Studies of the Long-term Behaviour of Glass Reinforced Epoxy

(GRE) Pipes under Biaxial Stress

M.S. Abdul Majid, J.M. Hale and A.G. Gibson
School of Mechanical and Systems Engineering
Newcastle University

Abstract
The aim of this research is to find an improved method of predicting the
failure behavior of Glass Reinforced Epoxy (GRE) pipe-work at long
times under complex stress states which include a combination of internal
pressure and axial load. The procedure currently used to qualify GRE
tubing (as in ISO19464 and ASTM 2992) is expensive and time-
consuming, as it involves constant pressure stress-rupture tests, carried out
over a period of more than 15 months. If the design of pipe is changed the
procedure needs to be repeated. Another problem is that the current
method only quantifies the behavior accurately when the pipe is under
pure hydrostatic stress. The technique used to allow for the effect of axial
loads can be quite inaccurate.

The present work will attempt to develop a more effective method of

predicting long term failure behavior under combinations of internal
pressure and axial load. New models will be developed to quantify the
growth of pipe wall damage that occurs under these conditions. An
important question to be answered is whether or not there are stress levels
below which no damage takes place and whether these stress levels would
form a suitable basis for design.

To date a novel type of pipe test specimen has been developed, which will
enable the pipe to be easily subjected to combinations of internal pressure
and axial load. Test spools have been manufactured and supplied by
Future Pipe Industries and testing should begin shortly. Acoustic emission
will be examined as a method of characterizing the development of
damage in the pipe

Introduction
The use of composite materials has risen steadily in recent times primarily due to their
attractive features, especially in adverse environments and sophisticated structural
applications. One of the known applications of composites materials is that of high
pressure pipe-work used to transport oil and cooling water. Here, glass reinforced epoxy
(GRE) composites are one of the most widely used composite materials. They were used
extensively in the marine, building and oil industry due to their lightweight, high strength
and chemical/corrosion resistant properties [1-3]. However, as the use of these materials
increases, so does the need to define reliable design limits in terms of its performance.
The most important thing arguably to predict is the long term behaviour of these pipes
(20-30 years) under complex loading based on the data recorded from short term failure
tests.

The failure behaviour of GRE pipes has been the subject of investigations for many years
now, the majority of which were emphasized on the long term design limits, failure mode
and associated deformations [4-7]. This is complicated by the fact that the GRE tubes are
not just anisotropic materials but also inhomogeneous. As a result, a variety of
mechanisms of failure can be observed from GRE tubes subjected to uniaxial or biaxial
loading such as matrix micro-cracking, fibres fracture, delamination or fibre-matrix
debonding [8], which limits the use of GRE composite tubes. Previous findings have
shown an initial linear stress-strain relation in GRE systems when pressurised. However,
further pressurising will result in the reduction of the stiffness of the pipes which can be
observed from the onset of non-linear stress-strain response. This non-linearity is more
pronounced by the damage incurred from matrix micro-cracking and plasticization of the
resin [9]. This is very important in modelling the long term behaviour of GRE pipes
because the crack strains are considerably higher than those at the onset of the non-
linearity response; hence the point is used to indicate the first sign of damage in the pipes.
The same concept has been adopted in predicting the long term behaviour of GRE pipes
using the Ultimate Elastic Wall Stress (UEWS) method, which will be explained later in
this paper.

