 Thus, the pulse is a wave of dilation of
an artery originating from the aorta as
the blood flows into it from the heart.
The rate of heart beat is usually
measured by determining the pulse
rate. The average pulse rate per minute
in different classes of animals is as
follows:
Elephant 30-45 pulse rate/ min
Horses 38 pulse rate/ min
Carabao and Cattle 54 pulse rate/ min
Goat 78 pulse rate/ min
Chicken 200-400 pulse rate/ min
Mouse 600 pulse rate/ min
Pulse rate may be taken by feeling the artery on
the following animals:
 Horse- external maxillary artery or
about the middle of the lower jaw.
 Cattle and Carabao- similar location as
in the horse but slightly on the outer
surface; coccygeal artery at the base of
the underneath of the tail
 Sheep, Goat,Dog and Cat- femoral
artery; saphenous artery
 Pigs and others- auscultation method
using stethoscope at the cardiac or
chest region
The Blood Vessels
 In general the blood vessel that carries
blood away from the heart is called
artery; and that which carries blood
back to the heart is called vein.
 Also the blood running through the
artery is oxygenated blood; and that
which runs through the vein is
unoxygenated blood.
 The only exception to this principle is
the pulmonary artery which carries
unoxygenated blood from the right
ventricles to the lungs, and pulmonary
veins which carry oxygenated blood
from the lungs to the left atrium of the
heart.
 The aorta or aortic artery carries blood
from the left ventricle to the different
systemic circulations, such as the head,
neck, trunk, limbs, and the visceral
organs.
 The aorta gives off to smaller branches
of arteries which in turn give rise to
several arterioles. An arterioles gives
rise to a bed of capillaries which
eventually join together to form a
venule.
 A venule joins to a bigger vein which
eventually end up on the vena cava
which return unoxygenated blood from
several systemic circulations to the right
atrium of the heart.
Blood Circulation
 Venous blood coming from the
different parts of the body is returned
back to the heart via the vena cava to
the right atrium.
 From the right atrium it goes to the
right ventricle through tricuspid valve.
Then it passes through the pulmonary
valve and goes to the pulmonary
artery. This carries the blood to the
lungs (pulmonary circulation).
 In the lungs the exchange of gases takes
place; carbon dioxide is given off and
oxygen is taken in by the circulation
blood.
 The oxygenated blood is returned back
to the heart by the pulmonary veins
which enter the heart at the left atrium.
From the left atrium, the blood goes to
the left ventricles through the mitral
and or bicuspid valve.
 Then it goes through the aortic valve to
the aorta which carries the blood to the
different systemic circulations. In
systemic circulations, the oxygen is
taken in by the tissues to the circulating
blood.
 These cellular exchange of gases take
place from the different capillary beds.
Then all the venous blood from the
systemic circulations are returned back
to the heart via the vena cava.
The systemic circulation includes the following
special system of blood circulation:
1. Coronary Circulation- systemic
circulation; it supplies blood to the
heart itself.
2. Hepatic Circulation- part of the systemic
circulation; it supplies arterial blood to
the liver.
3. Cerebral Circulation- supplies arterial
blood to the brain.
4. Renal Circulation- supplies arterial
blood to the kidney.
5. Splanchnic Circulation- supplies blood
to the digestive tract.
The Blood
- Is a thick suspension of cellular
elements in aqueous solutions of
electrolytes and some non- electrolytes.
By centrifugation, the blood is
separated in two categories of plasma
and cells.
o Plasma
- The fluid portion of the blood
containing a number of ions, inorganic
molecules, and organic molecules which
are in transit to various parts of the
body or which aid in the transport of
other substances.
- Blood plasma is composed of the
following constituents: water, gases
(oxygen, CO2, nitrogen), proteins
(albumin, globulin, fibrinogen), glucose,
lipids (fats, lecithin, cholesterol), non-
protein nitrogen substances (amino
acids, urea, uric acid, creatine,
creatinine ammonia, salt, etc.),
inorganic salts and minerals (chlorides,
bicarbonates, sulfates, phosphates of
sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, iron, and traces of
manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, etc.),
enzymes, hormones, vitamins, immune
substances, etc.
