Chapter 26

Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) agroforestry systems and

solar radiation

J. Petit- Aldana, C. P. Lezama, M. M Rahman, O. R. Arenas, A. Infante-Cruz & S.

K. Basu

Abstract This chapter discussed the significant research inputs about solar radiation in
coffee (Coffea arabica L.) agroforestry systems (AFS), regarding the behavior of shade
trees in coffee AFS. Moreover, the interception of Photosynthetically Active Radiation
(PAR) and the direct and indirect methods to determine it has also been discussed. An
analysis of the characteristics of the available light under a canopy of tropical forests
and AFS with coffee is made. We concluded that associating shade trees with perennial
crops provides significant benefits, leading to a continuous and sustainable productivity.
It is important to select the most appropriate method for estimating the availability of
light under the canopy and take into consideration the structure of the system to
determine the shadow intensity.

Key words: solar radiation, methods, coffee, shade, agroforestry systems

26.1 Introduction

In general terms, agroforestry is a system of sustainable management of crops and soil,

which seeks to increase yields continuously, combining the production of tree species

J. Petit- Aldana ()

Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of the Andes, Merida, Venezuela
e-mail: jcpetita@gmail.com

C. P. Lezama and O. R. Arenas

Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla. Academic Body "Natural Resources and Agroforestry
Systems" Puebla, México

M. M Rahman
Brix N Berries, Leduc, Alberta, Canada; Education and Research Center for Subtropical Field Science,
Faculty of Agriculture, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi, Japan

A. Infante-Cruz
Foundation for the Development of Science and Technology of the Merida State (Fundacite-Merida).
Venezuela

S. K. Basu
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, AB Canada TIK 3M4

© Haghshenass Publishing Iran 2017

S. K. Basu, P. Zandi, S.K. Chalaras (eds.), Environment at Crossroads: Challenges, Dynamics and Solutions 236
237 Petit- Aldana et al

with crops of economic value, including pastures for animal production, in a

simultaneous or sequential form in the same unit of land,1-3 and applying management
practices compatible with the cultural practices of the local population.1
Agroforestry systems (AFS) are a common type of land-use method in the tropics.
The presence of trees in the upper stratum can cause a reduction in the availability of
solar radiation and temperature reaching the undergrowth that influences fertility and
alter plant water relations.
The relative importance and effect of different interactions between shade trees and
coffee (Coffea arabica L.) depend on site conditions (soil and climate), selection of the
genotype (species, variety and provenance), the low and soil trees and crops
characteristics, as well as management practices of the main crop.4 It is well known
that where soil nutrients, water, and temperature are not limiting, and losses from pests
and diseases can be avoided, growth and crop yields depend on solar radiation total
interception during the growing season.5 Plants that grow under low levels of
Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR, 400-700 nm), may develop differently than
those grown in full sun, although the nature and degree of adaptation can vary greatly.
Due to these plant responses to reduced differential light, it is unclear which of the PAR
levels will optimize the yields of understory species under shade conditions. 6
This chapter aims to discuss the most important aspects of the role of solar radiation
in coffee AFS, which require appropriate management strategies that can interact
together to achieve a balanced level of productivity.

26.2 Shade trees in coffee agroforestry systems

The agrosilvicultural system is an agroforestry production option where perennial

woody species interact with traditional components (agricultural crops) under integrated
management, are a good way to solve the main current production challenges; as well as
eliminate or reduce the negative environmental impacts, characteristic of traditional
production systems. Simultaneous AFS (with direct interaction), in which the
agricultural and arboreal components are in the same field during the whole duration of
the system; in contrast to sequential agroforestry systems or chronological interaction.
The main objective of this model is the diversification of production, although increases
in productivity can also be achieved through some interactions with the tree
component.7 This category also includes all combinations of trees and perennial crops
where the tree component creates an upper floor and covers crops. Tree cover can be
very open or nearly closed, as the shade trees of various crops.
The main objective of AFS is diversification of production, although increases in
productivity can also be achieved through some interactions with the tree component.
Coffee growing provides the basis for many concurrent systems, agricultural and
arboreal components are on the same land simultaneously, functions and usefulness of
the trees are much more significant than the shade; since these contribute to a more
efficient circulation of matter and energy in the system. Several researchers have
pointed whether or not the shadow supports coffee plantations in the different producing
regions of the world. Production potential, competition for water and nutrients, and the
incidence of pests and diseases are the most important aspects. 4,6 In monoculture
systems, coffee usually requires a large amount of inputs in order to maximize
production. The production of coffee in full sun demands greater economic efforts on
26 Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) agroforestry systems and solar radiation 238

