L:* ed8k TQb22M T2`}H2b /2 H .J /2+`2+B2Mi2b +QM H
/BbiM+B i`Mbp2`bH /2H TȹHb` H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQX 1M K#Qb +bQb-
MQ bƦHQ 2H KQ/2HQ T2`KBi2 Dmbi` Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b bBMQ [m2- /2Kb- b2
Q#b2`p +B2ì /2T2M/2M+B +QM H KbX 1M 2H +bQ /2 L:* ed8k b2 2t@
THQ`M HQb `2bmHi/Qb Q#i2MB/Qb T` /Qb pHQ`2b /BbiBMiQb /2 H Kb /2H
RjN
R9y 8XkX SȹHb`2b 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
24.44
24.42
DM (pc cm )
-3
24.4
24.38
24.36
24.34
24.32
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Rt (arcmin)
6B;m` 8XkXd, .J Q#b2`p/Q T` 2H +ȹKmHQ 9d hm+X A;mH [m2 2H +bQ /2

L:* e99y- HQb KQ/2HQb MQ T2`KBi2M Dmbi` T2`}H2b /2 .J +`2+B2Mi2b ?+B
7m2`X
AJ"> U100 v 1000 M⊙ VRj X a2 2M+m2Mi` [m2- T` Kbb Kb Hib- HQb
/iQb Q#b2`p+BQMH2b `2[mB2`2M /2 i2KT2ìm`b Kb #Db- 2b+2M`BQ
2M 2H +mH- b2;ȹM HQ /Bb+miB/Q 2M 2H +TőimHQ 9- H +`2+BƦM 2b KvQ`
v H 2KBbBƦM TQ` +`2+BƦM b2`ő 7+BHK2Mi2 /2i2+i#H2X *QMi``BK2Mi2-
T` Kbb Kb #Db UMBH % 100 M⊙ V- HQb /iQb Q#b2`p+BQMH2b
Tm2/2M b2` Dmbi/Qb ȹM T` i2KT2ìm`b HibX ./ H 7Hi /2
/2i2++BƦM /2 7m2Mi2b s 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2 L:* ed8k- 2biQ T2`KBi2 TQM2`
mM +Qi H Kb /2 mM ?BTƦi2iB+Q AJ"> 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2 2bi2 +ȹKmHQX
*QMi``BK2Mi2- 2M 2H +bQ /2 J R8- mM pHQ` BMi2`K2/BQ /2 H Kb
UM ∼ 6000 M⊙ V 2b +QKTiB#H2 +QM Hb i2KT2ìm`b Kb Hib- BX2X-
mM 2bi/Q /2 +`2+BƦM #DX S` 2bi2 +ȹKmHQ b2 2tTHQ`M HQb j pHQ`2b
Kb HiQb 2M 2H `M;Q /2 Kbb /2H AJ"> /BbTQMB#H2b U3981- 6309 v
10000 M⊙ VX 1bi 2biBK+BƦM /2 H Kb 2b KvQ` [m2HHb +Bi/b H
+QKB2MxQ /2H +TőimHQX oH2 +H`` [m2 2M iQ/Qb HQb +bQb- 2H pHQ` 2biB@
K/Q /2 α b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M 2H `M;Q [10−14 − 8 × 10−12 ]yr−1 - 2M +m2`/Q
+QM Hb 2biBK+BQM2b Q#b2`p+BQMH2b /2 2bi2 T`K2i`QX
Rj
S` Kbb /2H AJ"> KvQ`2b 1000 M⊙ 2H KQ/2HQ /2 JBQ++?B UkyydV T`2b2Mi
BM2bi#BHB//2b v MQ `2T`2b2Mi /2+m/K2Mi2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2bi2H` /2H +ȹKmHQX
R9y
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX R9R
116
T = 5000 K
T = 9976 K
115.5
T = 12559 K
115
DM (pc cm )
-3
114.5
114
113.5
113
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Rt (arcmin)
6B;m` 8XkX3, .J Q#b2`p/Q U+ő`+mHQb M2;`QbV v KQ/2H/Q U+ő`+mHQb- i`BM;m@

