Cognitive Level of Analysis

COGNITIVE LEVEL OF ANALYSIS
General Outcomes
Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis
Introduction
The cognitive level of analysis (CLA) is based on how mental processes such as perception, attention,
language, memory and thinking in the brain processes information. It concerns the way we take in
information from the outside world, how we make sense of that information and what use we make
of it.
There are three underlying principles that define the CLA:
1. Human beings are information processors and that mental representations guide behaviour
2. Mental processes can and should be studied scientifically by developing theories and by using
a variety of research methods
3. Social and cultural factors affect cognitive processes
Purpose of the principles
 These principles are the main ideas that have driven focused research on specific areas of
behaviour and cognition.
 They also allow us to understand how behaviour can be influenced by cognitive processes
Cognition:
o Refers to a process that is based on one's mental representations of the world, such as images,
words and concepts
o People likewise have different experiences and therefore each individual will have different
mental representations of the world.
Body
The first principle is that: Cognitive psychologists believe that mental processes and stored
representations of the world determine behaviour and are central to human
experience. Psychologists see the mind as a complex machine – where they believe that it is useful to
model mental processes using an information-processing approach whereby:
 Information is examined from the outside world is received and encoded

 Storage and representation of this information to ourselves
 Ways in which this information is manipulated and used by the individual
 And how we output information back into the world to be received by others.
Many cognitive psychologists have used the computer analogy, where they have conceived the
human mind as being similar to a computer, in that both can be seen as information processors, to
attempt to understand how the brain manages these mental processes (information processing).
 The brain in this instance is seen as the hardware and the mind, thoughts and mental
representations/images as the software.
Computer Analogy
o Attempted to understand what occurs between input and output.

o They have addressed how the mind selects and codes incoming information and represents
knowledge to itself while processing it and combining it with previously stored information
(organisation), and then how inferences are made based upon this information and therefore
how these cognitions affect behaviour.
o (OR) Both people and computers store information and retrieve it when applicable to current
tasks.
 People, like computers acquire information from the environment (input).
 Both transform information, produce new information and then both return the information
back to the environment in the form of behaviour (output).
Top-down/bottom-up processing
o According to this approach, information input to the mind comes via bottom-up processing –
that is, from the sensory system. This information is processed in the mind by top-down
processing via pre-stored information (schemas) in the memory. Finally, when the information is
processed there is some output in the form of behaviour.
Applications of principle
o This information processing approach/principle can be seen in:

 Schema theory – assumed to operate through top-down processing; the role of schema
(organized sets of associated information) shape perception and can increase efficiency of
processing, but can also lead to distortions.
 They allow us to take short-cuts in interpreting vast amounts of information.
A second principle the CLA states that the mind can be studied scientifically by developing theories
and by using a number of scientific research methods. The principle is that: Mental
processes/representations can be studied empirically even if they cannot be directly observed in the
same way as behaviour.
o Testable theories can be developed and derived from unobservable cognitive

structures/processes, and inferences made.
o These theories can be tested using a scientific and appropriate research method of
experimentation.
o Thus, the mind (cognitive functions, structures and processes) can be studied scientifically.
o This information processing approach/principle can be seen:

 Through memory processes such as the models of memory demonstrated by Atkinson &
Shiffrin (1968).
Connection of study:
o Atkinson & Shiffrin demonstrating how cognitive processes such as memory, can be scientifically
studied.
o Atkinson & Shiffrin developed a theory of memory, known as the multistore model.
 And this theory enabled them to study memory being a cognitive process.
o Thus, the mind (cognitive functions, structures and processes) can be studied scientifically and
therefore making these cognitive theories and models be applied to real-life scenarios.
A third principle that defines the CLA is that cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural
factors.
o An example of a cognitive process is schemas

 Schemas are organised mental representations of knowledge of people, objects, events and
actions
o The schema theory is the cognitive theory of processing information
o The information that a person is exposed to can be determined by the society and the culture
that they are in.
 Likewise, because people are in different societies and cultures, different people are exposed
to different information.
 Therefore individuals will have different schemas
o Social and cultural factors are factors that is dependent on/varies depending on culture
 Examples include
 Religion
 Cultural tradition
 Beliefs
 Morals
 Whereby these examples are acquired from gatekeepers; parents, peers, teachers etc
o This principle is demonstrated in a study conducted by Bartlett (1932)
Connection of Study:
o Bartlett's study supports the principle that social and cultural factors affect cognitive processes
as:
 The difference in participants and the stimuli used in terms of culture affected mental
representations (schemas)/
 This is demonstrated by the changing of unfamiliar words to familiar terms
 For example:
 'Hunting seals' changed to 'fishing'
 'Canoes' changed to 'boats'
Conclusion
There are three fundamental principles that define the cognitive level of analysis, which help research
into cognition. However, views from all levels of analysis need to be taken into account before
reaching a determined decision on influences on human behaviour.
Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis may be demonstrated in research
(that is, theories and/or studies)
Introduction
The cognitive level of analysis (CLA) is based on mental processes such as perception, attention,
language, memory and thinking
o It concerns the way we take in information from the outside world, how we make sense of that
information and what use we make of it.
There are three underlying principles that define the CLA:
 Human beings are information processors and that mental representations guide behaviour
 Mental processes can and should be studied scientifically by developing theories and by using
a variety of research methods
 Social and cultural factors affect cognitive processes
Purpose of the principles
o These principles are the main ideas that have driven focused research on specific areas of
behaviour and physiology.
o They also allow us to understand how behaviour can be caused of influences by cognitive
processes.
Cognition
o Refers to a process that is based on one's mental representations of the world, such as images,
words and concepts.
o People likewise have different experiences and therefore each individual will have different
mental representations of the world.
 For example: what boys can do, girls cannot do this cognition will influence the way they act
Body
Principle 1
o Cognitive psychologists believe that mental processes and stored representations of the world
determine behaviour and are central to human experience.
o Psychologists see the mind as a complex machine – where they believe that it is useful to model
mental processes using an information-processing approach whereby:
 Information is examined from the outside world is received and encoded
 storage and representation of this information to ourselves
 ways in which this information is manipulated and used by the individual
 and how we output information back into the world to be received by others.
o Many cognitive psychologists have used the computer analogy, where they have conceived the
human mind as being similar to a computer, in that both can be seen as information processors,
to attempt to understand how the brain manages these mental processes (information
processing).
 The brain in this instance is seen as the hardware and the mind, thoughts and mental
representations/images as the software.
Computer Analogy
o They have attempted to understand what occurs between input and output.
o They have addressed how the mind selects and codes incoming information and represents
knowledge to itself, while processing it and combining it with previously stored information
(organisation), and then how inferences are made based upon this information and therefore
leads to our cognitions affecting behaviour.
o (OR) Both people and computers store information and retrieve it when applicable to current
tasks.
 People, like computers acquire information from the environment (input).
 Both transform information, produce new information and then both return the information
back to the environment in the form of behaviour (output).
Top-down/bottom-up processing
o According to this approach, information input to the mind comes via bottom-up processing –
that is, from the sensory system. This information is processed in the mind by top-down
processing via pre-stored information (schemas) in the memory. Finally, when the information is
processed there is some output in the form of behaviour.
o This information processing approach/principle can be seen in:

 Schema theory – assumed to operate through top-down processing; the role of schema
(organized sets of associated information) shape perception and can increase efficiency of
processing, but can also lead to distortions.
 They allow us to take short-cuts in interpreting vast amounts of information.
Principle 2
o A second principle of the CLA states that the mind can be studied scientifically by developing
theories and by using a number of scientific research methods.
o Where mental processes/representations can be studied empirically even if they cannot be
directly observed in the same way as behaviour.
o Testable theories can be developed and derived from unobservable cognitive

structures/processes, and inferences made.
o These theories can be tested using a scientific and appropriate research method of
experimentation.
o This information processing approach/principle can be seen:

 Through memory processes such as the models of memory demonstrated by Atkinson &
Shiffrin (1968).
o Aim:
 To investigate the processes of memory that there are different types of memory that are
used for different tasks.
 The multi-store model generally assumes memory is passive and that there are separate
cognitive methods by which it is used. Thus, like a computer memory, it needs a separate
processor to insert and retrieve memories.
o Theory (derived from study):
 The multi-store model consists of three parts, the sensory memory, the short-term memory
(STM) and the long term memory (LTM).
 Some information from the sensory store moves to the STM (limited capacity).
 Some information from the STM moves to the LTM via constant rehearsal of that
information.
 Once that piece of information is stored in the LTM it is long lasting; perhaps even for a
lifetime if that certain piece of information is that strong.
 The difference in forgetting between STM and LTM is that: memory forgotten from the short
term store is lost whereas forgotten memories in the LTM are still in the system but cannot
be retrieved.
o Atkinson & Shiffrin demonstrating how cognitive processes such as memory, can be scientifically
studied
o Atkinson & Shiffrin developed a theory of memory, known as the multistore model
 And this theory enabled them to study memory being a cognitive process
o Thus, the study demonstrates that the mind (cognitive functions, structures and processes) can
be studied scientifically, in which cognitive theories and models can be applied to real-life
scenarios.
Principle 3
o A third principle that defines the CLA is that cognitive processes are influenced by social and
cultural factors.
o An example of a cognitive process is schemas.

 Schemas are organised mental representations of knowledge of people, objects, events
and actions.
o The schema theory is the cognitive theory of processing information.
o The information that a person is exposed to can be determined by the society and the culture
that they are in
 Likewise, because people are in different societies and cultures, different people are exposed
to different information
 Therefore individuals will have different schemas
o Social and cultural factors are factors that is dependent on/varies depending on culture
 Examples include
 Religion
 Cultural tradition
 Beliefs
 Morals
 Whereby these examples are acquired from gatekeepers; parents, peers, teachers etc
o This principle is demonstrated in a study conducted by Bartlett (1932)
o Aim:
 Bartlett aimed to investigate the effect of culture on memory.
 Participants were English.
o Method:
 Were asked to read “The War of the Ghosts” – a Native American folk tale.
 Tested their memory of the story using serial reproduction and repeated reproduction, where
they were asked to recall it six or seven times over various retention intervals.
o Results:
 Both methods lead to similar results.
 As the number of reproductions increased, the story became shorter and there were more
changes to the story.
o Conclusion:
 These changes show the alteration of culturally unfamiliar things into what the English
participants were culturally familiar with.
 This makes the story more understandable according to the participants’ experiences and
cultural background (schemas).
Connection of Study:
o Bartlett's study supports the principle that social and cultural factors affect cognitive processes
as:
 The difference in participants and the stimuli used in terms of culture affected mental
representations (schemas).
Conclusion
 There are three fundamental principles that define the cognitive level of analysis, which help
research into cognition.
 However, views from all levels of analysis need to be taken into account before reaching a
determined decision on influences on human behaviour
Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis
Introduction
language, memory, and thinking, which are carried out by the brain and guide our behaviour.
o The CLA is involved in finding out how the human mind comes to know things about the world
and how it uses this knowledge.
 Outline what is a research method? / What is the purpose of research methods in Psychology?
o Researchers need to have a method for collecting and analysing data.
o There are many different/various methods researchers and psychologists use to conduct their
studies.
o Research methods are ways that researchers use and manipulate to conduct their studies.
There are 6 main research methods used in psychology, which consists of the following:
 Experiments
 Case Studies
 Observational Studies
 Interviews
 Surveys/Questionnaires
 Correlational Studies
Triangulation
o Sometimes in research, researchers incorporate the use of 2 or more research methods of

investigation to explore the same aspect, as using 2 or more may be more suitable and effective
in finding out the necessary aims of the researcher.
o It also increases credibility.
o There are 4 main types of triangulation:
 Data
 Researcher
 Theoretical
 Methodological
In psychological research, certain biases are present, which may affect or influence the findings of the
experiment, sometimes in a positive way, but mostly in a negative light/nature.
o There are two major types of biases, which are:

 Researcher bias:
 The researcher/s sees what they are looking for, in which the expectations of
the researcher consciously or unconsciously affect the findings of the study.
 Observer bias
 The participant/s act differently or accordingly due to the consciousness of being observed
by people (researchers), which may influence the nature of the study.
In cognitive psychology, testable theories are developed about cognitive structures and processes
which cannot be directly observed.
o These theories are tested using research methods such as experiments and case studies.
o At the CLA, the methods of investigation undertaken by cognitive psychologists range from
laboratory experiments and case studies.
o They have in common the aim of obtaining relevant information on mental processes used to
acquire, store, retrieve and apply knowledge about the world.
Body
Experiments
o What is the purpose of an experiment?