the part of the coffee grower, therefore, the producer is subject to variability in
production costs.
In AFS there is a better conservation of natural resources and less application of
inputs, which translates into lower production costs. In addition, the exploitation of
additional products used for shady trees (fruits, wood or firewood for charcoal
production) results in additional income for the farmer, which has recently stimulated
interest in shade trees, particularly in areas where that practice was abandoned.4,6 The
shade trees in coffee plantations exercise control over the water economy, or mitigating
the effects of water deficit periods imposed on production. They also contribute to
maintain soil fertility, help reduce erosion, recycle nutrients and provide a large amount
of organic matter.8,9
The question of whether or not the coffee tree benefits from shade trees has been
discussed for over a century.4,10-13 The performance potential, competition for water and
nutrients and the incidence of pests and diseases are central issues in this controversy. 4
The unshaded coffee plantations generally require high levels of external inputs to
maximize crop performance and are often associated with soil degradation and
environmental pollution. Small producers of shade-free coffee face serious economic
risks, related to high variable costs and unstable market prices. Otherwise, shade
plantations conserve natural resources, require less input and provide a more stable
income due to cash receipts provided by fruit or lumber from shade trees. These
features coffee under shade have stimulated renewed interest in the use of shade trees,
especially in areas where it has been previously eliminated. 4

26.3 Types of structure presents in coffee agroforestry systems

In coffee AFS can be found various structures formed by the tree component and the
species involved and the spatial arrangement of coffee (Fig 26.1).12,14-18 Basically there
are three types of structures:

Traditional diverse shady, rustic shadow, traditional polyculture or traditional coffee

growing
AFS with different structure or traditional coffee growing, it has less intensified
management and are characterized by the fact that coffee is established with two or
more shady species. The used tree species belong to the genera Inga spp, Erythrina spp
and Albizzia spp, among others, and are deliberately established in lots with coffee. 16,17

Shady different planted, modern polyculture or shady technician

In these cropping systems the shade is established systematically with defined spatial
arrangements for coffee resembles the previous system as it employs two or more tree
species in its structure.14,16 (Inga sp., Albizzia sp., Erythrina sp.)

Shady plain planted, modern polyculture, commercial polyculture or shady technician

The structure of the tree component in this crop system is composed of a single species,
mostly Inga spp, established in systematic spatial arrangements and/or as defined for
the kind of shadow, as for coffee, which gives it the name technician growing under
shade.14
239 Petit- Aldana et al

Fig.26.1 Coffee AFS, simple and stratified (Source: Farfan19)

26.4 Interception of Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR)

The availability of light in the undergrowth is determined fundamentally by the three-

dimensional structure of the forest strata, the index of leaf area, the height of the trees, 20
which are determined by the composition of the forest and the stage of development of
the stand.21 The treetops are not solid, but are slightly stacked. Solar radiation penetrates
the treetops by reflection and transmission (diffuse light), either through openings or
canopy openings, and often, for a brief and unpredictable period sun flecks direct
sunlight or sun are brief flashes of solar radiation increases occurring in the understory
of an ecosystem when sunlight is able to reach directly to the floor. 20 Sun flecks are an
important component of the forest canopy environment, which it is defined as the
Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density (PPFD) over 50 mol m-2 s-1 .22-25
In AFS with more than one species, competition for resources such as soil moisture,
nutrients and solar radiation. When the sun's rays pass through the treetops, the amount
of radiation to the lower strata is less and its quality is altered, because the leaves
preferentially absorb red and blue light within the spectral range of PAR, and therefore,
the intensity of shade agroforestry varies according to the species, planting density, age,
height, spacing and structure of the tops of the tree component.26

26.5 Methods to determine the availability of light under forest canopies

The determination of available light has long been a challenge for scientists studying
the relationship between light environments, survival and growth of plants. Since it is
very difficult to obtain accurate measurements, because daylight varies seasonally at
any given site, it is reflected in a high labor cost. There are mainly two ways to
determine the availability of light under forest canopies, direct measurements indirect
estimates.27
26 Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) agroforestry systems and solar radiation 240