HQb v +`m+2bV T` 2H +ȹKmHQ J ek bmTQMB2M/Q mM AJ"> /2 2511 M⊙ X a2 Q#@
b2`p [m2 2H KQ/2HQ /2b``QHH/Q 2M 2H +TőimHQ 9 MQ `2T`Q/m+2 /2+m/K2Mi2
Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2 .J [m2 T`2b2MiM mM T2`}H +`2+B2Mi2 ?+B 7m2`X 1bi2
T2`}H /2 .J BKTHB+- bmTQMB2M/Q [m2 MQ 2tBbi2 +Q``2H+BƦM 2Mi`2 Hb TQbB+BQM2b
Rt v z /2 mM //Q TȹHb`- mM T2`}H /2 /2MbB// +`2+B2Mi2 ?+B 7m2`X
1M 2bi b2++BƦM b2 T`2b2MiƦ mM KûiQ/Q [m2 T2`KBi2 BMp2biB;` H THm@

bB#BHB// /2 HQb T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB// Q#i2MB/Qb TìB` /2 HQb KQ/2HQb
/2b``QHH/Qb 2M 2H +TőimHQ 9X TìB` /2 +QMbB/2`+BQM2b /BMKB+b
bQ#`2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM 2bi2H` /2H +ȹKmHQ v Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /BbTQMB#H2b
T` HQb JaSb- b2 2M+QMi`Ʀ [m2 H;mMQb /2 2biQb +ȹKmHQb `2[mB2`2M /2
mM AJ"> 2M bm +2Mi`Q T` 2tTHB+` iH2b Q#b2`p+BQM2bX /2Kb- b2
? KQbi`/Q [m2 HQb T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB// /2H +TőimHQ 9 DmbiM /2@
+m/K2Mi2 Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b 2M H;mMQb /2 2biQb +ȹKmHQb 2- BM+HmbQ-
T2`KBi2M `2HBx` 2biBK+BQM2bR9 /2 H Kb /2H ?BTƦi2iB+Q ;mD2`Q M2@
;`QX oH2 +H`` [m2 2H KûiQ/Q T`2b2Mi/Q Tm2/2 b2` miBHBx/Q +QM
R9
1M Ʀ`/2M2b /2 K;MBim/X
R9R
R9k 8XkX SȹHb`2b 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
67.4 67.4
T = 5000 K T = 5000 K
T = 9976 K T = 9976 K
67.35 67.35
T = 12559 K T = 12559 K
67.3 67.3
DM (pc cm )
DM (pc cm )
-3
-3
67.25 67.25
67.2 67.2
67.15 67.15
67.1 67.1
0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
67.4
T = 6294 K
T = 9976 K
67.35
T = 12559 K
67.3
DM (pc cm )
-3
67.25
67.2
67.15
67.1
0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
Rt (arcmin)
6B;m` 8XkXN, .J Q#b2`p/Q U+ő`+mHQb M2;`QbV v KQ/2H/Q U+ő`+mHQb- i`BM@

;mHQb v +`m+2bV T` 2H +ȹKmHQ J R8 bmTQMB2M/Q mM AJ"> /2 3981 M⊙ -
6309 M⊙ v 10000 M⊙ - `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X a2 Q#b2`p [m2 2H KQ/2HQ /2b@
``QHH/Q 2M 2H +TőimHQ 9 `2T`Q/m+2 /2+m/K2Mi2 Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2
.J 2M 2bi2 +ȹKmHQX a2 Q#b2`p +B2ì T`272`2M+B TQ` Hb Kbb Kb Hib
UM ! 6000 M⊙ VX
R9k
Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX R9j
33.36 T = 5000 K T = 5000 K

T = 9976 K 33.35 T = 9976 K
T = 12559 K T = 12559 K
33.34
DM (pc cm-3)
DM (pc cm )
33.32
-3
33.3
33.3
33.28
33.25
33.26
33.24
33.2
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
6B;m` 8XkXRy, .J Q#b2`p/Q U+ő`+mHQb M2;`QbV v KQ/2H/Q U+ő`+mHQb- i`BM@