- The normal plasma volume is about 3 to
5 % of the body weight.
o Blood Cells- made up of the white
blood cells or WBC (leukocytes), the red
blood cells (erythrocytes) and the
platelets, which are all suspended in the
plasma. The number of each kind of cell
present in the blood is determined by
means of hemocytometer.
- The white blood cells are of the three
types: Granulocytes, Lymphocytes, and
Monocytes. Of these the granulocytes
or polymorph nuclear leukocytes
(PMN) are the most numerous. The
granulocytes are subdivided into
neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils
based on their affinity to either neutral,
acidic, or basic dyes, respectively.
- They are formed from stem cells in the
bone marrow, mature rapidly and enter
the circulation where they survive for
no more than 2 weeks. Their main
function is phagocytic in nature.
- At least in the neutrophils and
eosinophils, the granules appear to be
lysosomes and function in the digestion
of material (like bacteria) taken into the
cells by phagocytosis. Old granulocytes
are normally destroyed in the spleen
and other portions of the reticulo-
endothelial system.
o Lymphocytes- are mostly formed in the
lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus and
to some extent also in the bone
marrow. They enter the blood
circulation for the most part via the
lymphatics. They are believed to
produce antibodies and counteract
toxins.
- Monocytes- are large non-nuclear
leukocytes. They are also called the
transitional cells and have well
developed motility. They are believed
to come from the reticulo-endothelial
cells. Like neutrophilic leukocytes, they
are actively phagocytic and are capable
of ingesting all sorts of foreign matters.
- The erythrocytes are biconcave disks
manufactured in the bone marrow. In
mammals, they lose their nuclei before
entering the circulation. These non-
 nucleated cells are soft and contain
hemoglobin.
- Hemoglobin is a complex iron-
containing conjugated protein with a
molecular weight of about 68 000. It is
globular molecule made up of 4 sub-
units, and each unit contains a red
pigment, iron- containing derivative
porphyrin called heme moiety
conjugated to a polypeptide globin.
- The oxygen- carrying property of
hemoglobin is due to the iron content
in the pigment. Hemoglobin binds O2 to
form oxyhemoglobin, O2 attaching to
the Fe++ in the heme. Since hemoglobin
contains 4 Hb units, the hemoglobin
molecule actually reacts with molecules
of O2 to form Hb4O8………..
Hb4 + 4O2 -> Hb4O8
This reaction is oxygenated (not an oxidation)
and requires less than 0.01 second. Oxygen is
afterwards readily given off to the tissues as the
blood goes to the systemic capillaries. In the
muscles, oxygen is taken up by
myohemoglobin.
Blood Coagulation
 The essential process in coagulation is
the conversion of the soluble plasma
protein, fibrinogen, into the insoluble
protein, fibrin, a reaction that is
catylzed by the enzyme thrombin.
 The thrombin is formed from its
inactive circulating precursor,
prothrombin, in the presence of
calcium ions by the action of activated
thromboplastin.
 Thrombin is synthesized in the liver and
vitamin K is essential in the hepatic
synthesis of prothrombin. This is
precisely why vitamin K is essential in
blood clotting mechanisms.
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 The circulatory and the lymphatic system are
related to the body fluid compartments. The
animal body is made up of 60-70 % water.
This is distributed as intracellular fluid (ICF)
and extracellular fluid (ECF). The ICF is about
40-50% of the body weight and the ECF is
about 20 % of the body weight.
 In animals with closed vascular system, the
ECF is divided into 2 compartments: the
interstitial fluid which consists of
cerebrospinal fluids, synovial fluid and the
lymph; and the blood plasma. The interstitial
fluid is about 15 % of the body weight and
the blood plasma is about 5% of the body
weight.
