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Geothermal regime and AUTHORS 3
Yinhui Zuo  State Key Laboratory of Petroleum
hydrocarbon kitchen evolution Resource and Prospecting, China University of
Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China; present address:
of the offshore Bohai Bay Basin, Research Center for Basin and Reservoir, China
University of Petroleum, Fuxue Road 18, Changping,

North China Beijing 102249, China; zuoyinhui@Tom.com

Yinhui Zuo received his master’s degree in mineral
survey and exploration from Chengdu University
Yinhui Zuo, Nansheng Qiu, Yuan Zhang, Cuicui Li, of Technology in 2008 and is now a candidate for a
Jianping Li, Yonghua Guo, and Xiongqi Pang Ph.D. from the China University of Petroleum, Beijing.
His current interests include tectonothermal evolu-
tion of sedimentary basin and hydrocarbon accu-
mulation history analysis.
ABSTRACT
Nansheng Qiu  State Key Laboratory of
The offshore Bohai Bay Basin, located in the central Bohai Bay Petroleum Resource and Prospecting, China Uni-
Basin, north China, one of the most petroliferous basins in versity of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China; present
address: Research Center for Basin and Reservoir,
China. In this article, based on formation-testing temperature,
China University of Petroleum, Fuxue Road 18,
drill-stem tests, and bottom-hole temperature data, 80 thermal Changping, Beijing 102249, China;
gradient values at the depth interval of 0 to approximately qiunsh@cup.edu.cn
3000 m (~9843 ft) in the offshore Bohai Bay Basin were ob- Nansheng Qiu received his Ph.D. in structural ge-
tained. The basinwide average thermal gradient is 31.8 ± 4.6°C/ ology from the Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy
km. Based on the above thermal gradient data and the corre- of Sciences in 1994. He is now a professor of
geology at the China University of Petroleum, Beijing.
sponding average weighted thermal conductivity data, 80 mea-
He has conducted tectonothermal history and hy-
sured terrestrial heat flow values were obtained. These values drocarbon generation history in several Chinese
range from 33.5 to 84.0 mW/m2, with an average value of basins. His current research interests include tecto-
60.8 ± 8.7 mW/m2. The heat flow and thermal gradient dis- nothermal evolution of sedimentary basin and
tribution in this region generally show higher values in the up- hydrocarbon accumulation history analysis.
lifts and lower ones in the sags. A thermal history, derived from Yuan Zhang  State Key Laboratory of Petro-
vitrinite reflectance and apatite fission-track) data, indicates leum Resource and Prospecting, China University of
that Paleogene cooling occurred after a period of much higher Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China;
zhanyuan0520@163.com
paleogeothermal gradient (38∼54°C/km). Tectonic subsidence
Yuan Zhang received her master’s degree in struc-
analysis reveals that the area experienced initial synrift sub-
tural geology from the China University of Pe-
sidence during the Paleogene followed by subsequent thermal troleum, Beijing, in 2008. She is now an employee
subsidence since the Neogene. Thermal and tectonic sub- at Monitor Center for Energy-saving and Emission,
sidence histories of this area are of great significance to petro- China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC).
leum exploration and hydrocarbon resource assessment because Her current interest is in energy management.
they bear directly on issues of petroleum source rock matura- Cuicui Li  State Key Laboratory of Petroleum
tion. The maturation and hydrocarbon expulsion histories of Resource and Prospecting, China University of
the Paleogene Shahejie 3 Formation (E2s3), which is the most Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China;
licuicui19850928@126.com
important source rock in the offshore Bohai Bay Basin, are
Cuicui Li is a graduate student at the China Uni-
modeled. Results show that the Shahejie 3 Formation is in a
versity of Petroleum, Beijing. Her current interests
include tectonothermal evolution of sedimentary
basins and hydrocarbon accumulation history
analysis.
Copyright ©2011. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
Manuscript received May 6, 2010; provisional acceptance June 3, 2010; revised manuscript received July 21,
2010; final acceptance September 27, 2010.
DOI:10.1306/09271010079