;mHQb v +`m+2bV T` 2H +ȹKmHQ L:* ed8k bmTQMB2M/Q mM AJ"> /2 100 M⊙ v
1000 M⊙ - `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X a2 Q#b2`p [m2 2H KQ/2HQ /2b``QHH/Q 2M 2H +Tő@
imHQ 9 `2T`Q/m+2 /2+m/K2Mi2 Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2 .J 2M 2bi2 +ȹKmHQX
/2Kb- 2H Dmbi2 bm;B2`2 Kbb #Db UMBH % 100 M⊙ V b2;ȹM HQ /Bb+miB/Q
2M 2H i2tiQX
+mH[mB2` T2`}H /2 /2MbB// v b2 ? /2KQbi`/Q [m2 `2bmHi ȹiBH T`

/2}MB` H #QM// /2 iH T2`}H /2 /2MbB//X
R9j
R99 8XkX SȹHb`2b 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b
R99
*QM+HmbBQM2b
6
A HKQbi rBb? A ?/MǶi ;QM2 /QrM i?2 `##Bi@?QH2
@ M/ v2i @ M/ v2i @
BiǶb ì?2` +m`BQmb- vQm FMQr- i?Bb bQì Q7 HB725
HB+2 BM qQM/2`HM/
1M H ȹHBK /û+/ ?m#Q mM ;`M +`2+BKB2MiQ /2 H +MiB// /2 i`@

#DQb Q#b2`p+BQMH2b [m2 #mb+M ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb /2 Kb BMi2`K2/B-
2M TìB+mH` 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2bX H /ő /2 ?Qv- H K2MQb kd +ȹKmHQb
+m2MiM +QM 2biBK+BQM2b Q#b2`p+BQMH2b /2 H Kb /2 mM ?BTQiûiB+Q
AJ"> 2- BM+HmbQ- 2M H;mMQb /2 2HHQb- b2 ?M +QKTH2K2Mi/Q #ȹb[m2/b
/2 7m2Mi2b s Q /2 `/BQ +QM 2bim/BQb /2 H +BM2KiB+ +2Mi`H /2 bmb 2b@
i`2HHbX hH pQHmK2M /2 BM7Q`K+BƦM `2[mB2`2 /2H /2b``QHHQ /2 KQ/2HQb
[m2 2tTHB[m2M H 2KBbBƦM Q#b2`p/- ȹM +mM/Q ûbi bm;B2` T`BQ`B
R98
R9e
[m2 MQ 2tBbi2 mM AJ"> 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQX úbi ? bB/Q H T`BM+B@

TH KQiBp+BƦM /2 2bi h2bBbX
1M 2bi2 i`#DQ ?2 /2b``QHH/Q KQ/2HQb ?B/`Q/BMKB+Qb [m2 /2b+`B#2M

H +`2+BƦM /2H K2/BQ BMi2`2bi2H` /2 mM +ȹKmHQ ;HQ#mH` TQ` Tì2 /2
mM AJ">X >2 +QMbB/2`/Q iMiQ H +`2+BƦM /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+- +QKQ
/2 Ki2`B v 2M2`;ő Qb+m`X 1M K#Qb +bQb- 2H T`QTƦbBiQ T`BM+BTH 7m2
Q#i2M2` mM 2ti2MbBƦM /2 HQb KQ/2HQb +imH2b [m2 2biBKM H ib /2
+`2+BƦM U"#B+?2p 2i HX- kyy9- "QM/B >QvH2- RN99- `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2V-
TìB` /2 T`QTQM2` ?BTƦi2bBb [m2 /2b+`B#M Kb /2+m/K2Mi2 H 7őbB@
+ /2H T`Q#H2KX GQb KQ/2HQb /2b``QHH/Qb +QMiB2M2M +B2ì +MiB// /2
T`K2i`Qb [m2 /2i2`KBMM Hb +QM/B+BQM2b 7őbB+b /2H T`Q#H2KX S`
/B+?Qb T`K2i`Qb b2 iQK`QM- +mM/Q 7m2 TQbB#H2- 2biBK+BQM2b BM72`B@
/b /2 Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b- /2 HQ +QMi``BQ- b2 2tTHQ``QM `M;Qb /2 pHQ`2b
+QMbBbi2Mi2b +QM HQ 2bT2`/Q T` 2H 2b+2M`BQ bi`Q7őbB+Q /2 BMi2`ûbX
GQb KQ/2HQb 7m2`QM /2b``QHH/Qb 2M Q`/2M +`2+B2Mi2 /2 +QKTH2DB//X