The lymphatic system is composed of lymph
node, lymph vessels, and the lymph.
The lymph nodes and its function
 The lymph nodes are small bodies of
lymphoid tissues which are ovoid or
bean shaped and located in strategic
points of the body through which the
lymph passes on its ways to the blood
stream.
 It is generally agreed that lymph nodes
have at least 2 functions.
 One of these is the production of
lymphocytes of which the lymph nodes
contain large numbers.
 Another function is to stop foreign
materials that come to them in the
lymph. This filtration is said to be
accomplished mechanically and by the
filtration is said to be accomplished
mechanically and by the phagocytic
activity of the reticulo- endothelial cells.
 They become swollen or inflamed
during severe bacterial infections.
The Lymph Vessels
 The lymphatic drain from the lungs and
from the rest of the body tissues via
system of vessels that end in the
various systems. The lymph vessels
begin in the tissues as blind lymph
capillaries, similar in structure to blood
capillaries.
 By the convergence of lymph capillaries,
smaller lymph vessels are formed, and
these in turn to form larger lymph
vessels. Like the veins, the lymph
 vessels contain valves which prevent
the back flow of its content, but have
thinner walls than the veins.
 Ultimately, all the lymph vessels drain
into either the thoracic duct or the right
lymphatic duct, which empty into the
venous system anterior to the heart.
Lymph from the right side of the head
and neck, the right forelegs and the
right side of the thorax drain to the
right lymphatic duct: that from the rest
of the body, to the thoracic duct.
Flow of Lymph
 The tissue fluid is in communication
with the blood in the capillaries, the
intercellular fluid, and the lymph
capillaries. The latter remove from the
tissues spaces materials that do not or
cannot enter the blood capillaries.
Water and crystalloids can move either
way.
 Particulate matter and large molecules
such as proteins and lipids cannot enter
the blood capillaries but can penetrate
the much more permeable wall of the
lymph capillaries.
 The flow of lymph in the lymph vessels
is sluggish and in one directions only,
from the tissues towards the heart.
 The factor concerned in lymph flow are:
(1) the difference in pressure (2) the
massaging effect of muscular
movement; and (3) the presence in the
lymph vessels of valves, which permit
flow in only one direction, that is,
towards the heart.
Composition of Lymph
 Tissue fluid and lymph proper, that is,
the fluid in the lymph vessels are
different. Lymph derived largely from
the blood is similar in composition to
blood plasma.
 The plasma of the blood passes through
the thin wall of the blood capillaries,
enters the tissues themselves also
contribute somewhat to the
composition of the lymph, for there is
free interchange between intracellular
fluid and the tissue fluid.
 In this way the cells rid themselves of
the waste products of metabolisms and
absorb foodstuff.
 The composition of the lymph varies
with the taste of activity of the
digestive organs; lymph derives from
the intestine during fat absorption has a
milky appearance because of the fat
that it contains and is known as chyle.
 Ordinarily, the lymph is colorless, clear,
watery liquid having a specific gravity of
about 1.015. It contains a few red cells
normally, and lymphocytes are present.
The latter cells are more abundant in
lymph that has passed through
lymphoid tissue.
 Whether or not monocytes are present
in uncertain. Neutrophilic leukocytes
are ordinarily absent; however, they
may be present in greater number in
infections.
 Platelets are said to be absent;
nevertheless, lymph will clot, though
feebly. Lymph contains water, glucose,
gases, proteins, non-protein
nitrogenous substances, inorganic
substances, hormones, coenzymes,
vitamins and immune substances.
 The proteins are the same kind as in
blood plasma but the amount is less.
This is especially true of lymph from the
limbs, for the capillary walls in these
regions are less permeable to the blood
proteins than in other regions.
Inter- relationship between the circulatory
system and the lymphatic system
 All body tissues are supplied with blood
capillaries as well as lymph capillaries.
The blood capillaries absorb substances
produced by the cells and other
nutrients and metabolites presents in
the interstitial fluid which require the
circulatory system for their distributions
to other parts of the body.