Investigation by Soden in 1978 [7, 10], described the failure envelopes for ±35°, ±55°
and ±75° wound tubes under a variety of biaxial stress. Soden concluded that the strength
of the tubes was varied greatly by the ratio of the axial to hoop stresses and that the shape
of the failure envelope was highly dependent on the orientation of the fibres. Soden went
on to initiate a challenge to researchers around the world to compare their failure criteria
of Fibre reinforced plastics (FRP) systems subjected to biaxial stress ratios to a common
set of test data, so that consistent comparison could be facilitated [11, 12]. It was shown
that, while a number of failure criteria were available, they were only successful for a
limited range of data and none were able to accurately predict the weepage failure of
GRE systems. Weepage failure is categorised as functional failure due to slow leakage
through the pipes wall. This mechanism can be observed with the formation of fluid
droplets on the outside surface of the pipe [13]. A recent study by Saied [14], has
suggested that GRE tubes tend to fail due to weepage mechanism which is in agreement
with previous findings [4-6, 9, 15, 16]. In 2002, Hale [17] investigated the failure
behaviour of GRE pipes when subjected to continuous exposure of hot and wet
environments at various biaxial loadings. Hale concluded that, the strength of the matrix
system was considerably reduced at high temperatures, especially at temperature
approaching the resin glass transition temperature, Tg and became more critical when
hoop to axial stress ratios is away from 2:1 value.

Present work is a collaborated project between the Composite Centre of Newcastle

University and its industry counterpart from Future Pipe Industries. The main objective is
to investigate the long term failure behaviour of GRE pipes under biaxial loading. This
research will be experimentally based and will involve an investigation of the failure
envelopes of GRE pipes of realistic diameter over the envelope of axial load and internal
pressure combinations. Interpretation and modelling of the results are of equal
importance to the experimental work. A critical review will be made of the present
methods of interpreting long-term stress limits from the short term failure data for
composite tubes. The key difficulty is in correlating the results of short-term tests with
these long term failure data. Predicting failure envelopes from UEWS method currently
employed by Future Pipe will also be critically investigated and assessed using methods
that will include accurate measurements of stress and strain as well as acoustic emission
during testing.

Biaxial Testing According to ASTM D2992

Currently, the ISO 14692 standard is used to predict the maximum service pressure for
GRE pipes. The standard describes the method used to establish the regression line to
predict long term allowable stress [18]. In determining this line, samples of the GRE
pipes are pressurised statically or cyclically with water. According to ASTM D2992, at
least 18 points are required in order to establish an acceptable regression line, with at
least one sample providing a point in excess of 10,000 hours. A graph of applied stress
versus time failure is then plotted with the log-log format. By extrapolating the lower
confidence limit (LCL) from the regression line, the rating for a design lifetime of 20
years can be obtained. Weepage failure is the accepted mode for GRE pipe in this
procedure. Here a slow leakage of fluid from the wall of the tube is observed due to the
presence of a network of matrix cracks which form over time. The regression line
obtained from this procedure is important information that qualifies the product to be
manufactured and defines the pressure rating to be used in pipe’s system design. The
regression line is also important when reconfirmation of the Hydrostatic Design Basis
(HDB) is required. This is needed when there is change to materials, manufacturing
processes, construction, liner thickness or fitting design. In the reconfirmation test, the
product is subjected to the 1000 hours hydrostatic pressure based on the 1,000 hour lower
prediction limit (LPL) of the regression line obtained from ASTM D2992. If the product
survives the 1000 hours test without any sign of weepage or sudden burst failure, it is
safe to conclude that the product has the same design lifetime of 20 years as the original
pipe. The example of regression line for a pipe product is illustrated in Figure 1.
 Figure 1: Example of regression line indicates the pressure at design lifetime of 20 years
and the pressure at 1000 hours reconfirmation test [18]

Pipe manufacturers comply with the ISO 14692, to ensure the products delivered are safe
and perform well within the requirements of end users and with manageable reliability
issues. However, while the present method of determining the lifetime prediction of GRE
pipes is acceptable, many manufacturers feel that the current procedure is time-
consuming and expensive. For every product to be qualified, manufacturers have to
undergo 2-3 years of qualification programs which is rather long considering the
timeframe the products normally have to be delivered. Since at least one of the test data
must be obtained at 10,000 hours test, single product qualification program will takes
more than a year to complete with no room for errors or premature failure earlier than
10,000 hours. Such premature failure will requires the product to be retested and the more
valuable time will be wasted.