1M T`BK2` Hm;`- b2 BMp2biB;Ʀ H +`2+BƦM /2 Ki2`B v 2M2`;ő Qb+m`X
1M 2bi2 +bQ- v /2b/2 mM 7Q`KHBbKQ `2HiBpBbi- b2 BM+HmvƦ 2M 2H KQ/2HQ
2H TQi2M+BH ;`pBiQ`BQ /2 Hb 2bi`2HHb /2H +ȹKmHQX +QMiBMm+BƦM b2
`2bmK2M HQb `2bmHi/Qb Q#i2MB/Qb TìB` /2 /B+? KQ/B}++BƦM US2T2-
S2HHBxx _QK2`Q- kyRkV,
RX G ib /2 +`2+BƦM /2 mM ~mB/Q `2HiBpBbi /2T2M/2 +m/ìB@

+K2Mi2 /2 H Kb +QMi2MB/ /2Mi`Q /2 mM /2i2`KBM/Q `/BQ
+`őiB+Q- /B72`2M+B /2 HQ 2bi#H2+B/Q TQ` 2H KQ/2HQ /2 "#B+?2p
2i HX Ukyy9V- b2;ȹM 2H +mH bƦHQ /2T2M/2 /2 H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q
M2;`QX 1bi2 `/BQ +`őiB+Q /2T2M/2 bm p2x /2H T`K2i`Q /2 H
2+m+BƦM /2 2bi/Q /2H ~mB/Q- v Tm2/2 b2` Km+?Q KvQ` H `@
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H mMB//X 1M +QMb2+m2M+B- H ib /2 +`2+BƦM T` 2bi2 +bQ
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;2M2` +K#BQb bB;MB}+iBpQb 2M H Kb /2H ;mD2`Q M2;`Q +`2@
iMi2 /m`Mi2 iQ/ bm 2pQHm+BƦM- bB ûbi2 2b mM AJ">X 1M 2H +bQ
/2 H 2M2`;ő Qb+m`- H ib /2 +`2+BƦM Tm2/2 `2bmHi` M2;iBp-
2M +QM+Q`/M+B +QM 2H `2bmHi/Q /2 "#B+?2p 2i HX Ukyy9VX
jX 1H pHQ` /2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM /2 Ki2`B Qb+m` +`2+2 #`mTi@

K2Mi2 bB 2H T`K2i`Q /2 bm 2+m+BƦM /2 2bi/Q 2b ω % 10−9 - /2
KQ/Q [m2 H Kb +`2i/ TQ` 2H AJ"> 2b Ʀ`/2M2b /2 K;MBim/
KvQ` [m2 HQb HőKBi2b bmT2`BQ`2b Q#i2MB/Qb Q#b2`p+BQMHK2Mi2
T` 2biQb Q#D2iQbX 1biQ TQM2 mM +Qi H pHQ` /2H T`K2i`Q
/2 2bi/Q- bm;B`B2M/Q [m2- bB HQb AJ">b 2tBbi2M 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2
HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b- H Ki2`B Qb+m` 2b +QHBbBQMHX 1bi2 `2@
bmHi/Q 2b +QMbBbi2Mi2 +QM HQ ?HH/Q TQ` :mxKM GQ`@*HpBDQ
UkyRRV BMp2biB;M/Q aJ">b- v 2b `2H2pMi2 Tm2b H KvQ`ő /2 HQb
i`#DQb [m2 bmTQM2M [m2 H Ki2`B 2b MQ +QHBbBQMHX
9X H miBHBx` 2H KBbKQ KQ/2HQ T` 2bim/B` H +`2+BƦM /2 Ki2`B

Qb+m` bQ#`2 mM ;mD2`Q M2;`Q /2 Kb 2bi2H`- [m2 iB2M2 H p2MiD
/2 [m2 bm 2tBbi2M+B MQ 2bi 2M /m/ v bm Kb 2bi #B2M /2i2`@
KBM/- b2 2M+QMi`Ʀ [m2 H Kb /2H KBbKQ MQ +K#B /2 KM2`
bB;MB}+iBp /2#B/Q H +`2+BƦM /2 2bi2 ~mB/Q- BM/2T2M/B2Mi2@
K2Mi2 /2H pHQ` /2 ωX 1biQ `27m2`x H M2+2bB// /2 /2i2`KBM`
H T`2b2M+B /2 HQb AJ">b 2M +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b T` +QM+HmB`
bQ#`2 Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 H Ki2`B Qb+m`X
>2 /2b``QHH/Q mM KQ/2HQ bBKBH` T` 2bim/B` H +`2+BƦM /2H ;b