AAPG Bulletin, v. 95, no. 5 (May 2011), pp. 749–769 749


Jianping Li  Institute of Petroleum Exploration
and Development, Bohai Oil Company, China Na-
tional Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC), Tianjin
300452, China; lijp@cnooc.com.cn
Jianping Li received his master’s degree in geo-
chemistry from the China University of Geosciences,
Beijing, in 1989. He is now a senior engineer at
the Tianjin branch of the China National Offshore
Oil Company Ltd. His current research interests
include oil and gas exploration geology and oil and
gas geochemistry in the Bohai Bay Basin.
Yonghua Guo  Institute of Petroleum Explora-
tion and Development, Bohai Oil Company, China
National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC),
Tianjin 300452, China; Guoyh2@cnooc.com.cn
Yonghua Guo received his master’s degree in petro-
leum geology from the China University of Geo-
sciences, Wuhan, in 1989. He is now a senior geologist
at the Tianjin branch of the China National Offshore
Oil Company Ltd. His current research interests
include petroleum geochemistry and hydrocarbon
accumulation history in Bohai Bay Basin.
Xiongqi Pang  State Key Laboratory of Petro-
leum Resource and Prospecting, China University
of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China;
pangxq@cup.edu.cn
Xiongqi Pang received his Ph.D. in petroleum geol-
ogy from the China University of Geosciences, Beijing,
in 1991. He is now a professor of geology and
vice president at the China University of Petroleum,
Beijing. He has conducted basin analysis, oil and
gas resource assessment, and oil and gas accumu-
lation mechanisms in several Chinese basins. His
current research interests include basin analysis, oil
and gas resource assessment, and oil and gas
accumulation mechanisms.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the Bohai Oil Company, CNOOC, and
individuals who contributed cores and information
for this work. The State Key Laboratory of Petro-
leum Resource and Prospecting (no. PRPJC2008-01),
the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(no. 90914006), and the Major Program for Tianjin
Branch, CNOOC, China (no. SC06TJ-TQL-004)
provided financial support. Our heartfelt gratitude
goes to Zhenxue Jiang and Fujie Jiang for their
helpful suggestions on the manuscript. We also thank
A. Y. Huc, Gray L. Prost, and an anonymous re-
viewer for their constructive and helpful comments.
The AAPG Editor thanks the following reviewers
for their work on this paper: A. Y. Huc, Gary L. Prost,
and an anonymous reviewer.
750 Offshore Bohai Bay Basin, China
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high mature stage at the present day, and the Bozhong and
Qikou sags are the most important kitchens. The Huanghekou 3
sag became the third most important hydrocarbon kitchen in
the early Neogene. Based on this hydrocarbon kitchen evolu-
tion, oil and gas mainly accumulated after 12 Ma. The evolu-
tion of kitchen areas may provide new insights for the under-
standing of the oil and gas exploration potential of the offshore
Bohai Bay Basin.
INTRODUCTION
The offshore Bohai Bay Basin, 50,000 km2 (15,440 mi2), is
located in the central Bohai Bay Basin, north China (Figure 1),
where the water depth mostly is less than 20 m (<65.6 ft).
Petroleum exploration here began in 1965, and several large
oil fields with reserves of more than 1 × 108 tons (7 × 108 bbl)
have been found during the past 10 yr, including the SZ36-1,
QHD32-6, NP35-2, PL19-3 (i.e., the largest offshore oil field
in China), CFD11-1, and BZ25-1. More than 20 × 108 tons
(140 × 108 bbl) of oil reserves have been found in the offshore
Bohai Bay Basin so far (Zhu and Ge, 2001; Jiang et al., 2003;
Xiao and Chen, 2003; Xu et al., 2008). These discoveries
indicate that the offshore Bohai Bay Basin is a promising ex-
ploration area. Although oil and gas exploration has rapidly
developed during the past 10 yr, more and more geologic
problems were emerging in the offshore Bohai Bay Basin. The
Paleogene source rock problems (e.g., source rock distribu-
tion, maturation, hydrocarbon kitchen location, and evolu-
tion), especially, have restricted oil and gas exploration in the
region.
A hydrocarbon kitchen is defined as the area underlain by
effective hydrocarbon generating source beds and is identified
by integrating geochemical data relevant to maturation and
organic facies with structural and stratigraphic information
derived from seismic surveys and deep wells (Demaison, 1984).
Thomas et al. (1985) studied the Upper Jurassic hydrocarbon
kitchen of the northern Viking Graben in the North Sea Basin,
including the location of the hydrocarbon kitchen, the scale of
hydrocarbon generation and accumulation, and the oil and gas
migration pathways during different geologic periods. The the-
ory of the hydrocarbon kitchen and its evolution has successfully
guided oil and gas exploration in the North Sea Basin and other
regions. Recognition and delineation of the hydrocarbon kitchen
not only play a key role in oil and gas exploration, but also pro-
vide the basis for analysis of oil and gas potential in a region
(Larue and Underwood, 1986; Demaison and Huizinga, 1991;

Prinzhofer et al., 2000; Terken et al., 2001; Brister
et al., 2002; El-Ghamri et al., 2002; Lewan et al.,
2002; Hu et al., 2005; Ahmad et al., 2006; Hanks
et al., 2006; Connolly and Aminzadeh, 2008). Re-
cently, many studies have focused on burial, thermal
history, and hydrocarbon kitchen modeling, which
may provide the basis for analysis of oil and gas mi-
gration and accumulation studies (Prinzhofer et al.,
2000; Terken et al., 2001; Isaksen et al., 2002;
Lewan et al., 2002; Alsharhan, 2003; Du et al.,
2006; Scotchman et al., 2006; Zhao et al., 2006;
Connolly and Aminzadeh, 2008; Pang et al., 2008;
Hao et al., 2009). However, hydrocarbon kitchen
studies in the offshore Bohai Bay Basin are lacking.
Only a few studies focusing on the maturation his-
tory of source rocks in several sags in the offshore
Bohai Bay Basin exist (Gao et al., 2004; Zuo et al.,
2009). In recent years, many exploration wells were
drilled, and a large number of organic geochemical
samples were obtained in this region. All these pro-
vide the basis for the study of source rock matu-
ration and hydrocarbon kitchen evolution.
The heat flow and geothermal gradient distri-
bution, thermal history, maturation, and hydro-
carbon kitchen evolution of the offshore Bohai Bay
Basin were studied in this article. The thermal his-
tory was modeled based on vitrinite reflectance
(Ro) and apatite fission track (AFT) data. The total
amount of expelled hydrocarbon of the main source
rocks (e.g., E2s3 in Figure 2) was modeled with
BasinMod software using modeled thermal history,
tectonic subsidence evolution, and source rock geo-
chemical data. Hydrocarbon kitchen evolution in the
main sags of the offshore Bohai Bay Basin was de-
termined. This work may provide geothermal re-
gime, hydrocarbon generation, and hydrocarbon
kitchen evolution information for further explo-
ration of the offshore Bohai Bay Basin.
GEOLOGIC SETTING
The offshore Bohai Bay Basin is one of the most
petroliferous basins in China. It is surrounded by
the Jiaoliao fault-uplift zone to the east, the Liaohe
depression to the north, the Jiyang depression to
the south, and the Huanghua depression to the
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west. The offshore Bohai Bay Basin consists of 14
sags and 16 uplifts (Figure 1). The Liaodong Bay 3
area discussed in this article includes the Liaoxi,
Liaozhong, and Liaodong sags and corresponding
uplifts (Figure 1). The Cenozoic in this area con-
tains the Kongdian, Shahejie, Dongying, Guantao,
Minghuazhen, and Pingyuan formations (Figure 2).
The offshore Bohai Bay Basin experienced two tec-
tonic episodes from the Proterozoic to the Meso-
zoic: (1) regional stable subsidence from the Mid-
dle to Late Proterozoic to the end of the Paleozoic
and (2) the folding in the Mesozoic. The offshore
Bohai Bay Basin also experienced a long period of
uplift and erosion in the Mesozoic, during which
metamorphic basement rocks were exposed in most
areas because of the Caledonian, Indo-China, and
Yanshan movements (Chen and Liu, 1995; Lu
et al., 1997). Tectonic evolution of the offshore
Bohai Bay Basin during the Cenozoic is character-
ized by complex deformation caused by Himalayan
tectonics (Qi, 2004; Xu et al., 2008). The tectonic
and depositional evolution experienced the synrift
stage from the Paleocene to the Oligocene (65∼
24.6 Ma) and postrift thermal subsidence stage
(24.6∼0 Ma) since the Miocene (Cai et al., 2000,
2001; Xiao and Chen, 2003; Qi, 2004; Xu et al.,
2008). Moreover, it includes six substages: (1) early
synrift substage from the Paleocene to the early
Eocene (65∼42 Ma), (2) late synrift substage in
the middle Eocene (42∼38 Ma), (3) the first ther-
mal subsidence substage in the late Eocene (38∼
32.8 Ma), (4) renewed rifting substage in the Oli-
gocene (32.8∼24.6 Ma), (5) a second thermal
subsidence substage in the Miocene (24.6∼5.1
Ma), and (6) a neotectonic activity substage from
the Pliocene to Quaternary (5.1∼0 Ma). The basin
subsidence and depositional center migration from
the adjoining Jiyang and Huanghua depressions
to the Bozhong sag in the Cenozoic, resulted in
the thickest deposition in the Neogene and Qua-
ternary in the Bozhong sag.
Four sets of potential source rocks exist in the
offshore Bohai Bay Basin, that is, the Kongdian
Formation–Shahejie 4 Formation (E1k-E2s4), the
Shahejie 3 Formation (E2s3), the Shahejie 1-2 For-
mation (E2s1–2), and the Dongying Formation (E3d).
The Kongdian Formation–Shahejie 4 Formation are
Zuo et al. 751
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Figure 1. (A) Location of the Bohai Bay Basin. (B) Distribution of sags and uplifts and main oil and gas fields in the offshore Bohai Bay
Basin (modified from Hao et al., 2009; L. J. Tang and J. F. Qi, 2009, personal communication). Labels (1) to (12) are the locations of oil
fields. (1) Bozhong 25-1; (2) Bozhong 28-2; (3) Caofeidian 12-1; (4) Caofeidian 11-1; (5) Qinhuangdao 32-6; (6) Nanpu 35-2; (7) Lüda
10-1; (8) Lüda 5-2; (9) Jinzhou 25-1s; (10) Jinzhou 29-3; (11) Lüda 27-2; (12) Penglai 19-3.