 Experiments are used to determine the cause and effect relationship between two variables
(independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables).
o Researchers manipulate the independent variable (IV) and measure the dependent variable (DV)
o Attempt to control as many extraneous variables as possible to provide controlled conditions
(laboratory experiments)
o Experiments are considered a quantitative research method, however qualitative data may be
collected as well
 Types of experimental settings

o There are three different types of experiments, which include a laboratory experiment, a natural
(QUASI) experiment and a field experiment.
Experiments are considered/perceived to be the most scientific research method
o Determines cause-effect relationship between two variables (IV & DV)
Experiments used in the CLA:
o Loftus & Palmer (1974)

o Craik & Tulving (1975)
o French & Richards (1993)
Study 1: Loftus & Palmer (1974)
 How does it reflect an experiment?

o
IV: Verb in the leading question
o
DV: Average speed estimates (smash, collide, bump, hit, contacted)
o
Experimental Type: Laboratory Experiment because the study was conducted in a laboratory
setting and the IV was manipulated
 Why was an experiment used?
o Allowed a cause and effect relationship to be developed and recognised
 Cause: The verbs in the leading questions – The wording of the question in eyewitness
testimony/testimonials
 Effect: Their schema a particular factor or experience in their life can be influenced, as their
study shows that people are affect by the wording of a question.
o The cause and effect relationship would not have been able to be found usingther research
methods (e.g. observational or interviews, etc.)
o This would not be able to be able to be found as effectively with other research methods such
as observation or case study, as experiments was the most suitable type to use for this
particular study.
Study 2: Craik and Tulving, 1975

o IV: Depth or level of processing (shallow or deep)
o DV: Memory recall of the original words from a list of 180 words in which theriginal series of 60
words in the question were interrelated/mixed into the 180 word series.
o Experimental Type: Laboratory Experiment because the study was conducted in a laboratory

 Cause: Level of (Shallow and Deep) Processing
 Effect: Affects memory recall
o It was the most suitable type to use for this particular study.
Results
 Participants recalled more words that were semantically processed compared to phonemically and
visually processed.
Conclusion:
 Semantically processed words involve deep processing which results in more accurate recall.
Study 3: French & Richards (1993) – Study of influence of schemata on memory retrieval

o IV: There were three conditions:
 Condition One: participants were shown a clock with roman numerals and asked to draw the
clock from memory
 Condition Two: the same procedure, except the participants were told beforehand that they
would be required to draw the clock from memory
 Condition Three: the clock was left in full view of the participants and they just had to draw
the clock
o DV: Memory Retrieval – how they recalled the memory of the clock that was shown to them and
reproduced on paper.
o Experimental Type: Laboratory Experiment because the study was conducted in a laboratory

 Cause: Influence of schemata, our schema (our knowledge and viewpoint of how we
perceive the world); in this case how we perceive clocks to look like.
 Effect: Memory Retrieval – how much they would be able to remember.
o It was the most suitable type to use for this particular study.
Case studies
Like experiments, another key research method used frequently in the BLA is a case study.
o In-depth study of an individual or small group

Because of this, case studies obtain information that may not be identifiable by using other
research methods
o Case studies are considered a qualitative research method, however quantitative data may be
collected as well
o They involve the use of a combination of several research methods such as interviews and
observations
 The conclusions are more valid than what may be gained from any of these research methods
individually
Case studies are used:
o To obtain enriched (especially qualitative) data and information about mediating processes
which could not be gained in any other way.
o To study unusual psychological phenomena
o Stimulates new research into an unusual phenomena
o To study a particular variable that cannot be produced in a laboratory. For example, due to
ethical or financial restrictions.
o To obtain other information they may not be able to get from other methods.
Limitations
o Researchers may develop more personal relationships with participants

may result in subjective data or different behaviour of participants and researchers
o Results of case studies are affected by the researcher's interpretations
 may be subjective and influenced by the researcher's beliefs, values, and opinions
o May cost a lot of time, effort & money due to the amount of data and time of a case study
o Cannot be replicated
o Lacks population validity extent to which findings can be generalised to the whole population
 Small participant sample
 Especially if study investigates a unique phenomenon
Case studies used in the CLA:
o Shallice & Warrington “KF” (1974)

o Curtiss “Genie” (1981)
o Milner “HM” (1966)
Study 1: Shallice & Warrington (1974) – KF
 How does it reflect a case study?

o It was an in-depth study of KF’s condition, which lasted for a duration of years to trace the
impact it had on his life.
 Why was a case study used?
o To study the unusual phenomena of a man who was in a motorcycle accident, which resulted in
brain damage and impaired his memory functions.
o To study a man who suffered from a motorcycle accident impairing his short term memory,
which would not be able to be produced ethically in a laboratory experiment.
o In depth information would not be able to be collected by using other research methods
(experiments, observations, etc.).
Study 2: Curtiss (1981) – Genie

o It was an in-depth study of Genie’s condition, which lasted for a duration of years to trace the
impact of the deprivation of normal and social environment from a young age on the rest of her
life. Why was a case study used? To study the unusual phenomena of a young girl who
experienced a deprivation of a normal exposure to language earlier on in her life, which
impacted heavily her language and communication skills, and her ability to act like a ‘normal’
human being.’
o To study a girl who experienced a deprivation of a normal, social environment impacting her
language acquisition skills and other daily human tasks, which would not be able to be produced
ethically in a laboratory experiment.
o This unusual phenomenon could not be studied using other research methods such as
experiments or naturalistic observation and in-depth information would not be able to be
obtained/collected if case studies weren’t used.
Study 3: Milner (1966) – HM

o
It was an in-depth study of HM’s amnesia condition, which resulted from a head injury sustained
when he was 9 years old, suffering epileptic seizures along with it.
 Why was a case study used?
o To study the unusual phenomena of how as a result of the removal of HM’s hippocampus and
parts of his temporal lobe, amnesia can occur, as removing these significant parts of the brain
can damage the formation of memories or impact parts of a person’s memory in general.
o To study the case of a man who suffered from anterograde amnesia (inability to form new
memories) as a result of the removal of tissue from the temporal lobe including the
hippocampus, which would not be able to be produced ethically in a laboratory experiment, as it
would most likely cause a similar condition to the extent of HM’s.
o A case study allowed researchers to observe HM’s behaviour from when he was a young child,
to his adolescent years, and after the surgery, in which they found out a link between the
temporal lobe/hippocampi and memory which led to further research, findings and advances in
later studies, helping improve people’s understanding of certain disorders such as amnesia, and
memory in general.
o This unusual phenomenon could not be studied using other research methods such as
experiments or naturalistic observation and in-depth information would not be able to be
obtained/collected if case studies weren’t used.
Conclusion
 Research methods are methods used for collecting and analysing data.
 The type of research method used is dependent on the aim.
 At the CLA, the two main research methods used are experiments and case studies.
Experiments
 To determine a cause-effect relationship between two variables (IV & DV)

 Whereby an IV and DV may be manipulated.
 Likewise, advantages and disadvantages of experiments depends on the type of experiment being
conducted
 There are three types: laboratory, field and natural/quasi experiments.
Case studies
 In depth study of an individual or a small group; thus being able to collect enriched and detailed
data.
 Studies unusual psychological phenomena.
 Considered to be a qualitative research method, but quantitative data may also be collected.
 They involve the use of a combination of several research methods such as interviews and
observations, which can aid in finding significant and relevant information in the study.
Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis.
Introduction
language, memory, and thinking.
Ethical considerations:
o In psychology, ethics must be considered to ensure participants (humans and animals) are not
harmed and that research conducted is ethically valid
o Researchers should always conduct research in an ethical manner and studies should always be
critically evaluated for ethical issues.
o Ethical standards made by the American Psychology Association (APA) that all research done in
psychology must abide by.
o These ethics are:
 Protection of participants
 Participants should be protected from physical and mental harm and distress
 This includes humiliation, stress, injury, etc.
 Participants should not be forced to reveal personal information.
 Consent
 Participants must be informed of the true aims and nature of research before giving
consent
 Sometimes it is not possible to give full information about research.
 Participant bias: knowing the true aims of a study may affect participants' behaviour
and thus the results of a study
 It is considered acceptable not to give full informed consent if no harm is expected
 A guardian or family member should also give consent to the study if the participants are
 Children under 18 years of age
 Adults incompetent of understanding the true nature and aims of the study
 Right to withdraw
 Participants should be informed of their right to withdraw their participation and data at
any time in the study (even at the end) without penalty.
 Confidentiality
 Data collected in a study should remain confidential and anonymous to protect
participants from possible consequences that may result from their data
 Deception
 Deception should be avoided
 But slight deception is considered acceptable if:
 Participant bias would result from participants knowing the true aims of the study
 The research has potential significant contribution
 It is unavoidable
 The deception does not cause any distress to the participant, including upon being
informed of the deception
 If deception is involved, informed consent is not obtained
 Any deception must be revealed at the earliest opportunity
 Debriefing
 Any deception must be revealed and justified
 Participants should leave the study without undue stress
 Findings of the research should be made available to participants as soon as possible
Body
Study 1: ‘Genie’ Curtiss (1981)
Background:
 Genie was a girl who had been deprived of normal exposure to language early in life
 She had no apparent language skills when she was discovered at age 13.
Aim:
 To investigate the sensitive period hypothesis there is a sensitive learning period (before puberty)
during which language must be acquired to develop normally.
Method:
 Researchers encouraged her to verbalise and socialise.

 They communicated with her, taught her sign language, and provided a caring environment for
Genie.
Ethical issues of this study:
 There were a set of ethical issues in this study, which include:
Participant Protection
 Genie was protected from harm during the study

 But when researchers concluded the study, Genie was left to live in an adult foster home
o Genie may have experienced mental distress from the dramatic change in environment and
carers and the leaving of the researchers
Consent
 Genie could not be fully informed or give consent to the study due to language restrictions and
mental state
 But Genie was not in a healthy state of mind to understand the nature and aims of the study
o Therefore, it may not be possible to gain informed consent
Withdrawal
 Genie would not be able to express any desires to withdraw from the study due to language
restrictions and mental state
Confidentiality
 Her identity was kept anonymous as 'Genie' is not her real name
 Although her real name was not revealed, her case was exposed to the world of psychology
Debriefing
 Genie was not debriefed at the end of the study

 She ended up living in an adult foster home, still requiring treatment as she is still language
impaired.
 However, since she did not know that she was being studied, she would not desire a debriefing.
Inappropriate behaviour of researchers
 Researchers had a very personal and attached relationship with Genie

 This was inappropriate for scientific research
 Leads to the questioning of objectivity and their aims for studying Genie
Study 2: Clive Wearing Sacks (2007)
Background:
 Clive Wearing was a musician who got a viral infection encephalitis.