  However, there are substances which
cannot readily enter the walls of the
blood capillaries because of the size of
their molecules, such as protein
molecules of certain hormones and
enzymes.
 These protein molecules can still join
the circulatory system by way of the
lymphatic system. Since the lymph
capillaries have more permeable walls
than the blood capillaries, all
metabolites of big molecular size which
cannot be absorbed by the blood
capillaries will be absorbed by the
lymph capillaries.
 Eventually, the lymph fluid will enter
the circulatory system through the right
lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 The main function of respiration is to
provide oxygen to the cells of the body
and to remove excess carbon dioxide
from them. Different species achieve
this in different ways.
 Unicellular organisms get their O2 by
diffusion from the fluid surrounding
them and eliminate CO2 in the same
way; larger organisms cannot. Some
larger organism that live in air ( certain
insects) do get enough O2 by diffusion
alone, but they have a special system of
air tubes (trachea or spiracles) that pipe
air directly to many regions of the body,
so that the distances O2 must diffuse to
reach tissue cells are short. Large
animals, including man, make use of
two systems:
1. The blood circulatory system to
carry to and from the tissue cells
large quantities of O2 and CO2 with
the help of hemoglobin
2. A respiratory system, a gas
exchange, to load the blood with
O2 and remove excess CO2. In fish,
blood flows through gills vessels
and extracts O2 from the water
flowing around hem. In man and
other farm animals, the respiratory
surfaces are folded within the body
to prevent drying of the delicate
membranes; air saturated with
water vapor is drawn into intimate
contact with the blood flowing
through the pulmonary capillaries
and gases are exchanged.
 These two systems cooperate to supply
the needs of the tissues. One system
supplies are; the other supplies blood.
The ultimate purpose is the transfer of
gases between air and cells.
 The respiratory system is an air pump
which draws fresh air through the air
tube to small air sacs (alveoli) that have
very thin membranes. The circulatory
system is a blood pump which drives
the whole output of the heart the fine
thin -walled blood tubes (capillaries)
surrounding the alveoli.
The Respiratory Apparatus
 The nasal cavity has two nasal tubes
(sometimes a third tube, the mouth is
also used), and then becomes one, the
trachea. The trachea is always kept
open by the presence of rings of
cartilage in its wall. It subdivides into
two main branches, the right and left
bronchi, which are similar in structure
and function as trachea.
 Each of the two bronchi divides into
two more, ad each of these into two
more, and so on until there have been
20-30 subdivisions in all. A simple
calculation shows that 20 subdivisions
of this type produce almost a million
terminal tubes.
 At the end of each are numerous blind
pouches, the alveoli or alveolar sacs;
 here gas exchange occurs. There are
about 300 million of these in the two
lungs of their diameter varies from 75
to 300 microns.
 The lungs may be regarded as two
elastic membranous sac whose interior
(in free communication with the
outside air through the respiratory
passages) is highly modified and
enlarged by the presence of numerous
alveoli.
 The wall of the alveolus is composed of
a single layer of respiratory epithelium.
Across this layer of cells and the
endothelium of the blood capillaries,
gaseous exchange between the air in
the blood in the numerous adjacent
capillaries takes place.
 The total area of the alveolar walls in
contract with the capillaries in both
lungs is estimated to be 70 square
meters in human, which is about 40
times the surface area of the body.
 The thoracic cavity contains the lungs
and the mediastinal organs. This activity
is completely separated from the
abdominal cavity by the diaphragm.
 The pleura, a serious membrane line
the thoracic cavity, forming the lateral
walls of mediastinum and are reflected
from there on the lungs, thus forming a
pleural cavity.
 The pleural cavity is merely a capillary
space, occupied by a thin film of fluid,
which serves to moisten and lubricate
the two pleural layers.
 The pressure of the pleural cavity is
negative. Therefore when the pleural
cavity is opened, air rushes in and the
lungs will collapse.