Determination of Ultimate Elastic Wall Stress (UEWS)

One test method now being promoted by some of the major manufacturers in the pipe
industries as the alternative to the one described in ASTM D2992 is the determination of
Ultimate Elastic Wall Stress (UEWS). The principle of the UEWS was first investigated
by Shell Research in 1968 [19]. In this procedure, a specimen filled with water at 65°C is
loaded in a prescribed times versus pressure schedule which consists of cycle groups.
Each group consists of ten one-minute cycles at pressure and one-minute cycles at no
pressure, [20] as illustrated in Figure 2. The first Cyclic Test Pressure (CTP) shall be
10% of the pressure expected pressure at UEWS. If the strain is completely reversible
with deformation of less than 5%, the test is continued on the next cycle group with CTP
further increased 10%. The UEWS point is considered to be exceeded when a difference
in strain between the first cycle and the tenth cycle is more than 5%.
 Figure 2: Pressure versus time during UEWS test

To elucidate the concept of the UEWS method, the failure of GRE pipes will happen
when debonding occurs between fibres and matrix interface. Once debonding takes place,
there will be less surface area for stress distribution. This will lead to the development of
stress concentration within the composite system which, in turn, causes further
debonding. Eventually debonds coalesce to form a crack parallel to the fibres which later
results in continuous weepage paths through the pipe wall. The onset of which the fibres-
matrix interface starts to debond is used as the point to indicate the borderline between
the permissible and non-permissible deformation allowed. This point is called Ultimate
Elastic Wall Stress (UEWS). The test has been valuable approach for the manufacturers
for the internal qualification test of changed raw materials or process modifications in
filament winding plants. The marked advantages of this UEWS method are that, the
process involved is relatively cheap, and it can be repeated as many times required since
one test can easily be completed within a day. Although the UEWS procedure provides a
relatively simple method of predicting behaviour under pure internal pressure, GRE pipe
is usually subject to complex loadings involving combinations of an axial load and
internal pressure. At present, the understanding of the failure behaviours of GRE pipes,
particularly under combinations of axial loadings and internal pressure, is limited due to
the questionably design limits and lack of extensive study on the effect of variety biaxial
stress conditions in the UEWS procedure.

Despite the fact that many researchers have governed failure envelopes from their
investigations of GRE pipes, many believe that it was based on weepage and burst failure
occurred. Discrepancy obviously noted when these results were in comparison to the
elastic properties predicted using Laminate Theory. This is because, in laminate theory,
each lamina involved is assumed to be homogeneous and perfectly bonded to adjacent
lamina which means that the strain is uniform as the loads are applied to the laminates.
On the contrary, the results obtained from the biaxial testing, make used of the data
recorded when failure was first observed (weepage, burst, etc.). Many manufacturers
believe a better, more accurate failure envelope should be established, to improve the
design arrangements of products (wall thickness, support requirement, distance, etc).
Since the procedure for determining UEWS use the onset of which the fibre-matrix starts
to debond, the data obtained from UEWS test is expected to provide a better agreement to
those obtained from theoretical analysis of Laminate Theory.

Laminate Analysis
Laminate theory is a powerful method of determining the elastic response of composite
laminates subjected to applied loads or strains. First, the elastic properties of a
unidirectional ply are calculated using the micromechanics theory of composite structures
in the principal axes from those constituent lamina [21]. Stress-strain relationship in the
principle axes of the lamina is then derived from the Hooke’s Law. Equal strain treatment
and Halpin-Tsai simplication [22] were used to determine the elastic behavior of
unidirectional ply in the principle axes of the laminates from the following equations;

From rules of mixtures;

E1 = E f V f + EmVm v12 = v f V f + vmVm (1)

and from Halpin-Tsai simplication;