BMi2`2bi2H` /2 HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2bX 1M 2bi2 KQ/2HQ MQ bQHQ BM+Hmő 2H
TQi2M+BH ;`pBiiQ`BQ /2 Hb 2bi`2HHb- bBMQ iK#BûM H +QMbiMi2 BMv2+@
+BƦM /2 Ki2`B /2#B/ HQb pB2MiQb /2 Hb 2bi`2HHb Kb 2pQHm+BQM/bX
1M T`BK2` Hm;`- H 2M2`;ő /2H ;b 7m2 /2b+`BTi /2 mM KM2` b2M+BHH
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T2`Q 272+iBp- bmTQMB2M/Q +QKQ ?BTƦi2bBb [m2 H i2KT2ìm` /2H KBb@

KQ 2b +QMbiMi2X 1bi /2b+`BT+BƦM i2`KQ/BMKB+ Tm2/2 b2` bQ+B/
mM +bQ /2 2M7`BKB2MiQ 2}+B2Mi2 /2H ;bX Gm2;Q- b2 2HB;BƦ 2H 2ti`2KQ
i2`KQ/BMKB+Q QTm2biQ, 2H ;b 2pQHm+BQM +mbB@/B#iB+K2Mi2 v MQ
BMi2`+K#B +HQ` +QM bm 2MiQ`MQ- 2t+2TiQ TQ`[m2 2H Ki2`BH /2TQbB@
i/Q TQ` Hb 2bi`2HHb bő BMv2+i 2M2`;ő H K2/BQX 1M K#Qb +bQb- b2
+QMbB/2``QM /BbiBMib +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ [m2 /M Hm;` /BbiBM@
iQb iBTQb /2 bQHm+BQM2b 2M H `2;BƦM 2ti2`M /2H +ȹKmHQ- HHK/b /2
pB2MiQb Q #`BbbX GQb T`BM+BTH2b `2bmHi/Qb /2 2biQb KQ/2HQb Tm2/2M b2`
`2bmKB/Qb +QKQ bB;m2 US2T2 S2HHBxx- kyRjV,
RX GQb KQ/2HQb [m2 BMp2biB;M H +`2+BƦM /2 Ki2`B #`BƦMB+ BM@

/B+M mM +K#BQ +mHBiiBpQ `2bT2+iQ /2 HQb `2bmHi/Qb /2 "QM/B
>QvH2 URN99V, 2tBbi2 mM `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ 2M 2H +mH H
p2HQ+B// b2 MmH v b2T` mM `2;BƦM BMi2`M /QM/2 b2 /2b@
``QHH mM ~mDQ /2 +`2+BƦM- /2 mM 2ti2`M /QM/2 2H Ki2`BH 2b
2tTmHb/Q 7m2` /2H +ȹKmHQ 2M 7Q`K /2 #`Bb Q pB2MiQX
kX Gb bQHm+BQM2b /2 pB2MiQ /2H KQ/2HQ BbQiû`KB+Q Tm2/2M b2`T``b2

2M /Qb `2;őK2M2b, mM `û;BK2M /2 ib /2 +`2+BƦM #D Uh"V
2M 2H [m2 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M Hb `2;BQM2b
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2M 2H [m2 2H `/BQ /2 2biM+KB2MiQ b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M Hb `2;BQM2b
Kb 2ti2`Mb /2H KBbKQX G b2T`+BƦM 2Mi`2 K#Qb `2;őK2M2b
2bi // TQ` H `2H+BƦM 2Mi`2 H 2M2`;ő /2H ;b v H T`Q7mM/B//
/2H TQxQ /2 TQi2M+BH /2H +ȹKmHQX
jX 1M 2H `û;BK2M h H ib /2 +`2+BƦM /2T2M/2 /2 H Kb /2H