dominated by interbedded mudstone and sandstone
developed in subaqueous fan, fan delta, and lacus-
trine environments. The Shahejie Formation was
developed in the fan delta, alluvial fan, subaqueous
fan, lacustrine, and carbonate platform environ-
ments. The Shahejie Formation consists of gray
limestone and interbedded dolomite and gypsum
in the lower part of the formation; dark-gray, gray-
to-brown mudstone with interstratified medium-
to coarse-grained sandstone in the central part; and
variegated bioclastic limestone in the upper part.
The Dongying Formation was deposited in delta,
fluvial, and lacustine environments. It consists of
gray mudstone and interbedded sandstone in the
lower part and interbedded variegated mudstone
and sandstone in the upper part (Chen and Liu,
1995; Jiang et al., 2003; Xu and Cai, 2007; Xue
et al., 2007). The Dongying Formation source rock
was never deeply buried, and only the strata in the
Bozhong, Nanpu, and Qikou sags reach the thresh-
old of oil generation. The Shahejie 1-2 Formation
source rock is widely distributed but is thinner

752 Offshore Bohai Bay Basin, China


Figure 1. Continued.
than other source rocks. However, the Kongdian–
Shahejie 4 Formation potential source rock is only
encountered in some wells in the study area. The
Shahejie 3 Formation is the most important source
rock in the offshore Bohai Bay Basin because of its
wide distribution and good quality (Gong et al.,
2004; Chen et al., 2009; Tan et al., 2009). Its
thickness reaches as much as 2000 m (6562 ft) in
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the Qikou sag and more than 300 m (984 ft) in
most sags of the offshore Bohai Bay Basin (Figure 3A).
The burial depth of the Shahejie 3 Formation is as
much as 8000 m (26,247 ft) in the Bozhong sag
and more than 3000 m (9843 ft) depth in most
other sags (Figure 3B). The total organic carbon of
the Shahejie 3 Formation source rock ranges from
0.10 to 3.75%, with an average value of 2.5% in
Zuo et al. 753

Figure 2. Stratigraphic column
in the offshore Bohai Bay Basin.
Form. = Formation; PY = Pin-
gyuan. Thermal conductivity is
shown as mean value ± SD from
Gong et al. (2003), where SD is
standard deviation.
most of sags. Based on elementary analytical dia-
grams, the organic matter of the Shahejie 3 Forma-
tion is mainly type II kerogen. This type of organic
matter is derived from partial aquatic lower organ-
isms (type II1 kerogen) and partial terrestrial higher
plants (type II2 kerogen) (Figure 4A) (Li, 2004;
Pang et al., 2009). Hydrogen index values range
from 53.8 to 708.0 mg/g, with an average value of
341.2 mg/g, and Tmax values mainly range from
754 Offshore Bohai Bay Basin, China
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430 to 450°C. The Tmax values below 435°C show
that part of the Shahejie 3 Formation source rock
is immature. The Tmax values of more than 435°C
show that the other Shahejie 3 Formation source
rock is mature (Figure 4B). The S1 + S2 values range
from 0.63 to 18.93 mg/g, with an average value of
6.88 mg/g (Pang et al., 2009). These values suggest
that the Shahejie 3 Formation is a good source rock,
and it has great hydrocarbon generation potential.