Ef
1 + ξηeV f −1
Em
E2 = where ηe = (2)
1 − ηeV f Ef
+ξ
Em
Gf
1 + ξη gV f −1
Gm
G2 = where ηe = (3)
1 − η gV f +ξ
Gf
Gm
In the above equation, E1 and E2 are the longitudinal and transverse modulus of the fibre
respectively, while G12 and v12 is the shear modulus and the Poisson’s ratio in fiber
direction. According to Halpin-Tsai [21], ξ is suggested to be equal to 2 for predicting the
transverse modulus and equal to 1 when predicting the shear modulus. The volume
fractions, modulus of elasticity and shear modulus of the fibre (f) and matrix (m) in the
laminates are represented by Vf, Vm, Ef, Em, Gf and Gm respectively. Since the pipe’s wall
is an angle ply laminates, the lamina can be considered of having orthotropic elastic
properties which are highly dependent on the winding angle θ. From linear relationship
between stress and strain;

⎛ σ 1 ⎞ ⎛ Q11 Q12 0 ⎞ ⎛ ε1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎜ σ 2 ⎟ = ⎜ Q12 Q22 0 ⎟ ⎜ ε1 ⎟ (4)
⎜τ ⎟ ⎜ 0 0 Q66 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ γ 12 ⎟⎠
⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎝
Where Q11, Q12 and ect. are the stiffness matrixes, which can be expressed in engineering
terms as,
E1 v E v E
Q11 = ; Q12 = 12 1 = 21 2
1 − v12 v21 1 − v12 v21 1 − v12 v21
E2
Q22 = ; Q66 = G12 (5)
1 − v12 v21

E1 and E2 are the modulus of elasticity in the lamina’s principle axes. However, in case of
angle ply laminates, the unidirectional lamina is now loaded in some arbitrary angle θ
(Figure 3), relative to the principal axes. Stresses and strains applied in x-y axes can be
expressed in the directions of principle axes 1-2 from relationship below;

⎛ σ 1 ⎞ ⎛ cos θ sin 2 θ 2sin θ cos θ ⎞ ⎛ σ x ⎞ ⎛σ x ⎞

2

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ σ 2 ⎟ = ⎜ sin θ
2
cos 2 θ −2sin θ cos θ ⎟ ⎜ σ y ⎟ = [T ] ⎜ σ y ⎟ (6)
⎜ τ ⎟ ⎜ − sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝τ xy ⎟⎠ ⎜τ xy ⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ ⎠
hence;

⎛σ x ⎞ ⎛ σ1 ⎞ ⎛ ε ⎞ ⎛ ε ⎞ ⎛ ε1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ -1 ⎜
⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎜ x ⎟
⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ σ y ⎟ = [T ] ⎜ σ 2 ⎟ = [T ] [Q ] ⎜ ε 2 ⎟ = [T ] [Q ][T ] ⎜ ε y ⎟ = ⎡⎣Q ⎤⎦ ⎜ ε 2 ⎟
-1 -1
(7)
⎜τ ⎟ ⎜τ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜γ ⎟
⎝ xy ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎜ 1 γ 12 ⎟ ⎜ 1 γ xy ⎟ ⎝ 12 ⎠
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

Where ⎡⎣Q ⎤⎦ is the transformed stiffness matrix which relates engineering strains to the
stresses developed in the lamina when loaded at arbitrary angle θ. In this analysis, we
assumed that each lamina is homogenous and perfectly bonded to one another, hence no
shears exist. Thus, from algebraic manipulation, ⎡⎣Q ⎤⎦ can be expressed as the followings;
Q11 = Q11 cos 4 θ + Q22 sin 4 θ + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) sin 2 θ cos 2 θ
Q 22 = Q11 sin 4 θ + Q22 cos 4 θ + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) sin 2 θ cos 2 θ
Q12 = (Q11 + Q22 − 4Q66 ) sin 2 θ cos 2 θ + Q12 (cos 4 θ + sin 4 θ ) (8)
Q16 = (Q11 − Q12 − 2Q66 ) sin θ cos θ − (Q22 − Q12 − 2Q66 ) sin θ cos θ
3 3

Q 26 = (Q11 − Q12 − 2Q66 ) sin 3 θ cos θ − (Q22 − Q12 − 2Q66 ) sin θ cos3 θ
Q 66 = (Q11 + Q22 − 2Q12 − 2Q66 ) sin 2 θ cos 2 θ + Q66 (cos 4 θ + sin 4 θ )
 θ

y
x
Figure 3: Diagram showing the unidirectional lamina loaded at an arbitrary angle θ.