+ȹKmHQ v MQ /2 H /2H AJ">X TìB` /2 Hb bQHm+BQM2b T` 2bi2
`û;BK2M- HQb KQ/2HQb T`2/B+2M pHQ`2b /2 H ib /2 +`2+BƦM [m2
+QMHH2pM mM HmKBMQbB//R /2H Q`/2M /2 Hb /2 Hb lGsbX 1bi2
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`2bmHi/Q 2b MQi#H2 Tm2b bB #B2M b2 ? T`QTm2biQ H bQ+B+BƦM

lGsb Ĝ AJ">b U62M; aQ`B- kyRRV- 2H K2+MBbKQ [m2 T`Qp22 H
ib /2 +`2+BƦM M2+2b`B T` ;2M2`` bm HmKBMQbB// MQ ?#ő
bB/Q /2b+`BTiQ ?bi 2H KQK2MiQX
9X Gb HmKBMQbB//2b 2biBK/b TìB` /2 Hb bQHm+BQM2b /2H `û;BK2M

h" b2 2M+m2Mi`M ȹM TQ` 2M+BK /2 HQb HőKBi2b Q#b2`p+BQMH2bX
aBM 2K#`;Q- bB b2 +QMbB/2`M KQ/2HQb Kb +QKTH2DQb T` H 2}@
+B2M+B `/BiBp U.6b- C.6b- 2i+XV- Hb T`2/B++BQM2b bQ#`2 H
HmKBMQbB// `2bmHiM +QKTiB#H2b +QM Hb +Qib Q#b2`p+BQMH2b
+imH2bX SQ` HQ iMiQ 2b TQbB#H2 [m2 H MQ /2i2++BƦM /2 H 2KBbBƦM
s 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2 HQb +ȹKmHQb ;HQ#mH`2b- b2 /2# [m2 H i2K@
T2ìm` /2H ;b HQb bBiȹ 2M 2bi2 `û;BK2M /2 +`2+BƦMX lM TmMiQ
BMi2`2bMi2 2b [m2 2M 2bi2 +bQ H ib /2 +`2+BƦM 2b+H +QM H
Kb /2H AJ"> B;mH [m2 2M 2H KQ/2HQ /2 "QM/B >QvH2 URN99VX
1biQ T2`KBiB`ő /2b``QHH` mM KûiQ/Q T` H 2biBK+BƦM /2 Hb
Kbb /2 HQb AJ">bX
8X Gb bQHm+BQM2b /2 #`Bbb /2H KQ/2HQ BbQiû`KB+Q bQM +QMbBbi2Mi2b

+QM `/BQb /2 2biM+KB2MiQ T2[m2ƢQb- rest % r0 - TìB` /2 Hb
+mH2b b2 2biBKM HmKBMQbB//2b bBKBH`2b HQb HőKBi2b +imH2b
Q#b2`p/QbX 1M H;mMQb +bQb- BM+HmbQ- H T`2/B++BƦM 2b K2MQ`
Hb +Qib bmT2`BQ`2b- HQ [m2 2tTHB+`ő H /B}+mHi/ T` /2i2+i` H
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/2 HQb T`K2i`Qb /2H KQ/2HQ- 2b TQbB#H2 `2T`Q/m+B` H HmKBMQbB//
s Q#b2`p/ 2M L:* ej33X 1biQ ?+2 Kb `Q#mbi H +QM+HmbBƦM
Mi2`BQ`X
eX GQb KQ/2HQb [m2 bmTQM2M H 2tBbi2M+B /2 mM AJ"> 2M 2H +2Mi`Q

/2H +ȹKmHQ- T`2/B+2M T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB// +QM T2M/B2Mi2b 2KT@
BM/b 2M 2H +2Mi`Q- +QMi``BK2Mi2 H +bQ 2M 2H [m2 MQ ?v mM
AJ">X 1biQ /- 2M +bQ /2 TQ/2` K2/B`b2 H p`B+BƦM `/BH /2
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M2;`Q US2T2 S2HHBxx- kyyNVX
dX 1M 2H +bQ /2 Hb #`Bbb- H p2HQ+B// KtBK /2 Hb KBbKb 2b

b2MbB#H2 H Kb /2H AJ">X aBM 2K#`;Q- +imHK2Mi2 MQ 2tBbi2
7Q`K /2 K2/B` 2bi p2HQ+B// TQ` HQ [m2 MQ b2 2bT2` [m2 2bi2
272+iQ Tm2/ b2` THB+/Q H /2i2`KBM+BƦM /2 H Kb /2 HQb
AJ">b 2M 2H 7mim`Q +2`+MQX
3X GQb KQ/2HQb +mbB@/B#iB+Qb MQ `2bmHiM T`QTB/Qb T` /2b@