Figure 3. (A) Isopach map of the Shahejie 3 Formation rock unit. The contour interval is 200 m (656 ft). (B) Depth map for the Shahejie 3
Formation bottom. The contour interval is 500 m (1640 ft). The sea bottom elevation is approximately -20 m (∼-65.6 ft ) over the area.
GEOTHERMAL REGIME OF THE OFFSHORE
BOHAI BAY BASIN
The geothermal regime of the sedimentary basin is
the basis for understanding source rock evolution.
Previous studies were focused on the geothermal
regime of the onshore area of the Bohai Bay Basin
(Allen et al., 1997; Huang et al., 1999; Xiao et al.,
2001; Wang et al., 2002; He and Wang, 2003; Qiu
et al., 2004, 2006, 2007; Lin et al., 2005). Only a
few have dealt with the offshore Bohai Bay Basin
(Chen et al., 1984; Hu et al., 2001). However, the
previous studies were mainly based on temperature
data from the limited number of exploration wells
in the uplifts around the Bozhong and Liaozhong
sags. With the increase in exploration wells in the
past 10 yr, more temperature data (e.g., drill-stem
test temperature, bottom-hole temperature [BHT])
became available. Some systematic steady-state tem-
perature and formation-testing temperature data
were obtained from more recently drilled wells. All
these new temperature data and thermal indicators
from new drilled wells provide the basis for our
study and will allow further understanding of the
geothermal regime in the offshore Bohai Bay Basin.
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Thermal Gradients and Heat Flow Distribution
Thermal gradient data in this study are from sys-
tematic steady-state temperature measurements and
bottom-hole temperature (BHT) data. These data
were provided by Tanjing Oil Company Ltd., China
National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC), the
sole operator for petroleum exploration and de-
velopment in the offshore Bohai Bay Basin. A total
of 1100 temperature measurements from forma-
tion testing and BHTs were corrected by systematic
steady-state measurement data. The thermal gra-
dient distribution at the depth interval of 0 to
approximately 3000 m (9843 ft) in the offshore
Bohai Bay Basin is obtained on the basis of these
corrected data and systematic steady-state measure-
ment data. The average geothermal gradient value is
31.8 ± 4.6°C/km in the offshore Bohai Bay Basin.
Generally, the thermal gradients are higher in the
uplifts but relatively lower in the sags (Figure 5A).
The thermal gradients are as much as 40 and 36°C/
km in the Bonan lower uplift and the Shijiutuo
uplift, respectively. An average thermal gradient of
34°C/km is found in the Liaozhong sag and lower
thermal gradients in the Liaoxi and Liaodong sags.
Zuo et al. 755

Figure 4. The types of organic
matter for the Shahejie 3 For-
mation source rock. (A) Van
Krevelen diagram; (B) Espitalie
diagram. Tmax = peak tem-
perature of pyrolysis; HI =
Hydrogen Index; H = hydrogen;
C = carbon; O = oxygen.
The lowest thermal gradient below 26°C/km occurs
in the Bozhong and Huanghekou sags (Figure 5A).
At the same time, the heat flow was calculated
from the thermal gradient and the corresponding
average weighted thermal conductivity data. The
average weighted thermal conductivities were cal-
culated on the basis of the lithological data from
study wells and data from Gong et al. (2003) for
each stratum from the samples of onshore depres-
sions of the Bohai Bay Basin (Figure 2). A total of
80 heat flow values are calculated in our study, and
most of the wells are the same as the thermal his-
tory modeling wells shown in Figure 1B. The heat
flow values in the offshore Bohai Bay Basin range
from 33.5 to 84 mW/m2, with an average value of
60.8 ± 8.7 mW/m2. The heat flow is also higher in
the uplifts and relatively lower in the sags. The
highest heat flow, as much as 70 to aproximately
84 mW/m2, occurs in the Shijiutuo and Shaleitian
uplifts and the Bonan lower uplift. Heat flow values
are lower than 60 mW/m2 in most of the sags
(Figure 5B). Overall, the average heat flow of the
offshore Bohai Bay Basin is higher than the South
China Sea (77 mW/m2) (He et al., 2001) but lower
than the Tarim Basin, western China (44 mW/m2)
(Wang et al., 1995).
Thermal History Modeling
Apatite fission-track analysis is useful in under-
standing the geothermal history of host rocks be-
cause fission-track age is a reflection of the time
756 Offshore Bohai Bay Basin, China
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over which tracks have been retained in the apatite
and the amount of annealing (length reduction)
that has occurred (Green and Duddy, 1989). The
fission-track age is mostly a function of track an-
nealing in response to the increasing temperature
between approximately 50 and 120°C (Ghori et al.,
2005). The distribution of served track lengths
showed a progressive broadening as the degree of
annealing increased and track lengths reflect the
style of cooling (Green et al., 1986). When com-
bined with reflectance data, AFT data constrain
paleotemperature and periods of cooling from peak
temperature. Vitrinite reflectance data provide con-
trol over a wider paleotemperature range, especially
when the AFTs are totally annealed (Ghori et al.,
2005). In such a situation, AFT data constrain
minimum paleotemperature estimates (Green and
Duddy, 1989).
In this article, Ro and AFT data were used to
reconstruct the thermal history of typical wells.
More than 3000 Ro values were collected from
Tanjing Oil Company Ltd., CNOOC. The Ro-depth
relations of the main nine sags indicate a low to
moderate maturation level of source rock (Figure 6).
The higher Ro value in the same depth of different
sags (i.e., Bozhong and Nanpu sags) suggests that
the source rock experienced relatively higher heat
flow than other sags (i.e., Liaodong Bay area, Laiz-
houwan and Huanghekou sags). In addition, 14
sandstone cores from five wells were collected for
AFT analysis (Table 1). Apatite was extracted from
the cores using standard heavy liquid and magnetic