Equation (8) can now be used to describe the behavior of lamina in terms of four
independent elastic constants. Laminate stress-strain analysis is then carried out using the
applied stress and resultant moment;
⎧ N ⎫ ⎡ A B ⎤ ⎧ε 0 ⎫
⎨ ⎬=⎢ ⎥⎨ ⎬ (9)
⎩ ⎭ ⎣
M B D κ
⎦⎩ ⎭

where, transformed stiffness matrix ⎡⎣Q ⎤⎦ is used to define the elasticity matrices;

( )
n
Aij = ∑ Qij ( hk − hk −1 )
k
k =1

( ) (h − h 2 k −1 )
n
Bij = ∑ Qij 2
k (10)
k
k =1

( ) (h − h3k −1 )
n
Dij = ∑ Qij 3
k
k
k =1

A, B and D matrices are called the extensional stiffness matrix, coupling stiffness matrix
and bending stiffness matrix respectively [21]. However, since filament wound pipe is a
symmetrical angle ply laminates, the coupling matrix B and bending matrix D can be
made equal to zero, hence the total strains in the laminate can be obtained. Finally, the
stresses in the individual lamina are found using the lamina’s transformed stiffness
matrix;
[σ i ] = ⎡⎣Qij ⎤⎦ {ε j } (11)

Test Arrangements

Test Specimen
Eighteen GRE pipes with an internal diameter of 200 mm were prepared by filament
winding techniques and supplied by Future Pipe Industries. All the pipes were helically
wound at ±55 and geometrically similar. Table 1 shows the physical and mechanical
properties of the tubes. The parallel length of the pipe in the test, not including the fitting
region, will be >>6D, i.e. 1,600 mm, and the pipe will have built-up, tapered ends
reinforcement. The main purport of having reinforcement at the end of the specimen is to
reduce the stress concentration effects that might develop when the specimen is subjected
to additional axial tensile or compressive loading. Figure 4 shows the dimension of the
specimen agreed with the Future Pipe Industries for this investigation. Bonding length
required for the specimen was calculated from the following relation;
P × ID
Shear stress =
4 × Bonding length
Where P is the maximum working pressure applied and ID is the internal diameter of the
tubes. Extra length in the bonding surface is opted to ensure failure to occur on the pipe
rather than bonding failure between the pipe and the end caps.

Table 1: Mechanical and physical properties of individual ply for the GRE tubes [23].

Internal Diameter 200 mm

Wall Thickness 5.4 mm
Liner n/a
Density 1850 kg/m3
Number of Plies 10
Volume fraction 59 %
Axial Young’s modulus 44.5 GPa
Hoop Young’s modulus 14.9 GPa
Shear Modulus, G 4.33 GPa
Major Poisson’s ratio, 0.28

Figure 4: Dimension details of the specimen.

Design Principle of Test Spool

In this investigation, a special test setup was designed to facilitate static rupture tests and
UEWS tests for ±55 filament wound pipes supplied by Future Pipe Industries. In
principle, biaxial strength of composite pipes can be applied by pressurizing the
specimens to failure under combination of tensile or compressive axial force and internal
pressure. In this study where the specimen’s wound angle is ±55, internal pressure alone
will give σH/σA = 2. Tensile and compressive forces then can be applied axially to create
various hoop-to-axial stress ratios ranging from pure axial to 2:1, 2:1 to pure hoop and,
preferably, on into the compressive quadrant. For initial feasibility study a stress ratio of
2:1 will be used, and to be tested at a temperature of 65°C. Weepage failure is expected
from these experiments and the results shall be plotted in terms of failure envelopes in the
σx and σy axes. The rig design will be optimized to minimize cost and maximize
experimental convenience. The biaxial-rig will be used in two types of experiment: (i)
UEWS tests (involving successive sequences of fatigue cycles and (ii) static rupture test,
aiming for failure points in the region, 10 hours – 1,000 hours. The latter test sequence is
expected to be experimentally challenging and time consuming. The test rig is shown
schematically in Figure 5.