26.5.1 Direct Measurements

Direct measurements are techniques that use light sensors or some special materials to
characterize light levels in the understory. Different light sensors are used to measure
undergrowth light, and among these include the photocells (photometric
measurements.), Radiometers and pyranometer (radiometric measurements), 28,29 and
PAR sensors (quantum measurements.).25, 30-33
The photometric measurement (lumen, lux) is a measure of the intensity of incident
light or luminance. This measurement has been objected as a method to be used in plant
ecology due to the differences between the spectral sensitivities of the human eye and
the mechanisms of photosynthesis. In turn, photometric measurements cannot be
converted into relevant measures to understand processes in plants without knowledge
of the spectral composition of light.29 Despite these drawbacks, photometric
measurements have been used to characterize light environments under the arboreal
canopy and to try to explain some plant patterns. 34
Radiometric measurement (Joule or Watt) is a measure of short wave solar radiation
reaching the surface of the earth. Short-wave solar radiation can be separated into the
direct and diffuse components, global solar radiation being the sum of both, 35 indicate
that solar meters or pyranometers (based on thermoelectric or photometric responses)
are used to measure global solar radiation, also indicate that the direct and diffuse
components of solar radiation can be measured separately; in this way, direct solar
radiation is measured with pyheliometers and diffuse with pyranometers shaded with a
disk so as not to measure the direct component of solar radiation. Quantum
measurement is a measure of PAR at the wavelength between 400 and 700 nm of the
spectral composition of the light.29 Quantum sensors are used to measure this radiation
normally quantified in mmol m-2 s-1, a measure of the PPFD per unit area and time.36
Regardless of what type of sensor is used, there are basically two ways to characterize
understory light environments through the use of sensor measurements, instantaneous
measurements and continuous measurements.
There are instruments that are installed under the forest canopy permanently to
directly measure solar radiation as well as sensors that can be used manually. 37
Permanently installed sensors allow a continuous record of solar radiation and
photosynthetically active solar radiation. It is possible to record the information of these
radiations continuously for extended periods through the use of pyranometers and
quantum sensors connected to a data logger.36,37 However, the solar radiation under the
canopy is very variable due to the daytime movement of the sun, the weather conditions
and the changes in the forest canopy, therefore, to characterize this high variability of
the light environment it is necessary to install a large number of sensors, which often
influence cost and the implementation of research. 29
For instantaneous measurements of solar radiation under the canopy it is
recommended to use between four and 800 sensors and only one to 10 sensors are
required to obtain averages daily. Hand-held sensors include instruments that contain a
sensor such as the LI-COR model LAI-2000 or multiple linear sensors. Multiple linear
sensors consist of a bar with several quantum sensors sensitive to the bandwidth of
photo synthetically active solar radiation, for example, the AccuPAR Decagon
ceptometer model LP-80 active.36 On one hand, the LAI-2000 measures the scattered
light (narrow wavelength between 320 and 490 nm) with a nearly hemispherical lens
(field of view of 148°) having five concentric rings silicon detectors. 36,38 On the other
241 Petit- Aldana et al

hand, the AccuPAR ceptómetro measures PPFD with 80 sensors in the wavelength
between 400 and 700 nm.38 Both sensors have been used frequently to measure light
transmission within the forest and to estimate tree canopy structures, such as leaf area
index.36,38

26.5.2 Indirect measurements

Many researchers and professionals prefer indirect approaches to estimate the light
environment inside the forest because of the difficulties to directly measure solar
radiation under the canopy of the forest. These techniques and methods use estimates of
coverage and canopy closure or the fraction of light.29
A very popular indirect method for estimating the light conditions of undergrowth is
the use of photographic techniques. Photographs can be taken at any given site, using a
lens "fish eye" connected to a normal camera. To minimize the reflection of direct
sunlight, photographs should be taken either early or late on a sunny day or under
overcast conditions. Photo analysis can be done manually or using an optical scanner to
digitize the photograph and then computed using a computer program.39,40 The light
condition for any day can be estimated by the change in the sun's path. This approach is
more advantageous than direct measurement because it requires only simple
instruments and is not affected by the fluctuation of incidental light during the
measurement.41
Another photographic method, the telephoto method, was used by Takenaka 41 to
analyze transmission of light from treetops in three typical warm temperate forests in
Japan. Photographs of treetops at different angular heights were taken with a 270 mm
telephoto lens and magnified. Then each photograph was superimposed with a
transparent sheet having a circle corresponding in size to the apparent angular size of
the solar disk in print. This method is more complicated than "fish eye" method, but it is
more accurate because a higher resolution can be achieved using a larger lens and more
pictures were taken at different angles.