 This left him with serious brain damage in the hippocampus, which caused memory impairment.
 He suffers:
o anterograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember after a particular incident
o retrograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember before a particular incident.
 Wearing still has ability to talk, read, write, and sight-read music (procedural knowledge)
 He could not transfer information from STM tLTM.
 His memory lasted 7-30 seconds, and he was unable to form new memories.
Ethical issues of this study
 There were a set of ethical issues in this study, which include:
Consent
 Wearing did not give consent to being in a study

o His wife gave consent for him to be studied
 But Wearing would not remember being informed of the study or giving consent due to his short
memory span
Confidentiality
 Sacks violated Wearing's right to confidentiality

o Wearing’s real name was revealed
o His case was revealed to the world of psychology
 But since Wearing's memory lasts a short period of time, he would not remember that his
confidentiality was violated
Withdraw
 Wearing would not remember being in a study or his right to withdraw and so would not express
any desires to withdraw
Debriefing
 Wearing was not debriefed

 But because of his short memory span, he would not know he is in a study and would not desire a
debriefing
APA Guidelines for Animal Research
 Tries to avoid harm to animals

o But harm may still be inflicted on animals,

The research may potentially provide significant benefit to the health or welfare of humans
or other animals
 If it is unavoidable
 If the procedure would cause pain to humans, it should be assumed that it will cause pain to
animals
 Animal welfare should be monitored
 Animals should be euthanized as soon as possible if research
o Causes long term/serious harm
o Affects their ability to live
 Normally
 Pain-free
Study 3: Blakemore & Cooper (1970) “Kitten carrousel”

Aim:
 To investigate the effect of exposure to spatially periodic patterns on the brains of cats
Ethics:
Participant protection
 6 male cats were placed in a drum with only vertical or only horizontal lines
 Kittens were made to wear a cuff around the neck to prevent them seeing lines of any other
orientation
o Cats may have experienced distress from being forced to live in a confined, unnatural
environment and wearing a cuff
 The cats' primary visual cortex would fire in response to the lines presented in the orientation they
were exposed to and not lines which were perpendicular
o There was physical degeneration in the visual cortex as a result of the lines the cats were
exposed to
 Researchers caused permanent physical damage to the cats' visual cortex
Animal ethics
 Researchers had done permanent damage to the cats that may have affected their ability to live a
normal, pain-free live
 But the cats were not euthanized
 The welfare of cats was not monitored
Consent
 Cats could not be fully informed about the study

 Cats could not give consent
 But cats would not be able to understand if they were being studied
o Therefore, it would not be possible to gain informed consent
Withdrawal
 Cats could not express any desires to withdraw from the study
Debriefing
 Cats were not debriefed

 But since they are animals and they did not know they were in a study, they may not desire a
debriefing
Study 4: Gardner and Gardner (1969) “Washoe”
Aim:
 To demonstrate that a chimpanzee has the capability to use human language
Ethical issues of this study:

There were a set of ethical issues in this study, which include:
Participant protection
 Researchers caught Washoe an infant female chimp, estimated to be 8-14 months old and reared
her as a human child in America
 They attempted to teach Washoe American Sign Language (ASL)
o Washoe may have experienced distress from being removed from her natural environment,
living in an unnatural environment and learning sign language
Consent
 Washoe could not be fully informed about the study

 Washoe could not give consent
 But Washoe would not be able to understand if she was being studied
o Therefore, it would not be possible to gain informed consent
Withdrawal
 Washoe could not express any desires to withdraw from the study due to language restrictions
Debriefing
 Washoe was not debriefed

 But since Washoe is an animal and may not have not known she was in a study, she may not desire
a debriefing
Conclusion
 Ethical considerations in all research in psychology includes,

o
Protection of participants from harm
o
Consent
o
Withdrawal
o
Confidentiality
o
Deception
o
Debriefing
 But there are slight exceptions for consent and deception
 Animal research has slightly different ethical considerations
o Differences regard harming participants and ethical euthanasia
COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies
Introduction
Schemas are cognitive structures that organise knowledge stored in our memory.
o They are mental representations of categories (from our knowledge, beliefs and expectations)
about particular aspects of the world such as people, objects, events, and situations.
o Knowledge that is stored in our memory is organized as a set of schemas (or knowledge
structures), which represent the general knowledge about the world, people, events, objects,
actions and situations that has been acquired from past experiences.
Types of schemas:
 Scripts provide information about the sequence of events that occur in particular contexts
(e.g. going to a restaurant, visiting the dentist, attending class).s
 Self-schemas organise information we have about ourselves (information stored in our
memory about our strengths and weaknesses and how we feel about them).
 Social schemas (e.g. stereotypes) – represent information about groups of people (e.g.
Americans, Egyptians, women, accountants, etc.).
Schema theory:
o Cognitive theory of processing and organizing information.

o Schema theory states that “as active processors of information, humans integrate new
information with existing, stored information.”
Schema theory effects:
o
Existing knowledge stored in our memory (what we already know) and organized in the form of
schemas will affect information processing and behaviour in specific settings.
 E.g. Information we already know affects the way we interpret new information and events
and how we store it in our memory.
o It is not possible to see how knowledge is processed and stored in the brain, but the concept of
schema theory helps psychologists understand and discuss what cannot be seen.
o Schema theory can describe how specific knowledge is organised and stored in memory so that
it can be retrieved.
 State what you are doing in the essay
o Schema theory will be evaluated, making an appraisal by weighing up strengths and limitations
with some reference to studies on the effect of schema on memory.
o Schema theory provides the theoretical basis for the studies reported below.
Body
 Bartlett – “War of the Ghosts” (1932)

 Anderson & Pichert (1978)
 Brewer & Treyens – “picnic basket” (1981)
Supporting Study 1: Bartlett (1932) – “War of the Ghost”

A significant researcher into schemas, Bartlett (1932) introduced the idea of schemas in his study
entitled “The War of the Ghost.”
Aim:
 Bartlett aimed to determine how social and cultural factors influence schemas and hence can lead
to memory distortions.
Method:
 Participants used were of an English background.

 Were asked to read “The War of the Ghosts” – a Native American folk tale.
 Tested their memory of the story using serial reproduction and repeated reproduction, where they
were asked to recall it six or seven times over various retention intervals.
o Serial reproduction: the first participant reading the story reproduces it on paper, which is then
read by a second participant who reproduces the first participant’s reproduction, and so on until
it is reproduced by six or seven different participants.
o Repeated reproduction: the same participant reproduces the story six or seven times from their
own previous reproductions. Their reproductions occur between time intervals from 15 minutes
to as long as several years.
Results:
 Both methods lead to similar results.

 As the number of reproductions increased, the story became shorter and there were more changes
to the story.
o For example, ‘hunting seals’ changed into ‘fishing’ and ‘canoes’ became ‘boats’.
 These changes show the alteration of culturally unfamiliar things into what the English participants
were culturally familiar with,
 This makes the story more understandable according to the participants’ experiences and cultural
background (schemas).
 He found that recalled stories were distorted and altered in various ways making it more
conventional and acceptable to their own cultural perspective (rationalization).
Conclusion:
 Memory is very inaccurate

o It is always subject to reconstruction based on pre-existing schemas
 Bartlett’s study helped to explain through the understanding of schemas when people remember
stories, they typically omit (”leave out”) some details, and introduce rationalisations and
distortions, because they reconstruct the story so as to make more sense in terms of their
knowledge, the culture in which they were brought up in and experiences in the form of schemas.
Evaluation:
 Limitations:
o Bartlett did not explicitly ask participants to be as accurate as possible in their reproduction
o Experiment was not very controlled
 instructions were not standardised (specific)
 disregard for environmental setting of experiment
 Bartlett's study shows how schema theory is useful for understand how people categorise
information, interpret stories, and make inferences.
 It also contributes to understanding of cognitive distortions in memory.
Supporting Study 2: Anderson and Pichert (1978)
 Further support for the influence of schemas of memory on cognition memory at encoding point
was reported by Anderson and Pichert (1978).
Aim:
 To investigate if schema processing influences encoding and retrieval.
Method:
 Half the participants were given the schema of a burglar and the other half was given the schema
of a potential house-buyer.
 Participants then heard a story which was based on 72 points, previously rated by a group of
people based on their importance to a potential house-buyer (leaky roof, damp basement) or a
burglar (10speed bike, colour TV).
 Participants performed a distraction task for 12 minutes, before recall was tested.
 After another 5 minute delay, half of the participants were given the switched schema. Participants
with burglar schema were given house-buyer schema and vice versa.
 The other half of the participants kept the same schema.
 All participants’ recalls were tested again.
 Shorter Method:
o Participants read a story from the perspective of either a burglar or potential home buyer. After
they had recalled as much as they could of the story from the perspective they had been given,
they were shifted to the alternative perspective (schema) and were asked to recall the story
again.
Results:
 Participants who changed schema recalled 7% more points on the second recall test than the first.
 There was also a 10% increase in the recall of points directly linked to the new schema.
 The group who kept the same schema did not recall as many ideas in the second testing.
 Research also showed that people encoded different information which was irrelevant to their
prevailing schema (those who had buyer schema at encoding were able to recall burglar
information when the schema was changed, and vice versa).
o This shows that our schemas of “knowledge,” etc. are not always correct, because of external
influences.
 Summary: On the second recall, participants recalled more information that was important only to
the second perspective or schema than they had done on the first recall.
Conclusion:
 Schema processing has an influence at the encoding and retrieval stage, as new schema influenced
recall at the retrieval stage.
Evaluation:
 Strengths
o
Controlled laboratory experiment allowed researchers to determine a cause-effect relationship
on how schemas affect different memory processes.
 Limitations
o Lacks ecological validity
 Laboratory setting
 Unrealistic task, which does not reflect something that the general population would do
This study provides evidence to support schema theory affecting the cognitive process of
memory. Strength of schema theory - there is research evidence to support it.
Supporting Study 3: Brewer and Treyens (1981) “picnic basket”

Another study demonstrating schema theory is by Brewer and Treyens (1981).
Aim:
 To see whether a stereotypical schema of an office would affect memory (recall) of an office.
Method:
 Participants were taken into a university student office and left for 35 seconds before being taken
to another room.
 They were asked to write down as much as they could remember from the office.
Results:
 Participants recalled things of a “typical office” according to their schema.

 They did not recall the wine and picnic basket that were in the office.
Conclusions:
 Participants' schema of an office influenced their memory of it.

 They did not recall the wine and picnic basket because it is not part of their “typical office”
schema.
Evaluation:
 Strengths:
o
Strict control over variables --> to determine cause & effect relationship
 Limitation:
 Laboratory setting artificial environment
 Task does not reflect daily activity
 This study provides evidence to support how our schemas can affect our cognition/cognitive
processes, in particular memory.
 Our schemas influence what we recall in our memory.
o Strength of schema theory – there is many types of research evidence to support it.
Summary of evaluation of schema theory:

Strengths
o Supported by lots of research to suggest schemas affect memory processes knowledge, both in
a positive and negative sense.
o Through supporting studies, schema theory was demonstrated in its usefulness for
understanding how memory is categorized, how inferences are made, how stories are
interpreted, memory distortions and social cognition.
Weaknesses of schema theory:
o
Not many studies/research evidence that evaluate and find limitations of schema theory
o
Lacks explanation
o
It is not clear exactly
 how schemas are initially acquired
 how they influence cognitive processes
 how people choose between relevant schemas when categorising people
o Cohen (1993) argued that:
 The concept of a schema is too vague to be useful.
 Schema theory does not show how schemas are required. It is not clear which develops first,
the schema to interpret the experiences or vice versa.
 Schema theory explains how new information is categorised according to existing knowledge.
o But it does not account for completely new information that cannot link with existing
knowledge.
o Therefore, it does not explain how new information is organised in early life
 E.g. language acquisition
Conclusion
 Thus schemas affect our cognitive processes and are used to organize our knowledge, assist recall,
guide our behaviour, predict likely happenings and help make sense of current experiences helps
us understand how we organize our knowledge.
 In conclusion, strengths of schema theory:
o Provides an explanation for how knowledge is stored in the mind something that is
unobservable and remains unknown in psychology
o There is much research that supports schema theory
 But its limitations are that,
o It is unclear exactly how schemas are acquired and how people choose between schemas
o It does not account for new information without a link to existing schemas
 Overall, with the amount of evidence, schema theory should be considered an important theory
that provides insight into information processing and behaviour.
 It has contributed largely to our understanding of mental processes.
 But the theory requires further research and refinements to overcome its limitations and uncover
its unclear aspects
Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies
Introduction
Memory is defined to be the mental process of encoding, storing and retrieving information.
Memory Process
o Memory undergoes a series of stages in order to store its information.