The rig was designed such that there will be two chambers separated by piston-like
configuration installed within the pipe. The two chambers will then separately pressurize
to create various hoop-to-axial loading conditions. A differential pump driven by the air
compressor will be used to pressurize air into the test rig. The ratio between the pressures
in the two chambers will be controlled by a pressure intensifier to create an additional
axial load within the pipe. Pressure intensifier is opted instead of using two independent
pump sources due to its ease of handling and fabrication. It is to be noted that the design
was based on the standard sample agreed. (200 mm 32 bar, 5.4 mm structural wall
thickness pipe). The biaxial strain will be measured with 2 strain gauges applied at the
centre of the gauge length with gauges positioned at principle direction of the tube; axial
and circumferential. To date, test spools have been manufactured and supplied by Future
Pipe Industries and the manufacture of the rig should begin shortly.

Figure 5: Schematic of biaxial loading test specimen (internal pressure with axial tension)

Working Pressure
For tests in the region of positive hoop and axial stress the following relationships apply:
 Pd PD
σ Hoop = 1
and σ Axial = 2 (12)
2t 4t

Table 2 contains data relating to the previous results [14] at ambient temperature.
Assuming a d/t ratio for the pipe to be 40, these results have been converted into
hydrostatic pressures for the two chambers inside the pipe. For the time being, these
pressures can be regarded as the maximum working pressures for these chambers, for the
purpose of design and supply of pumps and fittings. Considering the 25ºC, failure
envelope should provide an upper bound on the pressures to be encountered in the
chambers, which are 195 bar and 111 bar, respectively, for the two chambers.

Table 2: Ambient temperature (25ºC) failure data for glass/GRE pipe [14] and
corresponding maximum pressures for the test chambers.
Pressure ratio Hoop stress Axial stress P1 P2
(hoop:axial) (MPa) (MPa) (bar) (bar)
Pure Axial 0 75 0 75
1:1 97 97 48.5 97
2:1 222 111 111 111
4:1 292 73 146 73
Pure hoop 390 0 195 0

Thermal Enclosure
Since elevated temperature performance is of interest, the test is planned to cover
approximately 6 different stress ratios at 65°C and 95°C as well as room temperature
with priority is on 65°C. Hence, a thermal enclosure was designed and now is being
manufactured. The enclosure was specially designed to enable testing on three modified
spools at once and maintaining them at the test temperature with temperature variation of
maximum 3°C. The diagram of the thermal enclosure is given in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Details of the thermal enclosure for elevated temperature biaxial testing
Conclusion and Future Work
In conclusion, this paper highlights the progress made in the investigation of the long
term behavior of GRE pipes subjected to biaxial stress conditions. To date, the test spool
and thermal enclosure for the investigation were designed and now are being fabricated.
The tubes properties were estimated using modified Halpin-Tsai criteria. These values
were then applied with conventional laminate theory to calculate the reduced stiffness of
the laminae and the stresses and strains developed in the fibres' principle-axes for the ±55
wound tubes.

Next, a model is to be developed to predict the failure behaviour of the tubes in which a
matrix microcracks develops. The model is envisaged to estimate the microcracks growth
in the tubes, under various hoop-to-axial loading conditions. First damage in transverse
matrix microcracks in the off-axis lamina is expected. At the same time, the UEWS and
the hydrostatic rupture test will begin once the modified test rig is ready. Failure
envelopes from both UEWS and rupture tests are expected and results to be compared
with those governed from the model developed.

The UEWS and the conventional hydrostatic testing measurements, will measure strains.
However, other methods of measurement such as acoustic emission and residual strength
will also be considered. The question to be answered regarding UEWS, concerns the
existence of a stress level below which the rate of damage is either zero or negligibly low
over the lifetime of a pipe. The effect of varying the UEWS procedure, for instance, by
changing the length and number of cycles performed, will also be considered.
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