Figure 5. (A) Geothermal gradient distribution at the depth interval of 0 to approximately 3000 m (°C/km). The contour interval is 1°C/
km. (B) Heat flow distribution (mW/m2). The contour interval is 3 mW/m2.
separation techniques. Samples were tested to ob-
tain track ages and track lengths using the external
detector method (Naeser et al., 1979). The 14 AFT
ages ranged between 0.9 ± 0.2 and 125 ± 9.0 Ma
and mean fission-track lengths between 9.7 ± 2.4
and 11.2 ± 2.5 mm (Table 1). The AFT ages for the
samples BZ25-1-1 (2534.3 m), BZ25-1-1 (2718.3 m),
JZ20-3-1 (2225.5 m), QK17-9-3 (1909.4 m), and
QK17-9-3 (1944.5 m) are greater than the strati-
graphic ages, which indicate that some of the AFT
records were inherited from the provenance. How-
ever, the ages of other samples are less than the
stratigraphic ages, which indicate that the samples
are in a partial annealing zone. As shown in Figure 7,
the AFT ages decreased to zero in the depth range
of 3600 to approximately 3800 m (11,811∼
12,467 ft), giving the partial annealing zone of
AFT as much as 3600 to approximately 3800 m
(11,811∼ 12,467 ft). The host rock for most of the
apatite in the lower Cenozoic synrift fill was from
the unroofing of crystallizing basement at the rift
shoulders during extension (Allen et al., 1997).
When deposited, detrital apatites may contain fis-
sion tracks inherited from their provenance. If sedi-
ments have only been weakly to moderately heated
after deposition, the AFT age will most likely be
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older than the depositional age, and the length pat-
tern will reflect a mixture of inherited tracks and
those formed postdeposition (O′Sullivan, 1999).
Obviously, all the AFT ages from the offshore
Bohai Bay Basin represent mixed ages, which in-
dicate that the samples are never totally annealed
after the burial, so they indicated that the amount
of eroded section at the unconformity on the top of
Dongying Formation was not significant, only 300
to approximately 600 m (984∼1969 ft) (Hu et al.,
2001). The AFT length decreases with increasing
burial depth of samples. The bi-peak of AFT length
distribution in the samples of well BZ25-1-1 indi-
cates that the region has experienced a significant
tectonic uplift. The study by Hu et al. (2001) showed
that the uplift occurred at the end of Dongying
Formation depositional period.
In our simulation, some constraints were needed,
including the lithological data, the present surface
and paleosurface temperatures, thermal gradient,
heat flow, and stratigraphic data. The lithological data
include the thermal conductivity, heat production
rate, rock density, initial porosity, and compaction
factor. The thermal conductivity data are cited
from Gong et al. (2003), and the stratigraphic ages
of each stratum are listed in Figure 2. The present
Zuo et al. 757
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Figure 6. Vitrinite reflectance (Ro) data versus depth in the main sags of the offshore Bohai Bay Basin.

temperature and paleosurface temperature in our The burial histories of the study wells were re-
modeling is set to 15°C over the geologic time based constructed using the Sclater and Christie (1980)
on the research result of the lithofacies paleoge- compaction model, borehole geologic data, and
ography of the Bohai Bay Basin (Zhao et al., 2003). erosion data from documents (Hu et al., 2001;

Table 1. Apatite Fission Track Measurements from the Samples of the Offshore Bohai Bay Basin*

Depth rs (105/cm2) ri (105/cm2) rd (105/cm2) P (x2) Age L (mm ± 1s)

Well No. Stratigraphy (m) n (Ns) (Ni) (Nd) (%) (Ma) (±1s) (N)

BZ25-1-1 N1g 2534.3 25 2.241 (612) 1.977 (540) 2.092 (3144) 0 46 ± 3/0 10.2 ± 1.6 (28)
BZ25-1-1 E3d1 2718.3 28 1.535 (546) 1.782 (634) 2.092 (3144) 44.8 35 ± 2.0 9.9 ± 1.8 (84)
BZ25-1-1 E2s3 3598.1 28 0.253 (66) 4.407 (1152) 1.839 (3144) 0 2.0 ± 0.3 —
BZ25-1-1 E2s3 3995 28 0.190 (56) 5.139 (1516) 1.712 (3144) 12.6 1.2 ± 0.2 11.2 ± 2.5 (7)
BZ28-2-1 E3d2 3078.5 17 0.514 (78) 2.337 (355) 2.177 (3144) 0.2 9.2 ± 1.2 10.0 ± 2.1 (23)
BZ28-2-1 E1k 3843.1 28 0.112 (36) 4.793 (1536) 1.987 (3144) 0 0.9 ± 0.2 10.7 ± 2.6 (10)
BZ28-2-1 E1k 3997.3 28 0.304 (37) 3.451 (420) 1.839 (3144) 11.7 3.1 ± 0.5 10.7 ± 2.4 (7)
BZ28-2-1 E1k 4001.7 28 0.212 (55) 3.256 (845) 1.734 (3144) 0 2.2 ± 0.3 9.7 ± 2.4 (7)
JZ16-1-1 K 2761.2 28 1.342 (190) 1.152 (163) 2.113 (3144) 100 47 ± 5.0 9.9 ± 1.2 (8)
JZ20-3-1 E2s2 2225.5 28 1.872 (416) 1.489 (331) 1.987 (3144) 98.8 48 ± 4.0 10.1 ± 1.9 (80)
QK17-9-3 E2s2 1909.4 28 6.396 (1250) 2.825 (552) 2.092 (3144) 75.1 91 ± 6.0 10.5 ± 2.3 (111)
QK17-9-3 E2s3 1944.5 28 6.884 (1210) 1.872 (329) 1.776 (3144) 81.7 125 ± 9.0 11.1 ± 1.9 (103)
QK17-9-3 J2 2175 28 3.331 (1010) 1.148 (348) 1.923 (3144) 99.3 107 ± 8.0 11.1 ± 2.0 (110)
QK17-9-3 J2 2212.5 28 4.484 (1393) 1.713 (532) 1.860 (3144) 94.4 93 ± 6.0 10.6 ± 1.8 (91)
*rs = spontaneous track density; rd = fossil track density; ri = induced track density; n = number of grains. All track densities are 105/cm2. Ns and Ni = number of
spontaneous and induced tracks, respectively. Nd = number of fossil tracks. Number of tracks counted or measured is shown in parentheses of length. L = mean track
length; N = number of counted or measured tracks. Uncertainties are quoted at 2s. Ages calculated using a z of 322.1 ± 3.6 for dosimeter glass CN5 for apatite. The ld
is 1.55125 × 10-10/yr and g = 0.5 in this measurement. P(x2) = chi-square probability, which is a measure of probability that individual grains counted in a sample are
from a single population. Ages were determined using average age when values of P(x2) < 5%, which are generally taken to indicate that multiple age populations are
present. However, ages were determined using assembled age with the values of P(x2) > 5%. Mean track lengths are corrected for length bias (Laslett et al., 1982).