1. Encoding process: incoming information is organized and transformed so it can be entered
into memory
2. Storage process: involves entering and maintaining information in memory for a period of
time
3. Retrieval process: involves recovering stored information from memory so it can be used
Models/theories of memory
There are three main types of models of memory that demonstrate how our memory processes work
including the:
o Multi-store Model (MSM)

o Working Memory Model (WM)
o Levels of Processing Model (LOP)
The two models focused on are MSM and LOP
Body
Memory Model 1: The Multi-store Model of Memory
o Proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)

o The multi-store model (MSM) consists of three memory stores:
 Sensory memory (SM)
 Short-term memory (STM)
 Long term memory (LTM) ... that is used for different tasks.
o SM is...
 A storage system that holds information in a relatively unprocessed form for fractions of a
second after the physical stimulus is no longer available – stores sensory characteristics of a
stimulus.
 Plays a vital role in filtering out useless information, enabling us to focus our attention on
important details.
 STM is...
A limited-capacity memory system for storing information for brief periods of time.
A & S (1968) see STM as a temporary storage depot for incoming information after it receives and
encodes information from the sensory memory.
 LTM is...:
o Holds a vast quantity of information, which can be stored for long periods of time.
o Information kept here is diverse and wide-ranging, including all our personal memories, general
knowledge and beliefs about the world, plans for the future, and where our knowledge about
skills and expertise is deposited.
 These different memory stores differ from one another with regards to:
o Duration: how long information can be stored
o Capacity: how much information can be stored
o Coding: in what form information can be stored
 The Sensory Store

 Duration: decays rapidly
 Capacity: unlimited
 Coding: information is picked up by our senses and stored in this form
o Iconic: visual information enters the visual store
o Echoic: auditory information is handled by the auditory sensory store
o Haptic: information picked up via sense of touch
 Short Term Memory (Store) (STM/S):

o Duration: 15-30 seconds (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971)
o Capacity: limited; 7 ± 2units (Miller, 1956)
o Coding: Acoustically (Baddeley, 1966)
 Information is lost unless it is rehearsed (via repetition)
 Long Term Memory (Store) (LTM/S):

o Duration: Long-lasting (perhaps for a lifetime), proposed that it could last for 48 years (Bahrick
et al, 1975)
o Capacity: Unlimited
o Coding: Primarily semantic (Baddeley, 1966); but also acoustic and visual
 Information in the LTS can also be recalled via retrieval, bringing the information back to the
STS
Supporting Study 1: Baddeley (1966)

Experiment 1: STM
 A key researcher who investigated encoding, (which is the first and crucial process of creating
memories, which allows the perceived item of interest to be converted into a construct/concept
that can stored within the brain, and then recalled later from the STM or LTM) is by Baddeley
(1966).
Aim:
 To investigate encoding in the short term memory store
Method:
 Participants were given lists of words that were:

o acoustically similar (e.g. cat, mat...)
o acoustically different (e.g. pen, cow...)
o semantically similar (e.g. boat, ship...)
o semantically different (e.g. book, tree...)
 Their recall of the words was tested.
Results:
 In STM, better recall of acoustically different than acoustically similar words

o more errors with similarly sounding words than distinctly sounding words
 Slightly better recall of semantically different words than semantically similar words’
Conclusions:
 In the STS, information is encoded acoustically because recall is affected by the sound of words
Experiment 2: LTM
Aim:
 To investigate encoding in LTM
Method:
 Participants were given the same lists of words in the previous experiment for STM
 Their recall of the words was tested
Results:
 In LTM, no difference in recall of acoustically different and acoustically similar words

 Much better recall of semantically different words than semantically similar words
Conclusion:
 In LTM, there is semantic encoding because recall is affected by meaning of words
Evaluation:
Strengths
 Laboratory experiment
o strict control over variables
o able to determine a cause-effect relationship between
Weaknesses
 Task is unrealistic; does not reflect daily activity participants would do
This study supports the Multi-store model of memory as it shows that:
o
STM and LTM have different encoding processes:

STM: acoustic encoding

LTM: semantic encoding
o Thus STM & LTM are separate stores.
 Applications of the MSMin studies relating to memory
o Case studies into rare individuals demonstrating the MSM’S three stores are by Sacks and
Shallice & Warrington.
Supporting Study 3: Clive Wearing – Sacks (2007)
 A study demonstrating memory processes between the STM and LTM in regards to the MSM is by
Sacks on Clive Wearing (2007).
 History:
o Clive Wearing was a musician who got a viral infection encephalitis.
o This left him with serious brain damage in the hippocampus, which caused him memory
impairment.
o He suffers from:
 anterograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember after a particular incident
 retrograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember before a particular incident
 Findings:
o Wearing still has ability to talk, read, write, and sight-read music (procedural knowledge)
o He could not transfer information from STM tLTM.
o His memory lasted 7-30 seconds, and he was unable to form new memories.
 Conclusion:
o STM & LTM are separate stores
o STM has limited duration
Evaluation:
 Strengths
o
Case study Realistic
o
In-depth information
 Limitations
o Cannot be generalised to the whole population
Connection of study
This study supports the multi-store model because it shows that:
 STM and LTM are separate stores

o
Wearing has STM intact but could not access LTM
 STM has a limited duration
o Wearing could only use STM and he experienced time elapses of around 30 seconds. It also
provides support for anterograde amnesia.
Does not support the multistore Model of memory because:
 Wearing had significant damage to his declarative memory, but his procedural memory was fully
intact
 This suggests that LTM is separated into declarative and procedural, rather than a single, unitary
store as the MSM assumes.
Supporting Study 4: Shallice and Warrington (1974) KF
 Another demonstrating memory processes between the STM and LTM in regards to the MSM is by
Shallice and Warrington on KF (1974).
History:
 KF was in a motorcycle accident which impaired his memory
Findings:
 He could transfer information from STM tLTM

 He suffered problems with STM of different types of information
o digit span was severely impaired
o visual and auditory information (e.g. telephone ring) was unaffected
Conclusion:
 Findings suggest that:

o STM & LTM are separate
o STM is not required for LTM
o There may be more than one STM store --> it is possible to suffer impairment of verbal
information without affecting auditory information
Evaluation:
Strengths
 Case study Realistic

 In-depth information
Limitations
 Cannot be generalised to the whole population
Connection of study
This study supports the idea that memory stores are not unitary.KF suffered impairment of some
types of STM (verbal) but had others fully intact (auditory) STM store is not unitary
EVALUATION OF THE MSM MODEL:
STRENGTHS (+)
 Influential; early model that stimulated further research into memory processes
o
Still accepted by most psychologists and is still widely used
 Considerable evidence for demonstrating the existence of STM and LTM as separate memory
stores
o Differing via duration, capacity and coding
 Provides support for anterograde amnesia
 Based on considerable evidence and evidence for the model is gained from a variety of sources
o e.g. studies of brain damaged individuals
 Whereby these studies support the distinction between STS and LTS
 Some patients with amnesia suffer damage tLTM but not STM, and vice versa
 As demonstrated by Shallice & Warrington (1970); Milner (1966); Baddeley (1997)
Demonstrates insight into different memory processes, such as:
 Demonstrates differences in encoding,

o
i.e. STM = STM = acoustic, LTM = semantic
 Demonstrates differences in capacity,
o i.e. STM = 7±2, LTM has no limits
 Demonstrates differences in duration
o i.e. STM = approx. 20 seconds (Peterson & Peterson, 1959), LTM = 48 years (Bahrick et al.,1975).
 Demonstrates in ability to form declarative or procedural memories by patients with brain damage,
amnesia.
LIMITATIONS (-)
 There is emphasis on the amount of information taken into memory

 Focuses too much on the structure of memory systems rather than providing an explanation on
how it works (functioning/ processing)
 Reductionist*, oversimplifying memory processes (Eysneck & Keane, 1995) – too simple
o Mechanical in transfer from one store to another
o Memory processes are more complex and flexible
 *a form of explanation or approach to understanding complex things by simplifying (or
reducing) them to their most basic parts.
 Assumes that stores are single and unitary
 Unlikely that the diverse information in LTM is contained in one, simple, unitary store in same form
o Tulving (1972) suggests that LTM can be divided into episodic, semantic and procedural
components, stored separately
o Cohen & Squire (1980) suggest LTM is divided into 2:
 Declarative memory: involves recollection of facts and events, includes episodic and semantic
memory.
 Procedural memory: memories for how to do things.
 Evidence from amnesia patients who have poor declarative knowledge with no damage to
procedural knowledge
o Spiers et al. (2001)
o Clive Wearing Baddeley, 1997
 Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) focused almost exclusively on declarative knowledge and did not
account for procedural knowledge in their model.
o Model suggests that rote rehearsal is the only way information transfers from STM tLTM
 Too simple
 Ignores any other factors such as effort and strategies people employ to remember things
 Studies have questioned whether the more information is rehearsed, the more likely it is to be
transferred tLTM
 Rehearsal may be what occurs in laboratory experiments but this lacks ecological validity
 Most people rarely actively rehearse information in daily life, yet information is constantly
transferred into LTM (Eysenck and Keane, 1995)
o Rehearsal is not as important as the MSM suggests
o Increased rehearsal is no guarantee that information will be stored in LTM
 MSM under-emphasises interaction between stores
o transfer of information is strictly sequential
o information stays in LTM until retrieved
 Does not consider the possibility that LTM interacts and even directs other memory stores
o Sensory what is important to pay attention
o STM helps rehearsal or meaningful chunking
Memory Model 2: The Levels of Processing Model
o Proposed by Craik & Lockhart (1972)

o LOP predicts that how deeply people process information determines how well it is stored in
memory
 Deeper, meaningful processing creates stronger, longer-lasting memory traces.
 Shallow processing leads to weaker memory traces
o It states that memory is a by-product of processing information:
 Maintenance rehearsal (repetition to hold information in STM) is shallow processing and
leads to short-term retention of information.
 As opposed to argument of MSM
 Elaboration rehearsal (meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations etc.)
of information) leads to better recall.
 State the three levels of processing

o Structural (shallow) encode the physical qualities/appearance
o Phonological (intermediate) encode sound/auditory
o Semantic (deep) encode meaning and associate it with existing knowledge
Supporting Study 1: Hyde and Jenkins (1973)
 A study investigating... is by Hyde & Jenkins (1973).
Aim:
 ...’investigating’ whether people could remember without intentionally trying to, and whether
deeper processing leads to better recall
Method:
 Participants were presented with auditory lists of 24 words

 Different groups of participants were asked to perform one of the following tasks requiring
different levels of processing
o rating words for pleasantness
o estimate frequency with which each word is used in the English language
o detect occurrence of letters ‘e' and 'g' in any of the words
o decide part of speech appropriate to each word (e.g. noun, adjective)
o decide whether words fitted into a particular sentence frame
 Half participants were told in advance that they would be asked to recall words (intentional
learning group)
 Other half were not (incidental learning group)
Results:
 Minimal differences in the number of words correctly recalled between the intentional and
incidental learning groups.
 Recall was significantly better for words analysed semantically (e.g. rated for pleasantness) than
words which had been rated more superficially (e.g. detecting 'e' and 'g')
Conclusion:
 Maintenance rehearsal is not necessary for learning.
Evaluation:
Strengths
Weaknesses
Thus study supports the LOP theory because it shows that:
 semantic processing is deeper than structural and leads to better memory

 intention is unnecessary for retention
o supports Craik and Lockhart's belief that retention is a by-product of processing
Supporting Study 2: Craik and Tulving, 1975
 A further study “investigating the effects of deep and shallow processing on memory recall” is
by Craik & Tulving (1975).
Aim:
 “To investigate how deep and shallow processing affects memory recall”
Method:
 Participants presented with a series of 60 words about which they had to answer one of three
questions, requiring different depths of processing.
 Participants were then given a long list of 180 words into which the original words had been mixed.
 They were asked to pick out the original words.
Results:
 Participants recalled more words that were semantically processed compared to phonemically and
visually processed.
Conclusion:
 Semantically processed words involve deep processing which results in more accurate recall.
Evaluation:
Strengths
Weaknesses
Connection of study
 The experimental method was used in this study because the researchers wanted to find a cause-
effect relationship between the level of processing and memory recall.
o This would not be able to be done using other research methods such as surveys or interviews.
EVALUATION OF THE LOP MODEL:

STRENGTHS (+)
Overcomes criticisms of the Multistore Model as being too simple methods of remembering. LOP was
very influential when first proposed.
 It changed the direction of research and stimulated further research into memory Accounts for
why some things are remembered better and for longer than others. LOP theory is useful in daily
life as it shows how elaboration, which requires deeper processing, leads to better memory. It
helps to understand processes at learning stage. Improvements on Multi-store model of memory:
o Does not make strict distinction between STM & LTM
o Does not regard LTM as simple storage unit, rather a complex processing system
o Encoding is not simple and straightforward
o improvement on the MSM's account of transfer from STM tLTM
o Focuses on mental processes rather than structures
 Much research and evidence supporting the LOP theory's idea that deep processing aids memory.
LIMITATIONS (-)
Lacks ecological validity
 all the evidence based on laboratory experiments LOP theory focuses on the processes rather than
structures of memory.
 Evidence (e.g. Clive Wearing, KF) supports memory structures of STM and LTM stores proposed by
MSM.
Major limitation difficult to define “deep” processing
 It is vague and cannot be observed, making it hard to measure objectively

 Baddeley (1990) – cannot independently assess depth
 Circular definition deeply processed information will be remembered better, but the measure
of depth is how well information is remembered.
 LOP theory is descriptive rather than explanatory. Though later research has attempted to explain
how and why deep processing is effective in aiding memory, the original theory did not provide a
detailed explanation of this (Eysenck and Keane, 1995). Ordering of memory of LOP (semantic
better than phonological better than structural) is not always supported by research.
 Several studies have shown that deeper processing does not guarantee better
memory. Participants usually spend more time and effort on the tasks requiring deeper
processing.
 Type of processing, amount of effort and length of processing time are often confounding
 It is difficult to know that depth of processing alone influences memory
 Better memory may be due to more time or effort spent on processing; not deeper
processing. Like the MSM, LOP theory is too simplistic; research indicates that memory is more
complex and varied than depth and elaboration.
Conclusion
Multistore Model of Memory
 Provides a good explanation of the memory structures

 Is also supported by a large amount of research
 However, it still requires further research to explain the processes involved in memory
 Needs to develop the model from its oversimplified explanations, to a more complex, and thus,
accurate model of memory
Levels of Processing
 Provides a good description of the processes involved in memory

o But does not account for the structure of memory
 Further research should be conducted to refine the theory
 Development of the theory could be done to explain exactly how memory processes work
and incorporate memory structures
KEY TERMS
 Encoding refers to the active process of putting stimulus information into a form that can be used
by our memory system. It requires you to form mental representations of information from the
external world.
o Semantic Encoding – encoding information through its ‘meaning’
o Acoustic Encoding – encoding information according to its ‘sound’
o Visual Encoding – encoding information through its ‘visual’ aspects
 Storage refers to the process of maintaining information in memory. It requires short and long
term changes in the structure of your brain.
 Retrieval is the active processes of locating and using information (remembering).
Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process
Introduction
Human cognitive processes have a biological basis.