 The inspiratory muscles consist of the
diaphragm and the external intercostal
muscles.
 The movement of the diaphragm
accounts for 75% of the change in
intrathoracic volume during quite
inspiration.
 The diaphragm is attached around the
bottom of the thoracic cage and arches
over the liver and moves downward like
a piston it contacts. The distance of
movements is about 1.5 to 7.0 cm.
 The external intercostal muscles run
obliquely downward and forward from
rib to rib. The rib pivot as if hinged at
the back, so that when the external
intercostal muscles contract, they
elevate the lower ribs. This pushes the
sternum outward and increases the
antero-posterior diameter of the chest.
 The expiratory muscles consist of
internal intercostal muscles and the
muscles of the anterior abdominal wall.
The internal intercostal muscles pass
obliquely downward and posteriorly
from rib to rib, and therefore, pull the
rib cage downward when they contract.
 The muscles of the anterior abdominal
wall also aid expiration by pulling the
rib cage downward and inward; and by
increasing the extrabdominal pressure
which pushes the diaphragm upward.
The Respiratory Center
1. Medullary Cavity- capable of initiating
and maintaining sequences of the
respiratory cycle. This contains the
minimal number of neurons necessary
for the basic coordinated sequence of
inspiration and expiration. The center is
often divided into an inspirational
center and expiratory center; because
maximal sustained inspiration follows
electrical stimulation of some region
and maximal expiration follows
 stimulation of adjacent regions. As the
lateral sides of this region, there are
special receptors which are believed to
respond to H concentrations. A rise in H
results in hyperventilation.
2. Pneumonotaxic Center- located in the
upper pons above the medullary center.
Stimulation of this center accelerates
respiration, especially expiration. It is
postulated that inspiration sets up
impulses that ascend from the
medullary inspiratory center to the
pneumotaxic center, where they
generate impulses that descend to the
expiratory center and inhibit
inspiration, a negative feedback
mechanisms.
3. Apneustic Center- located in the lower
pons, between the pneumotaxic center
and the medullary center. The role of
the center is revealed when both the
pneumotaxic center and the vagi are
inactivated; prolonged apneusis then
results. (Apneusis is the cessation of
respiration in the inspiratory position).
Regulation of Respiratory Center Activity
- Respiration would increase whenever cells of
the body need more O2 or for more CO2 and
would decrease whenever they need less O2
or form less CO2. There are many sensory
receptors, in many locations which can
influence respiration rate: appropriate
electrical stimulation of almost any sensory
nerve and of many parts of the brain can
affect respiration. However, some receptors
appear to be highly specialized for the task
of respiratory regulation. These receptors
are sensitive to chemical changes in their
environment, therefore called generally as
chemoreceptors. The well-known of the
chemoreceptors are:
1. Medullary chemoreceptors- believed
to be located on the ventral surface of
the brain system. It is believed to
monitor the H- concentration of the
cerebrospinal fluid or, possibly the
brain interstitial fluid. An increase in H
concentration stimulates respiration.
2. Carotid bodies- are small, pinkish
nodules located just beyond the
bifurcation of the common carotid
artery into the external and internal
carotids. The carotid bodies are
completely different from the carotid
sinuses in structure and function. The
carotid sinuses contain
mechanoreceptors that respond to
changes in stretch or deformation of
the carotid artery wall; the carotid
bodies contain chemoreceptors that
respond to certain changes in their
chemical environment.
3. Aortic bodies- contain
chemoreceptors that function
separately from aortic pressoreceptors
, which are in the wall of the ascending
arch of the aorta. Most of the aortic
chemoreceptors lie between the arch
of the aorta and the pulmonary artery
or on the dorsal aspect of the
pulmonary artery.
The carotid and aortic chemoreceptors are
sensitive to changes in PO2, PCO2 AND H-
concentration in arterial blood. When the
PCO2 or H- in arterial blood is increased, or
when arterial PO2 is decreased, the carotid
and aortic chemoreceptors are stimulated
and the respiratory center activity increases.