758 Offshore Bohai Bay Basin, China


Figure 7. Apatite fission-track age and length versus depth.
Tang et al., 2008; L. J. Tang and J. F. Qi, 2009,
personal communication). The annealing model of
Green and Duddy (1989) was used to model the
thermal annealing of AFTs. The kinetic model of
vitrinite reflectance evolution used here is the Easy
% Ro model from Sweeney and Burnham (1990).
The burial, thermal, and hydrocarbon gener-
ation histories are modeled for 48 wells (Figure 1).
Figure 8 gives the burial and thermal history of well
JX1-1-1 in the Liaozhong sag. The modeled ther-
mal gradient result showed that a higher thermal
gradient exists in the synrift stage (65–24.6 Ma)
than that in the postrift thermal subsidence stage
(24.6–0 Ma). It was 44 to approximately 41°C/km
during the deposition of the Shahejie Formation,
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decreased to 38°C/km at the end of the deposition
of the Dongying Formation, and is 31.5°C/km at
the present day.
The thermal gradient evolutions of typical wells
in several sags were modeled. The thermal gradient
evolution of a sag was obtained from the average
value of several wells’ modeled results, and the
thermal gradient evolution of the offshore Bohai
Bay Basin was also obtained by the average value of
several sags (Figures 9, 10). The average thermal
gradient was 43 to approximately 54°C/km during
deposition of the Shahejie Formation (i.e., Eocene).
The thermal gradient decreased slowly after the
Oligocene. It was 38 to approximately 43°C/km in
the Oligocene and 34 to approximately 38°C/km
Zuo et al. 759

Figure 8. The modeled results of burial, thermal, and hydrocarbon generation history of Well JX1-1-1 in Liaodong Bay area. “+” means
measured vitrinite reflectance (Ro) datum, and the solid line means modeled result in the right chart.
at the end of the Neogene, then 32°C/km at the
present day (Figure 10). The Bozhong sag experi-
enced a higher thermal gradient in the Paleogene,
but the higher thermal gradient occurred in the
Liaodong Bay area in the Neogene.
Tectonic Subsidence Analysis
The subsidence history can offer some information
on the geodynamic evolution of the basin. Steckler
and Watts (1980) and Van Hinte (1978) have pre-
viously described the technique of subsidence anal-
ysis. The tectonic subsidence in several sags of the
offshore Bohai Bay Basin was reconstructed in our
study using the Falvey and Middleton (1981) model
and the Sclater and Christie (1980) compaction
model (Figure 11).
The tectonic subsidence of the offshore Bohai
Bay Basin in the early to middle Paleogene was
characterized by initial synrift subsidence followed
by subsequent long-term thermal subsidence (Hu
et al., 2001). The synrift stage included slow rifting
subsidence (R1) during 65 to approximately 42 Ma,
rapid rifting subsidence (R2) during 42 to ap-
760 Offshore Bohai Bay Basin, China
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proximately 38 Ma, brief thermal subsidence (T1)
during 38 to approximately 32.8 Ma, and renewed
rifting subsidence (R3) during 32.8 to approximately
24.6 Ma. The eroded section on the regional un-
conformity at the top of Dongying Formation oc-
curred in all the sags. The rifting ceased in the Bohai
Bay Basin (Allen et al., 1997), and the basin began
its postrift thermal subsidence stage (T2) during
24.6 to approximately 5.1 Ma. More recently, rapid
subsidence has occurred because of neotectonic
activity during a final phase of basin development
(5.1∼0 Ma) (Xiao and Chen, 2003) (Figure 11).
The tectonic subsidence analysis shows a difference
during the postrift stage in the offshore Bohai Bay
Basin. The largest tectonic subsidence occurred in
the Bozhong and Qikou sags in the Neogene, and
both sags have relatively lower thermal gradients
than other sags. In contrast, the Laizhouwan sag
underwent the lowest tectonic subsidence in the
Neogene and had a higher thermal gradient than
other sags. So the tectonic subsidence may be re-
lated to the thermal evolution.
However, it is difficult to confirm rapid tectonic
subsidence superimposed on thermal subsidence
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Figure 9. Thermal gradient (G) history of typical wells in the different sags. The dashed lines are the average thermal gradient in each sag.

in the offshore Bohai Bay Basin from the Neogene

to the present day because neither regional tectonic
data for the development of the foreland basin nor
a high heat flow associated with a rapid tectonic
subsidence stage exists. An abnormally high veloc-
ity asthenosphere at a depth of 120 km exists in the
offshore Bohai Bay Basin (He et al., 1998). One
mechanism of a rapid tectonic subsidence process
is high-density asthenosphere, and possible induced
isostasy, because isostasy will lead to rapid tectonic
subsidence but will not cause an abnormally high
mantle and surface thermal anomalies.

HYDROCARBON KITCHEN EVOLUTION OF

THE SHAHEJIE 3 FORMATION

Generally, the previous studies on hydrocarbon Figure 10. Thermal gradient (G) history of several sags in the
kitchen evolution are based on source rock matu- offshore Bohai Bay Basin. The solid line is the average thermal
ration, total amount of generated hydrocarbon, or gradient of these sags.