Memory is the cognitive process whereby information is retained and recalled from past experiences,
in which memory processes are used to acquire, store, retain and later retrieve information from past
information and knowledge.
Alzheimer's disease is a serious and progressive degenerative brain disease, which leads to the loss of
neurons and often leading to dementia.
o The onset of symptoms is gradual but its progression is irreversible.

o AD impairs the creation of new memories but procedural memory (how to die a bike or play a
musical instrument) is largely unaffected.
o Episodic memory (memory of events and personal experiences) is the most severely affected.
Episodic memory problems are the earliest symptoms of AD
o AD also causes a steady decline in the semantic memory – general knowledge about the world,
concepts and language.
Biological factors affecting AD:
o Medial temporal lobe

o Deterioration of neurons involved in the production of acetylcholine
o Amyloid plaques
o Neurofibrillary tangles
o Genetic predisposition
Therefore, the link between the biological causes and effects of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) can be
argued to affect a person’s cognition of memory processing.
Body
Biological Factor 1: Medial temporal lobe
Medial temporal lobe (MTL)
o One biological factor that may cause AD and then affect memory is the medial temporal love
(MTL).
o The MTL has been investigated because it is known to play a role in episodic memory and it is
the first area to show pathological changes in the brain.
Supporting Study 1: Schwindt and Black (2009)
A study that shows how the MTL plays a role in AD therefore affecting memory is by Schwindt
and Black (2009).
Aim: To test the effect of episodic memory on AD.

Method: They conducted a meta-analysis of fMRI studies on episodic memory in AD patients,
compared to normal & AD patients.
Results:
 There was greater brain activity in the MTL and frontal lobe in the control group.
 Compared to controls, the AD patients showed decreased activation in the MTL and increased
activation in the prefrontal cortex.
 There were a number of consistent findings across the previous studies.
Conclusion:
 It was well-established that AD patients show decreased activation in the MTL.
Schwindt and Black’s study supports the biological factor of the MTL in causing AD and thus,
impairment in memory.
AD develops through a series of stages. First, the MTLs are affected, in particular the hippocampus,
then the parietal lobes and other brain regions.
o The symptoms of AD seem to be caused by the loss of brain cells and the deterioration of
neurons.
Biological Factor 2: Deterioration of neurons involved in the production of acetylcholine hippocampus

Therefore, another biological factor that can affect memory is the deterioration of neurons involved
in the production of acetylcholine.
o This is particularly prevalent in the hippocampi area of the brain.

o The hippocampus has been found to affect memory from cases of amnesia patients such as HM
(Milner and Scoville, 1957) and Clive Wearing (Baddeley, 1997).
Supporting Study 2: Mosconi (2005)
 A study that shows how biological factors occurring in the hippocampi play a role in AD therefore
affecting memory is by Mosconi (2005).
Aim:
 To test how the hippocampi region interacts with AD/To investigate metabolism in the
hippocampus, which is when the neurons in the brain activate responses in the body and dies.
Method:
 Followed a sample of 52 normal participants for a period of 9 – 24 years (longitudinal).

 They used a brain scan based computer program that measures metabolic activity in the
hippocampus.
Results:
 Reduced metabolism in the hippocampus was associated with later AD.
 Mosconi’s study supports the role of the hippocampus in AD.

 This can be explained by the fact that the hippocampus of normal people contains high
concentration of acetylcholine (Squire, 1987).
 Low concentrations are found in people with AD.
 This results from severe brain tissue loss in areas of the forebrain, known to secrete acetylcholine.
 Outline the series of stages that AD develops in so you could link it with the next biological factor:
o Autopsies reveal two characteristic abnormalities in these acetylcholine-producing neurons.
o These neurons in AD patients also show abnormal levels of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary
tangles.
Biological Factor 3: Amyloid plaques
AD is caused by deposits of amyloid-B protein which accumulates in spaces between neurons and
damages the membranes of axons and dendrites (Lorenzo et al., 2000)
o The amyloid plaques are formed from the degenerating axons and dendrites and contain a
dense core of amyloid-ß protein, in which the plaques accumulate in the spaces between
neurons.
o Most AD patients accumulate amyloid plaques before onset of AD (Selkoe, 1990).
Supporting Study 3: Murphy and Levine (2010)
 A study that shows how amyloid plaques interact in causing AD is by Murphy and Levine (2010).
Aim:
 To investigate whether is a relationship between default activity patterns in cortical regions in early
adulthood and amyloid deposition in elderly AD patients.
Method:
 Eighteen older participants were enrolled from the longitudinal sample of the Washington
University Alzheimer’s Disease Research Centre and screened to exclude neurological illness,
psychoactive medications and medical conditions that may produce cognitive impairment.
Results:
 Presence of amyloid-B protein 42 in early AD starts a chain of events that leads tAD.
Connection of study :
 Therefore, the results of this study support the biological factor of amyloid-B protein in AD.
Biological Factor 4: Neurofibrillary tangles

As well as amyloid plaques, another factor which plays a role in the degrading of neurons that is
significant for the onset of AD is neurofibrillary tangles.
o
The tangles are microtubules found in the cell body and dendrites of neurons, which forms
abnormally and causes the microtubules to tangle (neurofibrillary tangles).
o When they tangle, the neuron loses its structure and no long has support, thus shrivels up and
dies.
o The inhibition of the movement of neurotransmitters across the synapse prevents electrical
messages to be passed from one neuron to the other; therefore, certain actions in the body are
unable to be activated.
o It is caused by the accumulation of an abnormal form of tau protein around the support
structure of neurons that causes them to collapse.
 AD is thought to be affected by amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles that degrade neurons
in the brain, which causes atrophy of areas of the brain (hippocampus).
Biological Factor 5: Genetic predisposition

Another important biological factor in causing AD is our genetic predisposition to diseases such as
AD.
Research has found that genes play a role in producing amyloid-B protein. Research by...

Lott (1982): Demonstrate and early onset Alzheimer’s linked to chromosome 21 (down’s
syndrome)
 Levy-Lahad eta al (1995): Early onset Alzheimer’s gene found on chromosome 1
 Schellenberg et al (1992): Early onset Alzheimer’s gene found on chromosome 14
 Ertekin-Taner et al (2000): Gene for later onset Alzheimer’s found on chromosome 10
o But genes do not provide a full explanation of AD, which is demonstrated by:
 St George-Hislop (2000): Half of all Alzheimer’s patients have no relatives with the illness
 Hendrie (2001): Yoruba people have Alzheimer’s genes, but much lower rates of the illness.
Conclusion
 In conclusion, it is shown that the following biological factors...

o Medial temporal lobe(Schwindt and Black, 2009)
o Deterioration of neurons involved in the production of acetylcholine (Mosconi, 2005)
o Amyloid plaques (Murphy and Levine, 2010)
o Neurofibrillary tangles
o Genetic predisposition
 ... all play a role in the development of Alzheimer’s Disease, affecting memory processing,
which is a significant part of our cognition.
 Therefore it can be assumed that biological factors affect memory in AD.
(OR)
 State its physiological basis

o
It can be seen that AD interacts directly with physiology because it is caused by biological factors
such as a genetic predisposition to the disease; damage in brain; and the formation of amyloid
plaques and neurofibrillary tangles; occurring mainly in the hippocampi region of the brain,
which contributes to the degradation of the neurons developing the onset of AD.
 State its cognitive basis
o Therefore, the physiological effects of amnesia are what influences/affects cognition, in regards
to memory processing.
Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process
Introduction
An example of the effect of social or cultural factors on one cognitive process is the effect of schemas
on memory. Schemas are cognitive structures that organise knowledge stored in our memory. They
are mental representations of categories from our knowledge, beliefs and expectations.
o Any information about particular aspects of the world the world, such as people, events, and
actions are stored in a person’s brain in the form of schema.
o The information that people are exposed to is affected by the society and culture they are in.
o Because people in different societies and cultures are exposed to different information, they will
have different schemas.
o There are three different types of schemas
 Scripts – provide information about sequences of events that occur in particular contexts
 Self-Schemas – organize information we have about ourselves
 Social Schemas – represent information about different groups of people
 Schemas contain stereotypes and expectations acquired during life
Schemas are influenced by external factors such as social and cultural aspects, which then affect what
is stored in our memory processes.
 Memory
o
The cognitive processes whereby past experiences is remembered.
 Relationship between cultural influences on memory
o Memory content opens up a window through which we can observe cultural influences on the
ways in which individuals attend to represent, organize, retrieve and share event information.
This relationship will be investigated in terms of the influence of social and cultural factors.
Body
Supporting Studies: {Italics = CULTURAL STUDIES; Normal = SOCIAL STUDIES}
o **Bartlett – “War of the Ghosts” (1932)

o Brewer & Treyens – “picnic basket” (1981) – social setting; however your culture can also dictate
– interaction and integration between. However, these studies are deemed, and can be
explained in a social/cultural state.
o Allport & Postman (1947) – classed as social
o French and Richards – Culture (how people can determine time – differently – some cultures
might not use clocks, western cultures – clocks; schema for clock = roman numerals)
o Rogoff and Wadell (1982)
o **Cole and Scribner (1974) – Memory Strategies in different cultures.
*Choose at least 2-3 studies from the above studies in the evaluation of schema theory
**Main studies that should be used in regards to culture
Supporting Study 1: Bartlett (1932) “War of the Ghost”
 A significant researcher into schemas, Bartlett (1932) introduced the idea of schemas in his study
entitled “The War of the Ghost.”
Aim:
 Bartlett aimed to investigate the effect of culture on memory.

Method:
 Participants used were of an English background.

 Were asked to read “The War of the Ghosts” – a Native American folk tale.
 Tested their memory of the story using serial reproduction and repeated reproduction, where they
were asked to recall it six or seven times over various retention intervals.
o Serial reproduction: the first participant reading the story reproduces it on paper, which is then
read by a second participant who reproduces the first participant’s reproduction, and so on until
it is reproduced by six or seven different participants.
o Repeated reproduction: the same participant reproduces the story six or seven times from their
own previous reproductions. Their reproductions occur between time intervals from 15 minutes
to as long as several years.
Results:
 Both methods lead to similar results.

 As the number of reproductions increased, the story became shorter and there were more changes
to the story.
o For example, ‘hunting seals’ changed into ‘fishing’ and ‘canoes’ became ‘boats’.
 These changes show the alteration of culturally unfamiliar things into what the English participants
were culturally familiar with,
 This makes the story more understandable according to the participants’ experiences and cultural
background (schemas).
 He found that recalled stories were distorted and altered in various ways making it more
conventional and acceptable to their own cultural perspective (rationalization).
Conclusion:
 Memory is very inaccurate

o It is always subject to reconstruction based on pre-existing schemas
 Bartlett’s study helped to explain through the understanding of schemas when people remember
stories, they typically omit (”leave out”) some details, and introduce rationalisations and
distortions, because they reconstruct the story so as to make more sense in terms of their
knowledge, the culture in which they were brought up in and experiences in the form of schemas.
Evaluation:
 Limitations:
o Bartlett did not explicitly ask participants to be as accurate as possible in their reproduction
o Experiment was not very controlled
 instructions were not standardised (specific)
 disregard for environmental setting of experiment
 This study relates to the effect of culture on memory.

o Participants' recall of the story which was culturally-foreign to them was altered to be
culturallyfamiliar when they were asked to recall, due to their schema (knowledge, background
and past experiences).
o Hence, the culture in which people are brought up in influences how they recall and reproduce
stories and events to others, introducing cognitive distortions in memory because of their
mental representations in the form of schemas.
o Barlett’s work (1932) demonstrated how schemas originating in one particular culture can affect
how literature from another culture is recalled. His participants relied on schematic knowledge,
acquired within their culture to understand and later recall a story from a different culture.
Supporting Study 2: Brewer and Treyens (1981) “picnic basket”

Further support for cultural factors on the influence of schemas of memory on cognition memory at
encoding point was reported by Brewer and Treyens (1981).
Aim:
 To see whether a stereotypical schema of an office would affect memory (recall) of an office
Method:
 Participants were taken into a university student office and left for 35 seconds before being taken
to another room.
 They were asked to write down as much as they could remember from the office.
Results:
 Participants recalled things of a “typical office” according to their schema.