26.6 Characteristics of light available under tropical forest canopy

Canopies of tropical forests are lush, dense and bushy; since different species has
complex strata and high rates of leaf area and coupled with low total light available in
the understory that is less than 2 % compared to that received in the upper strata. 20 The
understory often receive extremely low levels of diffuse solar radiation throughout the
year.22,23 The flashes of sunshine contribute to the total understory light available in
tropical forests ranging from 50-70 %.28 However, sunshine in the understory of
evergreen tropical forests is scarce.42 In a microsite of an intensely shaded forest in
Queensland, Australia Björkman and Ludlow43 found that on a clear day the
Photosynthetic Photon Flux (PPF) during the sun's flashes could only reach a maximum
of 350 μmol m-2 s-1, one-fifth of PPF in full sunlight.
Wind conditions can influence the activity of the sun flares, especially in the duration
of these. Pearcy23 researched the light environment in the understory of a Hawaiian
tropical rainforest and found that more of the 60 % of sun's flashes during the summer,
under very windy conditions, has less than 30 seconds duration, and only few had
26 Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) agroforestry systems and solar radiation 242

further 5 minutes duration. indicated that under the canopy of an intact jungle in Costa
Rica only 0.5 % of PAR penetrated through clearings of the canopy between the leaves,
half the direct beam radiation and diffuse radiation half. The average duration of
sunshine was 5.7 min; and contributed 52.5 % of the total PAR to undergrowth.
The canopy of tropical rainforests changes according to the annual seasonal periods of
drought and rains. In the rainy season, the treetops are well developed and have high
coverage; while in the dry season, they are without leaves, so that coverage is very low.
In Bombay, India, Lee 44 studied the phenology from November, 1984 to July, 1985. In
November, at the end of the rainy season, the dosage coverage of 94 % along a transect
of 40 m, light measurements showed a PPF of 10.0 % in full sunlight. About 44 % of
this flow was due to the flashes of sun whose accumulated duration was approximately
17 % of the hours of the day. In the dry season in March, the canopy cover was 59.4 %,
the measurements revealed a more intense radiation environment (54 % of the solar
PPF), and 59 % of total PPFD understory was provided by the flashes of sunshine along
the transect.

26.7 Characteristics of light available under canopy of agroforestry systems

Interception studies of PAR, which range from 400 to 700 nm wavelengths, provide the
basis for practical crop management, for example, to select trees by their size, the
spatial arrangement of the main crop, the number of plants per hectare and the
optimization of the production of the assimilates and their conversion. In order to plan
the establishment of an agroforestry system, the maximum interception of radiation and
its optimal distribution in foliage and interception, different plants levels should be
sought.45-47
A study was conducted in coffee AFS in the Municipality of Masatepe, Nicaragua, the
index of leaf area, solar radiation not intercepted for four forest species (Samanea
saman (Jacq.) Merr., Inga laurina (Sw.) Willd., Simarouba glauca DC and Tabebuia
rosea DC), hemispherical photographs technique was used in four trees per species, for
which four images on opposite sides of the shaft (North, South, East and West) were
taken, for analysis of the hemispherical photographs the Gap Light Analyzer software
was used. The average leaf area index for tropical species estimated was 0.85 and the
combination I. laurina + S. saman a greater passage of solar radiation to the coffee was
detected (29911.11 lux) possibly due to the morphological characteristics of the canopy.
Cruz48 and Arcila et al49 reported that at eight Cenicafe Experimental Stations in
Colombia, the interception of PAR has been evaluated using a integrating bar of
measurement LI-191 SA (Line Quantun Sensor LICOR Lincoln NE, USA) connected to
a data collector LAI 2000, when the shade trees in each experiment were between 2 and
3 years established; and continued until when they met between 6 and 7. Table 26.1
shows the main results of the experiments, in which high values of PAR are observed in
Inga edulis Matt. when it is in high densities (123 trees/ha)49 conclude that the
distribution of shade or light coffee (percentage of shading) can be summarized as: Free
sun exposure, 0 %; shade sparse or heterogeneous, less than 35 %, optimum or suitable
shade, between 35 % and 45 %, dense or homogeneous shade, greater than 45 %.
According to research conducted in Cenicafé in different seasons, they indicated that
in case of coffee planting shade trees, the degree of coverage or shade must be between
35 and 45 %. Percentages of shade above 45 % negatively affected yield.49 According to
243 Petit- Aldana et al

Beer et al.4 and Vaz50, there is a direct negative effect between the increase in the seed
density of shade trees and the production of coffee. Therefore, the incidence of light is
substantial and should be within reasonable limits not higher than 50 %.