+`B#B` 2H ~mDQ /2 +`2+BƦM bQ#`2 mM AJ">X S` [m2 2tBbi H
+`2+BƦM- b2 `2[mB2`2 /2 mM BMv2++BƦM /2 2M2`;ő 2t+2bBpK2Mi2
#Db T` 2H 2b+2M`BQ bi`Q7őbB+Q 2M +m2biBƦMX 1biQ bm;B2`2- DmMiQ
+QM HQb `2bmHi/Qb Mi2`BQ`2b- H M2+2bB// /2 BM+HmB` 2M 2H 7mim`Q
mM /2b+`BT+BƦM Kb `2HBbi /2H 2M7`BKB2MiQ /2H ;b- [m2 b2
TìB+mH`K2Mi2 272+iBp 2M Hb `2;BQM2b +2Mi`H2b /2H +ȹKmHQX
LQ Q#biMi2- 2b M2+2b`BQ K2M+BQM` [m2 2H KQ/2H/Q /2H ~mDQ MQ b2

2M+m2Mi`- 2M #bQHmiQ- HB#`2 /2 HBKBi+BQM2bX lM T`BK2` TmMiQ- K2M@
+BQM/Q ``B#- 2b 2H `2H+BQM/Q H 7mM+BƦM /2 2M7`BKB2MiQX SQ` Qi`Q
H/Q- 2M 2bi h2bBb b2 BMp2biB;M ~mDQb 2bi+BQM`BQb- HQ [m2 BKTHB+
mM +QMbiMi2 +ő/ /2 Ki2`BH bQ#`2 2H AJ">X aBM 2K#`;Q- H +`2@
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HQb TbD2b +2`+MQb /2 Hb 2bi`2HHb +mvb Ʀ`#Bib bQM Kb T`ƦtBKb H
AJ">X 6BMHK2Mi2- iK#BûM 2b TQbB#H2 [m2 ?v 272+iQb /2#B/Q H KQ@
K2MiQ M;mH` /2H ~mDQ- T`Q/m+B2M/Q mM +`2+BƦM MQ 2b7û`B+X
SìB2M/Q /2H `2bmHi/Q e- b2 `2HBx`QM /Qb THB++BQM2b /2H KQ/2HQ

BbQiû`KB+Q +QM 2H }M /2 BMp2biB;` Q#b2`p#H2b [m2 T2`KBiM +QMi`bi`
bmb T`2/B++BQM2bX SQ` mM H/Q- b2 /2b``QHHƦ mM KûiQ/Q T` +QM72+@
+BQM` KTb /2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ` /2#B/Q H #bQ`+BƦM TQ` 2H TQHpQ
[m2 +QKTƢ 2H ;b BMi2`2bi2H`X SQ` Qi`Q- b2 DmbiM Hb T`2/B++BQM2b
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/2 H /2MbB// /2H ;b Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b /2 H K2/B/ /2 /BbT2`bBƦM

/2 TȹHb`2b /2 KBHBb2;mM/QX K#Qb KûiQ/Qb Tm2/2M b2` miBHBx/Qb +QM
HQb T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB// [m2 bm`DM /2 7mim`Qb KQ/2HQbX GQb T`BM+BTH2b
`2bmHi/Qb b2 `2bmK2M +QMiBMm+BƦM,
RX GQb pHQ`2b KtBKQb /2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ` E(B − V ) b2 2M+m2Mi`M

p`BQb Ʀ`/2M2b /2 K;MBim/ TQ` 2M+BK /2H pHQ` Q#b2`p/Q- bB MQ
b2 +QMbB2` mM AJ"> 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2H +ȹKmHQ- 2t+2TiQ T` i2K@
T2ìm`b Kmv HibX 1biQ 2b +QMb2+m2M+B /2H pHQ` /2 H /2MbB//
2M 2bi2 2b+2M`BQX
kX H +QMbB/2`` H AJ">- HQb pHQ`2b KtBKQb /2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ`