 They did not recall the wine and picnic basket that were in the office.
Conclusions:
 Participants' schema of an office influenced their memory of it.

 They did not recall the wine and picnic basket because it is not part of their “typical office”
schema.
Evaluation:
 Strengths:
o
Strict control over variables to determine cause & effect relationship
 Limitation:
 Laboratory setting artificial environment
 Task does not reflect daily activity
 This study shows how both social and cultural factors can influence schemas and hence what we
recall in memory.
o Participants' typical office schema determined their recall and their non-recall of items because
they did not fit into the office schema.
o But it is important to note that the culture in which the participants were from could also have a
major impact on their schema for an office, as different cultures can have different
representations of what an office looks like, thus influencing how the participants recalled
because of their schema, influenced by culture.
o However the above argument is valid, the study represents more social effects than cultural, as
the participants “typical” office schemas were based on society’s representation of an office.
Therefore it demonstrates that schemas, thus memory recall are affected by social factors.
Supporting Study 3: Allport & Postman (1947) “Schemas and constructive memory”
 Another study demonstrating social influence on schemas into memory was by Allport and
Postman (1947).
Aim:
 To see if schemas affect recall.
Method:
 “White” and “Black” Americans participated in the study.

 Firstly the “White” Participants were shown a picture of an argument between a well-dressed black
man, and a poorly dressed, unshaven white man holding a cut throat razor.
 Serial reproduction: Participant asked to describe picture to another white participant who in turn
described it to someone else (similar to “Chinese whispers”).
 This method was repeated and the picture was shown to the “Black Participants”
Results:
 White participants:
o
After a few retellings, the story had changed so that the black man was the aggressor, holding
the knife.
 Black Participants:
o Results were not the same as what the white participants had recalled. There were more correct
observations from the black participants in relation to the picture showed to them.
Conclusion:
 This study is an example of how through the social environment, what we expect (based on
stereotypical schemas) can distort what we actually hear and process into our memory.
 White people were heavily influenced by the history of racism from the acts of the olden-days
America, whom discriminated against and placed heavy prejudices on Black African American
people. Thus, the history of how black men were portrayed as aggressive and dangerous may have
also influenced how they interpreted the story, affecting their schemas.
Evaluation:
 Limitations:
o
Lacks ecological validity
 Artificial stimulus picture rather than real life experience
 Ethics
o Experiment demonstrates a racist schema
o When the participants found out they had a schema of a black person being aggressive they
might have been distressed because they might not have considered themselves racist. They
would have felt bad afterwards - didn't come out the same as when they went in
 This study relates to how schemas affect memory.

o Reproduction of the description of the picture was affected by participants' stereotypical
schemas.
 However in terms of a cultural aspect/viewpoint, the participants’ backgrounds may have affected
how they recalled and interpreted the story, due to their knowledge of and history of their culture
towards black people and hence influencing their schemas.
Supporting Study 4: Rogoff and Wadell (1982)
 A further study demonstrating cultural influence on schematic knowledge is by Rogoff and Wadell
(1982).
Aim:
 The aim was to determine whether non-western children would show a memory defect for
contextually organised spatial material.
Methods:
 They gave Guatemalan children a memory task that was meaningful in local terms; constructed a
diorama of a Mayan village located near a mountain and a lake, similar to the locale in which the
children lived.
 Each child watched as a local experimenter selected 20 miniature objects from a set of 80 and
placed them in the diorama.
o Objects included (the kind of things that would be found in a real town):
 Cars
 Animals
 People
 Furniture
 Then the 20 objects were returned to the group of 60 others remaining on the table. After a few
minutes, the children were asked to reconstruct the full scene they had been shown.
 This methodology was then repeated to children from the united states (to their counterparts)
Results:
 Under these conditions, the memory performance of the Mayan children was slightly superior to
that of their United States counterparts.
 This study supports that culture affects memory.

o Guatemalan children could remember better than their UN counterparts when the task was
meaningful in local terms.
o Culture heavily impacts schema, thus memory recall. Through this study, it shows that people
can remember better or perform tasks which are recognized as part of their culture, due to
cultural influences and experiences stored in their schemas.
Supporting Study 5: Cole and Scribner (1974)
 A further study demonstrating cultural influence on schematic knowledge (in terms of memory
strategies in different cultures – USA & Liberia) is by Cole and Scribner (1974).
 They observed the effects of formal schooling/education (in relation to culture) had on memory.
Method:
 Tested the memory ability of non-schooled children in the Kpelle tribe in Liberia and compared
them with US school children.
 Children were expected to remember items on word lists that were organized into different
categories.
 Test was repeated with the children several times.
Results:
 The Kpelle children did not improve their performance in free recall memory tests after the age of
10 in the same way as US children; after 15 trials they only remembered 2 more items.
 Kpelle children who attended school had similar performance tUS school children.
 School children in US and Liberia used categorical recall; they appeared to have chunked the items
in to linked categories as they recalled them in groups such as utensils, clothes, vegetables, tools.
 When items were presented as part of a story the Kpelle children (non-schooled) had equally good
performance as the US children.
 Children with formal schooling in America and Liberia used this mnemonic which improved their
memory of the items. Children without formal schooling however, did not use the categories to aid
their recall and subsequently did not remember as much as children who had attended school.
 This study supports that culture affects memory.

o
The Kpelle children performed just as well as their US counterparts in a culturally-familiar
memory task, but not on a free recall task.
o This is because the free-recall task that Cole and his colleagues originally used to assess memory
among Liberian tribal people has no precise analogy in traditional Liberian cultures, so it is not
surprising that the corresponding way of remembering would not be acquired.
 Cognitive skills (memory) are dependent on the environment – which is made up of education,
social interaction, technology and in this case, culture.
 Therefore culture influences schemas, and thus our memory ability/ability to recall and have
advantageous effects if asked to do a task associated with your culture.
Conclusion
 As demonstrated in these four studies, cultural factors stored in our schemas affect memory,
 Therefore, human cognition is culturally independent – in the way that cognitive abilities are
influenced by the social and cultural context in which people live.
 The implication of these studies is that although the ability to remember is a universal intellectual
requirement, specific forms of remembering are not universal, as factors such as cultural aspects
are different, in that not cultures have the same memory strategies.
 As demonstrated by the studies, people learn to remember in ways that are relevant for their
everyday lives.
 The studies established, in particular Bartlett’s work, showed that memory is, to a significant
extent, a construction; moreover, one that relies heavily on the schemas we develop in our cultural
settings.
 And that the schemas we develop from our cultural backgrounds can influence the cognitive
process of memory.
With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is one cognitive process reliable?
Introduction
One cognitive process that involves questioning of reliability is memory, more specifically, its
significance towards eye-witness testimony (EWT).
 EWT
o
EWT is an important area of research into cognitive psychology and memory.
o
EWT is a legal term. It refers to an account given by people of an event they have witnessed.
o
For example, they may be required to give a description at a trial of a robbery or a road accident
they have witnessed.
 Where is EWT used?
o EWT is vital and used in legal systems as evidence in criminal trials in countries all over the
world, which relies on the accuracy of human memory/EWT to decide whether a person is guilty
or not.
o Therefore, the reliability of the testimonies is important as it determines ones precious future.
Memory is very important and plays a significant role in EWT.
 Reliability of memory in EWT

o Beforehand, EWT was generally seen as very trustworthy and convincing; Judges, jurors, police
and parts of the law enforcement saw and treated EWT as very reliable.
o However research from various sources now shows that memory can be subjected to distortion
and reconstruction.
o Researchers have demonstrated that memory may not be as reliable as we think through the
use of DNA technology; psychologists have demonstrated that eyewitnesses can be wrong.
o Memories may be influenced by other factors than what was recorded in the first place, due to
the reconstructive nature of memory.
 The term “reconstructive” refers to the brain’s active processing of information to make
sense of the world.
Perhaps one can claim that EWT is largely …
Body
Elizabeth Loftus and her arguments
o One of the leading researchers in the field of EWT research, Elizabeth Loftus, supports Bartlett’s
idea of memory as reconstructive.
 The idea that memory is a reconstructive process is crucial to an understanding of the
reliability of EWT, which is the idea that eyewitnesses do not reproduce what they witness,
but rather, reconstruct their memories on the basis of relevant schematic information
(personal interpretation dependent on our learnt or cultural norms and values – the way we
make sense of the world) thus illustrating how memory is unreliable, as our schemas can be
misled or influenced (by culture, social and environment factors) and are not always correct.
o She expressed concern at the over-reliance on EWT’s in court, with her research showing:
 That our memories can reconstruct information.
o Therefore Loftus has argued that EWT can be highly unreliable, because of the ability of our
memories to reconstruct events.
Many people believe that memory works something like a videotape. Where:
 Storing information is like recording and remembering is like playing back what was recorded,
with information being retrieved in much the same form as it was encoded.
o
However, memory does not work in this way. It is a feature of human memory that we do not
store information exactly as it is presented to us. Rather, people extract from information the
gist, or underlying meaning.
o In other words, people store information in the way that makes the most sense to them. We
make sense of information by trying to fit it into schemas, which are a way of organising
information.
o Schemas are mental 'units' of knowledge that correspond to frequently encountered people,
objects or situations. They allow us to make sense of what we encounter in order that we can
predict what is going to happen and what we should do in any given situation. These schemas
may, in part, be determined by social values and therefore prejudice.
o Schemas are therefore capable of distorting unfamiliar or unconsciously ‘unacceptable’
information in order to ‘fit in’ with our existing knowledge or schemas. This can, therefore,
result in unreliable eyewitness testimony.
 Relevance of example:
o Bartlett tested this theory using a variety of stories to illustrate that memory is an active process
and subject to individual interpretation or construction. In his famous study 'War of the Ghosts',
Bartlett (1932) showed that memory is not just a factual recording of what has occurred, but
that we make “effort after meaning”. By this, Bartlett meant that we try to fir what we
remember with what we really know and understand about the world. As a result, we quite
often change our memories so they become more sensible to us.
Main Study: Loftus & Palmer (1974) – Automobile Reconstruction
 The idea that memory is a reconstructive process, is what forms the vast work/research on EWT by
Loftus and her colleagues.
 Loftus has performed and demonstrated a vast majority of research intEWT, but the work with her
fellow colleague, Palmer, proved to be one of her most significant research studies intEWT. The
idea that memory is a reconstructive process, is what forms the work on EWT by Loftus and her
colleagues. Link to question:
 Loftus claims that the nature (wording) of questions can influence witnesses’ memory of an
experience.
 Leading questions – that is, questions that are suggestive in some way (hints) – and post-event
information facilitate schema processing which may influence accuracy of recall.
o Our memories can be affected (interfered) with by post-event information such as misleading
questions.
Aim:
 To investigate the effect of leading questions on eye witness testimony of an event
Method:
 Participants (p’s) were shown 7 films of car accidents (5-30 seconds)

 After each clip, p’s were given a questionnaire asking:
o To give an account of the accident
o Number of questions, including the critical question “How fast were the cars going when they?”
o Verb in the critical question was changed to smashed/collided/hit/bumped/contacted
 Experimental conditions: Participants were split in 5 groups of 9 – each group were asked the
question with a different verb
Results:
 Results showed that that the speed estimates were influenced by the wording (verb) used.
 The more severe-sounding verb produced higher speed estimates
 For example, ‘smashed’ gave an estimated 9m/h higher than ‘contacted’
Conclusion:
 L & P concluded that the wording of the question did have an effect on the speed estimates given.
 Suggested it may be because:
o People are poor judges of speed
o People are affected by the wording of a question
 Findings can be explained by Bartlett’s view of memory as an active reconstructive process.
o The verbs used in the various conditions activated slightly different schemas which influenced
the
o speed estimates.
o In this study, information was received after witnessing the accident researchers used a leading
question.
o Thus after the accident was reconstructed in the participant’s mind, the schema that were
influenced by the leading question relating to the different verbs associated with speech
explains how reconstructive memory works.
 This study also supports the idea that when people witness complex events, they tend to report
inaccurate and numeric details like time, distance and speed.
Supporting Study: Loftus et al. (1987)
 A further study by Loftus et al. (1987) demonstrating how another factor, ‘repression’ may
influence recovered memories, thus leading to unreliable answers from eyewitnesses, investigated
on...
Aim:
 ....the weapon-focus effect.
Method:
 Participants heard a discussion going on in the room next door.