Table 26.1 Interception of PAR, in three Cenicafe Experimental Stations in Colombia

Experimental Arboreal Density
Experiment PAR (%) Source
Station component Trees ha-1
278 70
Response of the coffee El Naranjal
Inga edulis 123 60
grown in an (1997- 1999)
70 45 51
agroforestry system to
278 70
the fertilizer Pueblo Bello
application Inga edulis 123 60
(1998 -2001)
70 45
Behavior of the Cordia alliodora 278 61.0 – 75.7
species Cordia Pinus oocarpa 278 29.3 – 69.0
alliodora, Pinus
Paraguaicito 52
oocarpa and
(1998-2001)
Eucalyptus grandis as Eucalyptus grandis 278 58.7 – 58.5
shade and influence on
coffee productivity
278 57.6
Erythrina fusca 123 29.9
70 25.3
278 32.2
Erythrina
123 25.3
rubrinervia
Effect of shade with 70 20.9
leguminous species at 278 60.8
Pueblo Bello 53
different planting Inga edulis 123 72.5
(2000 – 2001)
densities on coffee 70 37.4
production 278 35.5
Leucaena
123 29.8
leucocephala
70 24.0
Albizzia 278 74.6
carbonaria 123 47.0
70 65.6

A study was conducted to compare the growth and development of coffee, yellow Cauti
variety, under the shade of five tree species on the San Miguel, Portuguesa State,
Venezuela. The tree species evaluated were S. guachapele, S. saman, Gliricidia sepium
(Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp., Cassia moschata Kunth, Pachira quinata (Jacq.) W.S. Alverson
and a control without shadow. Two trees of each species and six coffee plants were
randomly selected, to which was measured the overall height, stem diameter, crown
width and number of branches is counted. Under each tree, the amount of incident solar
radiation was measured with a light meter, branded EXTECH Instruments. To measure
the amount of incident light, two sampling points were set per tree, one east and one
west, in the direction of the daily movement of the sun. The distance of the points from
the tree was defined according to the radius of the cup, being located at the midpoint of
this value. Measurements were made on sunny or cloudy days in each tree and distance,
three consecutive days in the same time range (12:00 m to 1:00 pm), monthly,
coincident with the measurement of coffee plants. 54
Table 26.2 shows that the time of year and the tree species, influenced the amount of
light received by the coffee (P <0.05). In dry season, P. quinata and control showed the
higher levels of solar radiation. C. moschata and G. sepium, only received 59.6 % of the
incident radiation, in relation to the control, which meant a reduction of 41.4 %. For
26 Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) agroforestry systems and solar radiation 244

rainy season S. saman y S. guachapele had the highest values of solar radiation, and C.
moschata and G. sepium the lowers (21 % of the radiation received by the control).

Table 26.2 Estimated means of solar radiation incident on coffee plants, by season and species of
tree, in the San Miguel farm in Venezuela (Adapted from: Solórzano and Querales54)

Days without Dry season Rainy season

Species Foliage Periodicity
leaves (Watt/m2) (Watt/m2)
Cassia moschata Brevi-deciduous 10-20 0.64 a 0.31 a
Gliricidia sepium Deciduous 45-90 0.87 a 0.28 a
Samanea guachapele Brevi-deciduous 70-90 1.05 b 0,80 c
Samanea saman Deciduous 10-20 1,06 b 0.71 c
Pachira quinata Deciduous 90-120 1.41 c 0.57 b
Control (shadeless) - - 1.57 c 1.37 d