Zuo et al. 761


Figure 11. Tectonic subsidence history of several sags in the
offshore Bohai Bay Basin. (1) Laizhouwan sag; (2) Huanghe-
kou sag; (3) Liaodong Bay area; (4) Qikou sag; (5) Bozhong sag.
R = rift subsidence; T = thermal subsidence; Ne = neotectonic
activity.
total amount of expelled hydrocarbon. The total
amount of expelled hydrocarbon is the most ac-
curate. The main hydrocarbon kitchens generally
lie in the sags with a large total amount of expelled
hydrocarbon. Therefore, hydrocarbon kitchen evo-
lution is studied using the total amount of expelled
hydrocarbon of the main geologic periods in this
article. The total amount of expelled hydrocarbon
was modeled using Basinview software provided
by Platte River Associates Inc.
The maturation history of the Shahejie 3 For-
mation was modeled using the kinetic model of
Sweeney and Burnham (1990) and BasinMod soft-
ware provided by Platte River Associates Inc. The
isopach maps for each stratum were cited from R. C.
Xin (2009, personal communication), and erosion
data were cited from L. J. Tang and N. F. Qi (2009,
personal communication). The heat flow and the
thermal history data are derived from the above data.
The hydrocarbon expulsion history of the Shahejie 3
Formation was also modeled using the expulsion
and critical saturation model (Pepper and Corvi,
1995) on the basis of organic geochemical data and
the thickness of the source rock (Figure 3A).
762 Offshore Bohai Bay Basin, China
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Maturation of the Shahejie 3 Formation
3
The maturation modeling shows that the bottom
of the Shahejie 3 Formation entered the generation
threshold (0.5% Ro) at the end of Eocene (32.8 Ma)
in most areas except the Qinnan and Bodong sags.
At the end of Oligocene (24.6 Ma), the source rock
reached the mid-mature stage (0.7% < Ro < 1.0%)
in the Liaozhong, Bozhong, and Nanpu sags, whereas
it reached a high mature stage (1.0% < Ro < 1.3%)
in the Qikou sag (Figure 12A). During the early
Neogene (24.6∼12 Ma), maturation increased rap-
idly, and part of the source rock began to gener-
ate dry gas (Ro > 2.0%) in the central Bozhong
and Qikou sags because of their rapid subsidence,
but maturation increased slowly in the other sags
(Figure 12B). The source rock reached the mid-
mature stage in most of the Qingdong, Laizhouwan,
and Liaoxi sags, whereas they were in a high and
overmature stage in the other sags, especially in
the Bozhong and Qikou sags, from the late Neo-
gene to the Quaternary (Figure 12C, D). Modeled
results were then calibrated to the measured Ro for
accuracy evaluation. Comparing the measured Ro
values in four typical wells, the modeled and
measured Ro data match remarkably well, sug-
gesting that modeled results have high credibility
(Figure 13).
Hydrocarbon Kitchen Evolution of the
Shahejie 3 Formation
The modeled results show that hydrocarbon kitch-
ens began to develop in the Qikou and Bozhong
sags at the end of the Paleogene. The Qikou sag
had the largest total amount of expelled hydrocar-
bon, approximately 2 × 106 t/km2, and the Boz-
hong sag expelled hydrocarbon as much as 0.4 ×
106 t/km2. However, all the other sags in the off-
shore Bohai Bay Basin began to expel hydrocarbon
at the end of the Paleogene. As a result, the hy-
drocarbon kitchens in the Paleogene were located
in the Bozhong and Qikou sags (Figure 14A), and
the source rocks of the Bozhong and Qikou sags
reached the mid- and high-mature stages, respec-
tively, in this period. Most of the sags had a high
total amount of expelled hydrocarbon in the early

Figure 12. Maturation level of the Shahejie 3 Formation. The contour interval is 0.3%.
Neogene (i.e., the Guantao Formation deposi-
tional period), and the Bozhong and Qikou sags
were still the most important hydrocarbon kitch-
ens because of their large total amount of expelled
hydrocarbon of approximately 1.6 and 2.8 × 106 t/
km2, respectively (Figure 14B). However, the
Huanghekou sag was the third most important
hydrocarbon kitchen during this period. From the
late Miocene to the Pliocene, the total amount of
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expelled hydrocarbon of the overall offshore Bo-
hai Bay Basin increased, and three important hy-
drocarbon kitchens were located in the Qikou,
Bozhong, and Huanghekou sags, with the total
amount of expelled hydrocarbon of approximately
4, 3.2, and 3.2 × 106 t/km2, respectively (Figure 14C).
The total amount of expelled hydrocarbon in-
creased to approximately 4 × 106 t/km2 in the
Bozhong, Huanghekou, and Qikou sags in the
Zuo et al. 763

Figure 13. Correlation between measured and modeled vitrinite reflectance (Ro) in some wells. The black dots mean measured Ro data,
and the solid lines mean modeled results. The well locations are shown in Figure 1.
Quaternary (Figure 14D). Although the most
important hydrocarbon kitchens were in these three
sags, the Nanpu, Laizhouwan, Qinnan, Liaoxi, and
Liaozhong sags also had high total amount of ex-
pelled hydrocarbon and might have served as avail-
able kitchens, especially in the Liaozhong sag. As a
result, the hydrocarbon kitchen evolved from two
main centers in the Paleogene to several kitchens
at the present day. This hydrocarbon kitchen evolu-
tion showed the main hydrocarbon kitchen formed
after 12 Ma. Therefore, the oil and gas was mainly
accumulated after 12 Ma in this region.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Discussion
The offshore Bohai Bay Basin has a slightly higher
average geothermal gradient, at 31.8 ± 4.6°C/km,
than the Linqing depression; however, it is lower
than other depressions in the Bohai Bay Basin (Zheng
et al., 1978; Wang et al., 1990; Qiu et al., 1998,
2004, 2006, 2007; Hu et al., 1999, 2000; Gu et al.,
2000; Gong et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2003). The
average thermal gradient of the Linqing depression
is 31.1 ± 2.5°C/km; the Jiyang depression, 36.0 ±
764 Offshore Bohai Bay Basin, China
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4.9°C/km; the Huanghua depression, 33.7 ± 2.3°C/
km; the Jizhong depression, 33.7 ± 2.3°C/km (Gong
et al., 2003); and the Liaohe depression, 34.7 ±
3.5°C/km (Wang et al., 2003). The average heat flow
of the offshore Bohai Bay Basin (60.8 ± 8.7 mW/m2)
is also higher than that of the Linqing depression
but is lower than that of other depressions in the
Bohai Bay Basin (Hu et al., 2000; Gong et al., 2003;
Wang et al., 2003; Qiu et al., 2004, 2006, 2007).
The average heat flow of the Linqing depression is
only 60.4 ± 5.3 mW/m2 (Gong et al., 2003), whereas
that of the Jiyang depression is 65.8 ± 5.4 mW/m2
(Gong et al., 2003) and that of the Jizhong de-
pression is 61.1 ± 9.4 mW/m2 (Gong et al., 2003).
The thermal gradient correlates well with prox-
imity to the Tanlu fault zone and tectonic subsi-
dence of this region. The Tanlu fault zone is one of
the most important lithospheric faults in east Asia
and is also associated with an important Mesozoic–
Cenozoic magmatic belt and metallogenic belt in
east China. Its formation and evolution have played
an obvious controlling function in sedimentary en-
vironment, magmatic activity, metamorphism, and
mineral formation and distribution in east China
during the Cenozoic (Hu et al., 2001; Qi, 2004; Qiu
et al., 2007). The Tanlu fault zone in the Cenozoic
had a great influence on the geothermal regime on
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Figure 14. Total amount of expelled hydrocarbon and location of hydrocarbon kitchens of the Shahejie 3 Formation. HCK = hy-
drocarbon kitchen. (A, B) Contour interval is 0.4 × 106 t/km2; (C, D) contour interval is 0.8 × 106 t/km2.