 There were 2 conditions:
o No weapon condition (man with greasy hands emerging from another room holding a pen)
o And weapon condition (a man coming from another room with a bloody paperknife).
 Participants were asked to identify the man from a selection of 50 people.
Results:
 Results showed that participants from the no-weapon condition were more accurate in recall.
Conclusion:
 Loftus concluded that the weapon drew more attention than the pen, so their attention was
allocated to the weapon than the face.
 This study relates to the unreliability of memory in EWT because it was found that the more
dangerous situation affected their recalling of the people’s face.
 This can be explained by repression, as the knife may have provoked their memory and emotion
thus creating false memories, which is very unreliable in EWT.
Evaluation of research (both studies) on EWT:
 Loftus’ research indicates that it is possible to create a false memory using post-event information.
These results indicate that memory is not reliable but like all research studies, there are some
limitations that need to be considered relating to its validity/ecological validity (EV).
Connection of study to question
 Although Loftus’ research is still valid to some extent (especially the Automobile Reconstruction) as
it relates to the unreliability of memory in EWT because it was found that the leading question
asked to eye-witnesses caused a distortion of memory as the result of the reconstructive processes
of memory.
o 'smashed' lead participants to remember the accident as more severe than 'contacted
 Therefore it is clear that leading questions can change/influence previously stored information in
memory – (make us reconstruct memories).
 But, due to demand characteristics, it cannot be concluded that the verb in the leading question
completely influenced participants' speed estimates, but played a part in its influence.
COUNTER-ARGUMENT/STUDY
However, this does not mean that all people’s memeory is faulty, and rater that this is evident in
some cases and not others. Other studies have also shown that EWT can be reliable, acquiring more
EV.
Supporting Study 2: Yuille & Cutshall (1986)
 Yuille & Cutshall [Y&C] (1986) argues and criticizes against Loftus and Palmer’s viewpoint on the
accuracy of EWT in real-life settings as their research lacked ecological validity (EV).
Aim:
 Y & C investigated the accuracy/effectiveness in recall EWT using real eyewitnesses from a real
crime.
 Background (details of the crime):
o In this study, the crime was a real theft and gun shooting crime scene.
o Incident took place in Vancouver.
Method:
 There were 21 witnesses interviewed by the police originally who had witnessed the event from
different viewpoints: (passing by in the car, walking on the street or within buildings).
o Twenty of those eyewitnesses were contacted by the researchers four-to-five months after the
event, asking them to take part in a scientific study.
o Of those 20, thirteen agreed to participate in the study.
o All aged between 15-32; only three female, and ten males
o The victim was not asked to participate as he did not wish to relive the trauma.
 The researchers interviewed the participants at this four or five month period after the incident.
o The interviews were recorded and transcribed.
o They used the same interviewing procedure as the police had used with them allowing them to
give their account first and then asking questions.
 Of course, one of the aims was to look into the effects of leading questions, and so following
Loftus' procedures, two leading questions were used.
o Half the group were asked if they saw a broken headlight, and the other half if they saw the
broken headlight, when in fact there was no broken headlight in the thief's car.
o Similarly, half of the participants were asked about a yellow panel on the car, and the others
about the yellow panel, whereas the quarter panel was really blue.
 A scoring procedure was introduced to turn the qualitative data collected into quantitative data.
o This was carefully devised, as the researchers needed to know not only the true details of the
event, but also be able to compare the results to those of the police interviews.
o The researchers decided to use systems of 'action details' and 'description details' (split further
into ‘object descriptions’ and ‘people descriptions’ to collate information from the interviews.
Results:
 The researchers ended up obtaining more details than the police had.
 The police found 392 action details against the researchers' 552 action details.
 What was found is that the misleading questions had very little effect on their recall.
 Ten of the eyewitnesses said that there was no broken headlight and no yellow quarter panel at all
on the thief's car which was correct to identify.
Discussion/Conclusion:
 This was the first case study of EWT, which was a field study and a study therefore of a real case
that had not been manipulated by the researchers.
 It was useful to compare the findings of this, therefore valid, study against other studies (such as
Loftus and Palmer), which were laboratory experiments, and so tended not to be valid.
o This enabled the researchers to see the extent to which the conclusions of such previous studies
were reliable.
 It was found that eyewitnesses were actually very reliable.
 There were several factors which made this true, including correctly recalling large numbers of
accurate details; almost always arguing the misleading questions and a healthy comparison
between the police and research interviews.
 However, they agreed it would be hard to generalise the findings of this study, as the case (as with
any other case study) is unique, and it is difficult to find a similar one naturally occurring again.
o Even more so, as there were only thirteen participants to this study eight of the original
witnesses either moved or did not want to take part.
 Yuille and Cutshall concluded that eyewitnesses were in fact not inaccurate, contrary to the
findings of the vast majority of previous research into eyewitness testimony, which had all been
from laboratory experiments. The misleading questions had had little effect on the eyewitness,
which again disagreed with a Loftus' theory of misleading questions.
Evaluation:
Conclusion
Because the findings of Loftus & Palmer's experiment are considered invalid, and the experiment
lacked ecological validity in comparison to Yuille & Cutshall's study, which was a QUASI (natural)
experiment, it can be concluded that memory in eyewitness testimony is still reliable, to some extent.
However, due to the findings of Yuille & Cutshall’s EWT study, this suggests that reconstructive
memory is unreliable to a great extent. Overall, it can be considered that memory is reliable to some
extent, but is largely unreliable, and is influenced by a variety of factors.
Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes
Introduction
Different types of brain imaging technologies:
o PET: Positron Emission Topography

o MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging
o fMRI: functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging EEG: Electroencephalogram
o CAT: Computerised Axial Tomography
 Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages and are appropriate in varying
situations
 Explain why Brain imaging technologies are used at the CLA

o Brain imaging technologies are methods used in psychology to examine the human brain.
o Brain imaging technologies are quite useful in neuropsychology...
 As it provides an opportunity to study the active brain
o Allows researchers to see where specific brain processes take place
o Predominantly used to define brain differences in groups while they perform cognitive tasks
o Enables researchers to study localisation of function in a living human brain
 State the cognitive processes being discussed

o The cognitive processes being discussed in this essay are:
 Memory
 Language
 State the brain imaging technology being discussed

o Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
o Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
The brain imaging technology that will be discussed are MRI and PET Scans and will be investigated in
terms of its role in investigating the correlations/relationships between cognitive processes of
memory and language.
Body
Cognitive Process 1: MEMORY
Brain Imaging Technology 1: MRI Scans
The first brain imaging technology, MRI scans, will be firstly investigated with the cognitive process of
memory.
o This technique uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce 3D computer-generated
images.
o MRI scans involve people to remove all metal objects and clothing where they lie within an MRI
machine.
o It can distinguish among different types of soft tissue and allows researchers to see structures
within the brain.
Supporting Study: Maguire et al. (2000)
 An example of a study which utilizes MRI scans to investigate the cognitive process of memory is a
study conducted by Maguire et al. (2000).
Aim:
 Maguire hypothesised that full licensed taxi drivers in London would have a different hippocampi
structure in their brains compared to ‘normal’ people.
Method:
 This was based on the knowledge that London taxi drivers must do a two-year training course
where they end up being able to find their way around the city without a map.
 MRI scans were used to scan the structure of their hippocampi, which were compared to already
existing MRI scans of healthy males who did not drive taxis.
Results:
 Taxi drivers’ left and right hippocampi had a larger volume compared to the non-taxi drivers.
 Some parts of the hippocampi were smaller in the taxi drivers.
Conclusions:
 Maguire concluded that there was probably a redistribution of grey matter in the hippocampi of
taxi drivers due to the regular use of the spatial memory skills required to remember roads; the
neurons are stronger in areas of the brain which are used most.
 By using an MRI, Maguire was able to observe the structures in the brain and find a correlation
between the hippocampi (biological factor) and memory skills (cognitive process).
 Maguire used MRI scans to investigate the structure of the hippocampi, which would not be able
to be seen using other technologies such as an EEG or a PET scan
Supporting Study 2: HM Milner and Scoville (1957)
 Another study which utilizes MRI scans to investigate memory is a study conducted by Milner
and Scoville (1957).
 Background:
o
HM suffered epileptic seizures after a head injury at age 9
o
Doctors performed surgery to stop seizures
o
Tissue from temporal lobe, and hippocampus was removed
o
HM suffered anterograde amnesia
 He could recall information from early life but could not form new memories
o HM was studied using an MRI in 1997
 Findings:
o The brain scan showed that there was damage to the hippocampus, amygdala, and areas close
to the hippocampus
 By using MRI scanning technology, researchers were able to investigate the cognitive process of
memory and make a correlation between certain brain areas (biological factor) and
memory (cognitive process).
 MRI scans were used to see the structures of the brain to determine the extent of brain damage
o The structures would not be able to be clearly seen using other technologies such as EEGs or
CTs.
Cognitive Process 2: LANGUAGE

Brain Imaging Technology 2: PET Scans
The next cognitive process which will be discussed with the brain imaging technology of PET Scans is
language.
o PET scans require patients to be injected with a radioactive glucose tracer which shows the
areas where glucose is absorbed in the active brain.
o More glucose metabolism means more brain activity.
o PET scans show a coloured visual display of brain activity; where radioactive tracer is absorbed
 Red indicates areas with the most activity
 Blue indicates areas with the least activity
Supporting Study 3: Tierney et al (2001)
 An example of a study which utilizes PET scans to investigate the cognitive process of language is a
study conducted by Tierney et al. (2001).
Aim:
 To evaluate, using PET scans, the bilingual language compensation following early childhood brain
damage
Background:
 37 year old man (known as MA) with normal speech functions who was participating in a normal
speech study
 It was discovered that he had a lesion in his left frontal lobe
o Probably as a result of encephalitis he suffered at the age of 6 weeks
o He had no significant long-term, clinically consequences
 Both his parents were deaf and he used sign language at home from a very young age.
 Researchers were curious to know if this might have had something to do with his ability to speak
despite the brain damage (that should have prevented him from doing so.
Methods:
 Researchers compared MA to 12 control participants, who were fluent in sign language

 PET scanning technologies were used while the participants produced narrative speech or signs
Results:
 MA's right hemisphere was more active than the controls' during the production of both speech
and sign language
Conclusion:
 Language function seems to have developed in the right hemisphere instead of the left hemisphere
as an adaptation following his early brain damage
 Tierney utilised PET scans to investigate the cognitive processes of language and observe the areas
of the brain (biological factor) that activated while MA produced language (cognitive process).
o The ongoing activity in the brain would not be able to be seen using other technologies such as
EEGs or MRIs.
Conclusion
In conclusion, brain imaging technologies are very useful in investigating cognitive processes.
o Useful in different situations.