 Application of the acetylcholine or
nicotine to the chemoreceptors
areas stimulates respiration;
whereas applicatopm of cyanide or
procaine reduces or abolishes
respiration.
 The non- chemical influence of
respiration can be shown by the fact
 that breathing can be controlled. position. The pressure in the airway
Irritation on the walls of trachea or become slightly negative and air flows
bronchi produces coughing which into the lungs.
begins with a deep inspiration
Mechanisms of Expiration
followed by forced expiration against
a closed glottis.  Following an inspiration, the
 The glottis is then suddenly opened, enlarged thorax may return to its
thus producing an explosive outflow resting position by purely passive
of air at velocities up to 600 miles forces, that is, without muscular
per hour. Sneezing is a similar effort. At the end of inspiration, the
expiratory effort with a continuously lung recoil pulls the chest back to
open glottis. the expiratory position where the
 This illustrates that non- chemical recoil pressure of the lungs and
factor can influence the activity of chest wall balance. The pressure in
the respiratory center in response to the airways becomes slightly
some mechanical stimuli. positive, and air flows out of the
 The respiratory adjustments during lungs.
vomiting, swallowing, and gagging  Although in quite breathing
are other examples of non-chemical expiration is passive, labored
control of respiratory. breathing is accompanied by active
 Inhibition of respiration and closure of expiration, that is, the return of the
the glottis during these activities not thorax to the resting position being
only prevents the aspiration of food hastened. This is accompanied by
or vomitus into the trachea but in the contraction of the expiratory
the case of vomiting, fixes the chest muscles (internal intercostal
so that contraction of the abdominal muscles and the muscles of the
muscles increases the intra- anterior abdominal wall). Very
abdominal pressure. active expiration is seen also in
coughing, talking, laughing, barking,
Mechanism of Inspiration
etc.
 Inspiration is an active process.
Regulation of Expiration- the muscle of
Contraction of the diaphragm increases
respiration possesses no inherent rhythm.
the longitudinal diameter of the chest.
Spontaneous respiration is completely
Also, the contraction of the external
dependent upon the discharge of the
intercostal muscles elevates the ribs,
respiratory center in the medulla oblongata. It
resulting in an increased transverse
is the efferent connections from the center to
diameter of the thorax.
the respiratory muscles are interrupted, or if
 At the start of inspiration, the
the center is destroyed, breathing stops.
intrapleural pressure is about -2.5
mmHg (relative atmosphere pressure).
When the chest volume is increased,
Lung Volume
the interpleural pressure is further
decreased to about -6 mmHg, and the  The amount of air that moves into the
lungs are pulled into a more expanded lungs with each inspiration (or the
 amount that moves out with each
expiration) is called the tidal volume or
TV.
 The air inspired with a maximal
inspiratory effort in excess of the tidal
volume is the inspiratory reserve
volume (IRV). The volume expelled by
the active expiratory effort aster
passive expiration is the expiratory
reserved volume (ERV), and the air left
in the lungs after maximal expiratory
effort is the residual volume (RV).
 The space in the conducting zone of the
airways occupied by gas that does not
exchange with blood in the pulmonary
vessels is the respiratory dead space.
 The vital capacity, the greatest amount
of air that can be expired after a
maximum inspiratory effort is
frequently measured clinically as an
index of pulmonary function.
 It gives useful information about the
strength of the respiratory muscles and
other aspects of pulmonary functions.
The fraction of the vital capacity expired
in 1 second (time vital capacity; also
called forced expired volume is 1
second, or FEV 1) gives additional
information; the vital capacity may be
normal but the timed vital capacity is
greatly reduced is diseases such as
asthma, in which the resistance of the
airways is increased owing the
bronchial constriction.
 The amount of air inspired per minutes
(pulmonary ventilation, respiratory
minute volume) is normally about 6L
(500 ml/breadth x 12 breaths/ min).

Gas Exchange