both sides of the fault zone (Qiu et al., 2007). The
thermal evolution of several depressions in the Bo-
hai Bay Basin has been studied previously (Qiu et al.,
1998, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2007). The offshore Bohai
Bay Basin, Liaohe depression, and Changwei de-
pression show a different thermal evolution from
the adjacent depressions of the Bohai Bay Basin
because of the Tanlu fault zone passing through
the center of the depressions (Figures 1, 15). These
three regions had higher thermal gradient values
in the Paleogene than other depressions, indicating
that the Tanlu fault zone affected the geothermal
regime in the Paleogene. In addition, the Liaohe and
Changwei depressions experienced higher ther-
mal gradients from the Eocene to the present day
because of their uplift and small tectonic subsidence

Zuo et al. 765


Figure 15. Thermal gradient (G) history of several depressions
in the Bohai Bay Basin (data from Qiu et al., 1998, 2003, 2004,
2006, 2007).
during the Oligocene to the present day (Figure 16).
The offshore Bohai Bay Basin should have a high
thermal gradient similar to the Liaohe and Chang-
wei depressions because they are adjacent to the
Tanlu fault zone. However, the offshore Bohai Bay
Basin has had a low thermal gradient similar to the
Jiyang, Huanghua, and Jizhong depressions since
the Oligocene because of the large amount of tec-
tonic subsidence since the Oligocene. The Linqing
and Jizhong depressions, which are distant from
Tanlu fault zone, experienced a lower thermal gra-
dient in the Bohai Bay Basin, suggesting that the
Tanlu fault influenced the Cenozoic geothermal
regime. The tectonic subsidence correlates well
with the different thermal status of depressions in
the Bohai Bay Basin (Figure 16).
A good relationship exists between the hydro-
carbon kitchen of the Shahejie 3 Formation and the
distribution of oil and gas fields in the offshore Bohai
Bay Basin, in that large oil and gas fields are found
around the main hydrocarbon kitchens (Figure 14D).
Because the Bozhong sag is the most important
hydrocarbon kitchen over geologic time, in several
oil fields more than 1 × 108 tons have been found
in the uplifts around the Bozhong sag, including
SZ36-1, QHD32-6, NP35-2, PL19-3, CFD11-1,
and BZ25-1 (Jiang et al., 2003; Xiao and Chen,
766 Offshore Bohai Bay Basin, China
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2003; Xu et al., 2008; Hao et al., 2009). More-
over, the Bonan lower uplift and Chenbei lower 3
uplift are also adjacent to the Huanghekou hydro-
carbon kitchen, and they should be charged by the
Huanghekou and Bozhong hydrocarbon kitchens.
Some large and medium oil fields in the Liaodong
Bay area are also adjacent to the Liaoxi and Liaoz-
hong hydrocarbon kitchens. However, around the
Qikou sag, which is one of the most important hy-
drocarbon kitchens, only a few small-scale oil fields
have been found so far. This may indicate that up-
lifts around the Qikou sag should become potential
exploration areas in the future. Overall, the uplifts
around the main hydrocarbon kitchens have only
been lightly explored. The slopes around the main
hydrocarbon kitchens are still not extensively ex-
plored in the offshore Bohai Bay Basin. Therefore,
the above regions are favorable for exploration of
medium- and large-scale oil and gas fields.
Conclusions
1. The average geothermal gradient value in the
offshore Bohai Bay Basin is 31.8 ± 4.6°C/km,
whereas the heat flow range is 33.5 to approx-
imately 84.0 mW/m2, with an average value of
60.8 ± 8.7 mW/m2.
Figure 16. Tectonic subsidence history of depressions in the
Bohai Bay Basin.

2. The thermal gradient evolution in the offshore
Bohai Bay Basin was obtained by the 48 wells’
modeling constrained by Ro and AFT data. Mod-
eled results show that different sags had differ-
ent thermal histories. Generally, the thermal
gradient decreased gradually with evolution of
the basin. The average thermal gradient was 43
to approximately 54°C/km in the Eocene, 38 to
approximately 43°C/km in the Oligocene, 34 to
approximately 38°C/km at the end of the Neo-
gene, then 32°C/km at the present day. The
thermal evolution of the offshore Bohai Bay Ba-
sin correlates well with tectonic subsidence.
3. The hydrocarbon kitchen evolution in the off-
shore Bohai Bay Basin was obtained based on
modeling results of maturity and total amount
of expelled hydrocarbon for the Shahejie 3 For-
mation source rock. The Bozhong and Qikou
sags are the most important kitchens during the
entire geologic evolution of the offshore Bohai
Bay Basin. The Huanghekou sag became the third
most important hydrocarbon kitchen in the early
Neogene. However, the Nanpu, Laizhouwan,
Qinnan, Liaoxi, and Liaozhong sags also had a
relatively high total amount of expelled hydro-
carbon and may have been kitchens since the
late Neogene. Because large oil fields correlate
well with the locations of hydrocarbon kitchens,
this study provides new insight for understanding
the oil and gas exploration potential of the off-
shore Bohai Bay Basin.
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