b2 2M+m2Mi`M Kmv TQ` /2#DQ /2 H b2MbB#BHB// /2 Hb i2ÉMB+b
+imH2bX 1biQ BKTB/2- TQ` 2H KQK2MiQ- mM 2bi`B+i +QKT`+BƦM
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2K#`;Q- H 2tBbi2M+B 2M 2biQb KTb /2 2bi`m+im`b +QM `2KBMB@
b+2M+Bb /2 bBK2i`ő 2b7û`B+ bm;B2`2 H T`2b2M+B /2 ~mDQb ;HQ#H2b
2M HQb +ȹKmHQb US2T2 S2HHBxx- 2M T`2TXVX
jX a2 2M+QMi`Ʀ [m2 H T2M/B2Mi2 /2 HQb T2`}H2b v 2H 2t+2bQ /2 +QHQ`

+2Mi`H +Q``2H+BQMM +QM H Kb /2H AJ">- mM[m2 H BKTQbB@
#BHB// /2 K2/B`HQb ?+2 [m2 +QMbiBimvM T2Mb mM `2bmHi/Q
i2Ʀ`B+QX
9X TìB` /2 +QMbB/2`+BQM2b 2bi`B+iK2Mi2 /BMKB+b- v MHBxM/Q

Q#b2`p+BQM2b 2M 2H +K#BQ /2H T2`őQ/Q /2 bmb TȹHb`2b- 7m2 TQbB#H2
/Bb+`BKBM` +mH2b +ȹKmHQb +QM JaSb bQM +M/B/iQb H#2`;`
mM AJ"> X H;mMQb /2 2biQb +ȹKmHQb T`2b2MiM mM K2/B/ /2
/BbT2`bBƦM +`2+B2Mi2 ?+B 7m2`- [m2 MQ Tm2/2 b2` `2T`Q/m+B/
TQ` HQb KQ/2HQb- v [m2 2M iQ/Qb 2HHQb H /2MbB// /2+`2+2 ?+B
7m2`X
8X aBM 2K#`;Q- b2 Q#iB2M2M #m2MQb Dmbi2b 2M [m2HHQb [m2 T`2b2MiM

mM T2`}H /2+`2+B2Mi2 /2 H K2/B/ /2 /BbT2`bBƦMX 1biQ bm;B2`2 H
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2tBbi2M+B /2 ~mDQb /2 +`2+BƦM ;HQ#H2b +QM T2`}H2b /2 /2MbB//

[m2 p`őM `/BHK2Mi2 +QM H /BbiM+B H +2Mi`Q US2T2 S2HHBxx-
2M T`2TXVX bBKBbKQ- b2 Q#b2`p +B2ì T`272`2M+B /2H Dmbi2 TQ`
[m2HHQb KQ/2HQb T` i2KT2ìm`b Kb Hib- T` Hb [m2 2H
bBbi2K b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M mM `û;BK2M /2 ib /2 +`2+BƦM #DX
1biQ 2b +QMbBbi2Mi2 +QM Hb #Db HmKBMQbB//2b `2TQì/b 2M H
HBi2ìm`X 1M 2bi2 +bQ ?2 TQ/B/Q- iK#BûM- Q#i2M2` 2biBK+BQM2b
T` Hb Kbb /2 HQb AJ">b /2 H;mMQb +ȹKmHQb- HQ [m2 Km2bi`
[m2 2H KûiQ/Q 2b THB+#H2 Hb Q#b2`p+BQM2b +imH2bX
aB #B2M- H /ő /2 ?Qv- 2tBbi2M MmK2`Qbb Q#b2`p+BQM2b `2HBx/b 2M

H #ȹb[m2/ /2 ;mD2`Qb M2;`Qb /2 Kb BMi2`K2/B- Km+?b /2 2HHb
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Agujeros Negros de Masa Mediana - Tesis

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Tesis Doctoral

Agujeros negros de masa intermedia:

Este documento forma parte de la colección de tesis doctorales y de maestría de la Biblioteca

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Cita tipo Chicago:

Agujeros negros de masa intermedia: efectos

Tesis presentada para optar al tı́tulo de

Director de Tesis: Dr. Leonardo J. Pellizza

Lugar de Trabajo: Instituto de Astronomı́a y Fı́sica del Espacio

Buenos Aires, 2013

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