The authors argued that the tree architecture defines the amount of light passing through
their foliage. The height, orientation of the branches in relation to the horizontal plane,
shape, and size of the leaves, are variables that must be taken into account. G. sepium
and C. moschata presented the wider and spreading crown, which decreased the amount
of light that entered the underbrush, during the sunny period. On the contrary S.
guachapele and S. saman, presented a narrower cup and the orientation of the more
vertical branches, that's why it was registered greater entrance of light by the lateral
ones. In terms of shape and size leaves, only P. quinata has palmate compound leaves
with large leaflets, on the contrary, other species have compound leaves with small
leaflets.54 concluded that the decrease in light availability during the rainy season was
the most important variable in determining the growth of coffee under the shade of the
five tree species. The periodicity of the foliage and the architecture of the trees define
the amount of light that passes through their canopy. Farfán et al.53 evaluated a
methodology that allows measuring the fraction of the Global Photosynthetically Active
Radiation (GPAR) intercepted by tree species in coffee AFS in Colombia (Fig 26.2). It
was assessed in an AFS with Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pav.) Oken, Pinus oocarpa
Schiede ex Schltdl. and Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex Maiden, it was validated in two
systems, one with Inga sp. and another with 5 legumes, plus coffee in density of 4,500
plants/ha. It was found that the average percentage of PAR incident on the front of the
coffee plants fluctuated between 45 and 55 % in C. alliodora, 30-49 % in P. oocarpa
and 64 to 68 % in E. grandis. In the first validation was obtained that the PAR incident
on the tops of coffee plants with Inga sp. was 75.2 %, 70.8 % and 58.9 %. The second
validation showed that PAR incident on the tops of coffee plants for the tree component
were with Albizzia carbonaria Britton 78.1 %, 72.6 % and 80.3 %; with Leucaena
leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit 37 %, 22.2 %, and 13.4 %; with Erythrina sp. 33.8 %, 6.8
% and 8.8 %; with I. spectabilis (Vahl) Willd. 28.4 %, 37.2 % with 13.1 % and with I.
edulis 50.3 %, 49.1 % and 16.5 %. The authors concluded that the methodology
evaluated allows quantifying the degree of gloom generated by various tree species as
components of AFS with coffee, and in this way it is possible to relate their effect on the
physiological and productivity variables of coffee and to ensure recommendations to
farmers with a high degree of certainty.
245 Petit- Aldana et al

Fig.26.2 Agroforestry system with coffee and Albizzia carbonaria in Colombia (Source: Farfan19)

Regulation of shade provided by trees canopy is important in managing shade perennial

AFS. For the results of light assessment techniques that may be potentially useful for
farmers and extension workers and for quantifying the degree of shading in multi-layer
AFS, underwent PAR was measured under 28 individual species and in stands with
uniform age trees of four mixed species of trees in Costa Rica. The ages of the canopies
varied from 1.5-20 years. The canopy openness fraction was estimated by three methods
in each stand with: densimeter visual index and hemispherical photography. The canopy
opening fractions were compared as estimators with PAR transmission at noon.
Parameters such as crown height, cup diameters, canopy cover and stand density were
measured and compared in regression models for their ability to predict PAR
transmission. As expected, the characteristics of the canopy alone do not accurately
predict PAR transmission. Regarding the techniques, the fractions opening hydrometers
measures was the most predictive method, except under conditions stand- low densities
(<500 trees/ha) and open canopies, where estimates of hemispheric photograph were the
best. Assessment shadow density meters can provide adequate and reliable management
of multi-layer canopy systems and could be useful for farmers willing to adjust their
management techniques.5

26.8 Conclusions

The association of trees with perennial crops are beneficial, as these interact with each
other, meeting additional objectives such as crop protection in dry seasons or periods of
high solar radiation and temperature, soil protection in periods of high rainfall,
productive crop maintenance in areas where required cultivated under tree cover; which
leads to a continuous and sustainable productivity. The AFS is a viable alternative to
mitigate the effects of climatic variations.
As for the methods for estimating the availability of light under the canopy, it is
necessary to reflect on the advantages, disadvantages and limitations of each method of
radiation estimation. It is important to note that not all tree species have the same
development, or the same behavior, nor do they perform the same function in
agroforestry systems. The intensity of shade in agroforestry systems varies according to
the species, planting density, age, height, spatial arrangement and tree architecture.
26 Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) agroforestry systems and solar radiation 246

Studies on how much shade is needed for coffee agroforestry systems and variability
expressed in its spatial and temporal heterogeneity is very little; and only refers to
experiences predominantly in Colombia and Costa Rica.

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