o All these methods have their own advantages and disadvantages, primarily involving
invasiveness and levels of radioactivity.
o However, all of these methods contribute to investigating the relationship between cognitive
processes and behaviour.
o It is important to note that different brain scans are used depending on the individual, the cause
of the problem and or the cognitive process being investigated.
COGNITION AND EMOTION
To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion?
Introduction
The cognitive level of analysis aims to study the inner processes of the mind and how cognitive
processes guide behaviour. As such, within this level of analysis, emotion has been investigated in
terms of the biological and cognitive influences.
 What is emotion?
o Emotion can be defined as the body’s adaptive response to a particular situation.
 Examples
o Ekman et al. (1972) identified/discovered 6 fundamental emotions that were consistent across
cultures. This includes (FASSHD):
 Fear
 Anger
 Surprise
 Sadness
 Happiness
 Disgust
o These primary set of emotions are viewed as universal that is, they are expressed facially in the
same way, and are recognised, by all members of diverse cultures
 Suggests that emotion is genetic (biological) rather than cognitive.
Emotions are sometimes dependent or are initiated through physiological and or cognitive factors.
 Cognition
o Cognition can be defined as the mental processes of acquiring and processing knowledge and
understanding through though, experiences and the senses occurring within the mind
o The mind cannot exist nor function independently without these processes.
 Physiology
o Whereas physiology is the internal, biological mechanisms (hormones, neurotransmitters,
localization of brain function) of living organisms – which is the way the organism functions.
Thus, one could potentially claim that cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion and
influence how humans experience emotion.
 Theories of emotion
o Le Doux Theory
o James-Lange Theory
o Cannon-Bard Theory
o Schachter & Singer's cognitive labelling theory (Two-Factor Theory)
o Darwin's evolutionary theory
o Lazarus' appraisal theory of emotion
In order to determine to what extent emotion is influenced by biological or cognitive factors, a set of
theories, which have supported the notion that both factors influence how humans experience
emotion include:
 Biological Focus
 LeDoux Theory
 Cognition Focus
 Two Factor Theory
 Lazarus Appraisal Theory
 These theories clearly state that both factors influence an emotional thus interacting with emotion.
Body:
 BIOLOGICAL factors of emotion

o Biological psychologists view emotion as a primarily somatic (bodily) process.
o These somatic processes may be:
 body arousal
 hormones
 facial expressions, associated to be with pleasant or unpleasant mental states of mind
 physiological changes, such as the arousal of the autonomic nervous system and the
endocrine system
 brain activity
 neurochemical processes
 COGNITIVE factors in emotion

o Cognitive psychologists assume that conscious and unconscious mental processes can influence
emotions.
o Focus more on mental aspects of emotions and how unconscious and conscious mental
processes influence emotional experiences and actions.
o This guides cognitive and rational emotive therapies, which assume that cognitions and
emotions are interrelated, and that negative cognitions will lead to negative emotions.
 Those negative emotions may come out of people’s faulty interpretations of experiences, and
that is by raising awareness of, challenging and changing those beliefs that may alter our
mood.
 Interaction between cognitive and biological factors in emotion

o Emotions can be initiated through physiological and cognitive factors.
o It is assumed that emotions consist of three components:
 Physiological changes (biological reactions)
 Subjective feeling of the emotion (cognitions)
 ...which then leads to an associated behaviour and thus emotion is expressed.
o Thus, cognitive and biological factors interact to produce an emotional response to an event.
 Therefore a bidirectional relationship exists between cognitive and biological factors in
emotion
 First theory – Le Doux

o One example of a researcher, which demonstrates a biological and cognitive interaction in
emotion, is Le Doux.
o Le Doux based his research on animals, and investigated the brain’s emotional circuit.
Theory 1: Le Doux’s Model of Emotion
o Le Doux discovered that for fear responses, there are two neurological pathways:

The short route: that goes from the sensory store in the thalamus to the amygdala

The long route: traverses the neo-cortex and the hippocampus before it results in a fear
response.
o Le Doux argues that there is an evolutionary advantage of having two separate pathways for
fear responses.
o During times of danger:
 The short route is effective, as it will lead to a quick, but often inaccurate response.
 The long route however, is slower, but will allow for a more thorough evaluation of a
situation, and a more appropriate response.
o Therefore, the amygdala receives input from the sensory processing areas in the neo-cortex and
thalamus and projects to areas in the brainstem controlling the fight or flight response.
Diagram:
Key Experiment 1: Le Doux Rat Experiment
 A further study conducted by Le Doux to find out where the brain stores emotional memory, which
pairs the tone and shock in memory demonstrating his theory...
Aim:
 To investigate the brain’s emotional circuit – effects of lesions on fear conditioning
Method:
 Made lesions in specific neural pathways in rats to determine the functions of the damaged
pathways and disrupt the conditioning response.
 The lesions were first made in the auditory context where the brain processes sound.
 And the auditory thalamus – which provides most auditory inputs to the cortex.
Findings:
 Found that the brain structures of the thalamus and the amygdala play different roles in the
generation of emotion.
o Lesion in the auditory cortex rats still learned to fear tone.
o Lesion in the auditory thalamus eliminated the rats’ susceptibility (vulnerability) to
fear conditioning.
 Most of the cells in the thalamus transmit to the cortex
o BUT some also transmit to the amygdala, a region of the brain already implicated in various
emotional behaviours.
 Thus indicating that the pathways with lesions led to the thalamus or amygdala, affected
emotional responses.
Conclusion:
 It can be concluded that the biological factor of brain damage to either of these areas would result
in issues in generating emotions.
 This supports that biological factors DO interact in emotion to a great extent.

Supporting Study 1: Gazzaniga et al. (2000)
 Another study supporting Le Doux’s Biological Model/Theory of Emotion is by Gazzaniga et al.

(2000)
Aim/Method:
 To investigate the effect on emotional responses as a result of brain damage (in the pre-frontal
lobe and amygdala) in autistic children.
Findings:
 Found that autistic children had trouble naming emotions from a set of facial expressions.
Conclusion:
 It demonstrates that brain damage impaired the children’s ability to recognise the emotions
expressed on faces.
 ... and furthermore that certain areas in the brain, such as the pre-frontal lobe and the amygdala
are related to emotional processing.
 Indicates that biological factors DO interact in emotion, supporting Le Doux’s Biological Model.
Further Studies that support this theory include:
 Branchard and Branchard (1972)

o
Rats lost their fears of cats as the amygdale was lesion
 Philips (1964)
o Birds lost fear of humans after there was a lesion in amygdala
EVALUATION OF BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH on EMOTION; and Le Doux’s Theory:
 However, one should be cautious in drawing too far reaching conclusions, as the research
conducted in these biological processes suffers from methodological weaknesses. This includes the
fact that...:
 How Le Doux’s theory supports interaction between biological and cognitive factors in emotion
o This suggests that the amygdala plays a central part/role in determining and controlling
emotional responses in the brain.
o Thus the connections between these structures allow the amygdala to transform sensory
information into emotional signals and therefore control emotional responses.
o Le Doux’s theory (of emotional circuits in the brain) supports biological factors in emotion as it
identifies that the amygdala and surrounding brain processes play a central role in determining
and controlling emotional responses in the brain.
o The theory also supports cognitive factors in emotion because the situation is appraised though
the long route.
o Thus it cannot be said that biological factors alone interact with emotion, but cognition also
plays a role in creating and controlling these emotional responses.
Theory 2: Schacter and Singer’s Two-factor Theory (1962)
Two factors interact to determine specific emotions
 Physiological arousal
 Emotion interpretation and labelling of the physiological arousal
o Strength of the physiological arousal determines the intensity of emotion
o Interpretation of physiological arousal determines which particular emotion is experienced
 How the two-factor theory supports interaction between biological and cognitive factors in
emotion
o Perception of stimulus may lead to bodily physiological arousal
o Physiological arousal is necessary for emotional experience, but needs to be labelled or
interpreted by cognitive appraisal of the situation
o If a state of unexplained bodily arousal is induced, people will look around and try to explain the
arousal in terms of their environment
o This cognitive appraisal results in labelling of the arousal as an emotional experience.
Key Study 2: Schacter and Singer (1962)
Aim:
 To test the two factor theory of emotion (that emotion arises from a combination of cognition and
arousal), using the hormone, adrenaline
Methods:
 184 college males

 Divided into 4 groups
o All groups were told that they were going to be given an injection of Suproxin in order to test its
effects on vision
o Even though men were really receiving adrenaline and:
 Informed of the correct effects of adrenaline (under the impression that it was suproxin)
 Given no information on effects
 Given false effects
o Last group was given a placebo
 4 Groups divided into 2 subgroups
o Condition 1 euphoria
 Confederate encouraged participant to play with games inside the waiting room (withffice
equipment)
o Condition 2 anger
 Confederate completed a questionnaire at the same pace as the participant but became
more and more angry as the questions became more personal
 Participants were observed for changes in emotion
 Participants were then asked to fill out a questionnaire detailing their state of emotion
Results:
 Showed that participants that were given information on the effects of adrenaline showed minimal
changes in emotion because they had an accurate explanation of their emotion
 But those who had been told no effect showed much higher changes in emotion because they had
no explanation for their state of arousal, so they used cues of the confederate's behaviour and
labelled their emotions
o These participants changed their behaviour according to cognitive appraisal of their emotions,
rather than specific physiological arousal, indicating that only general arousal is required.
Conclusions:
 Researchers concluded that emotion occurs by a process of cognitive labelling: the interpretation
of physiological cues is combined with contextual cues to construct a person's subjective
experience of emotion
Connection of study to question
 This study supports that a combination of physiological change (adrenaline) and cognitive labelling
(appraisal of the situation) can contribute to changes in emotion
 Introduce importance of first theory – Lazarus’ Theory of Appraisal:

o Cognitive researchers on emotion usually emphasize the importance of cognitive appraisal.
Theory 3: Lazarus’ Theory of Appraisal (1982; 1991)
The appraisal theory of emotion is based on the evaluation of situations according to the significance
they have for us, therefore it has more of a cognitive basis

Suggests that cognition is essential.
o This theory states that emotion is experienced when, in our interaction with the environment,
we assess our surroundings as to whether it is beneficial or harmful for our well-being.
 Appraisals are interpretations of situations and how they will affect one’s well-being.
 Appraisals are both conscious and unconscious; contribute to the quality and intensity of an
emotion.
o The appraisal theory is based on two concepts:
 Primary appraisal – where the organism assesses the significance or meaning of the event.
Three components:
 Motivational relevance – relevance to goals? (If positive, then there is emotion)
 Motivational congruence – favourable to goals? (Positive emotion when yes, negative
emotion when no)
 Accountability – who is responsible for what is happening?
 Secondary appraisal – when the organism appraises the consequence of the event and
decides on how to act. It also has three components:
 Problem-focused coping – cope with a situation by changing it to make it less threatening
for an individual to cope
 Emotion-focused coping – change the situation by how I feel about it (e.g. reinterpreting).
 Future expectancy – To what extent can I expect the situation will change?
Supporting Experiment 2: Speisman et al. (1964)
 A supporting experiment which demonstrates how cognitive appraisals are affected by bodily
responses (emotions) to stressful situations, which is illustrated by Speisman et al. (1964).
Aim:
 To demonstrate the influence of appraisal on emotional experiences.
Method:
 Participants were shown a ‘stressful’ film about ‘unpleasant’ genital surgery depicting Aboriginal
boys have circumcision in the context of puberty.
 Accompanied by soundtrack, in which investigators manipulated the ‘appraisal’ of the surgery by
showing the film with 3 conditions + 1 control:
 Trauma condition – pain experienced by boys and use of knife were emphasized
 Denial – boys anticipation of entering manhood pointed out thus de-emphasizing the
pain (presented the p’s as happy and deliberate)
 Intellectualization – soundtrack ignored emotional aspects of situation and emphasized
traditions of aboriginal culture
 Silent – nothing
 Arousal state measured by galvanic skin response (GSR) measure of electrical conductivity of skin
and indicator of autonomic arousal and heart rate.
Findings:
 Observations and self-reports showed that participants reacted more ‘emotionally’ to the
soundtrack that was more traumatic.
 Lowest in intellectualization and silent conditions.
 The way participants appraised (act of assessing someone or something) what they were seeing in
the film affected their physiological experience in terms of emotion.
Evaluation:
Limitations:
 Methodological problems – It is possible that the participants’ reactions were primarily affected by
the music, not that the music affected the appraisal of the situation.
Conclusion:
 Thus, according to appraisal theory, it can be concluded that the music affected the appraisal of
the situation, which in turn affected the emotional reaction to it.
 ...the cognitive factor of how we appraise certain situations influences our emotional responses
 This supports that cognitive factors DO interact in emotion to a great extent.
 State connection to cognitive interactions within emotion:

o Thus, Lazarus’ theory of appraisal states that ‘we experience emotions when interacting with
our environment and appraise good and bad to our well-being.
o Lazarus suggests that the specific emotions experienced are determined by the pattern of
answers the individual gives throughout the components of the primary and second appraisal.
Conclusion
 The theories discussed above suggest that cognitive and biological factors contribute and interact
in emotion.
 According to the information processing view of the brain (supported by Le Doux), emotion is
produced as cognitive and perceptual processing occurs in brain regions such as the thalamus,
hippocampus, amygdala and the pre-frontal lobe (biological factors)
 According to the TFT, emotion results from physiological arousal and cognitive labelling
 According tLazarus’ theory of appraisal, evaluation of situations (cognition) determines emotion
 These theories have been supported through much research, and although there were a few
limitations within the studies, there have been no other theories or research that opposes the idea
that biological and cognitive factors influence emotion.
o Therefore, all of these theories suggest that both cognitive and biological factors interact in
emotion to a LARGE extent
Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process
Introduction
The cognitive level of analysis aims to study the inner processes of the mind and how cognitive
processes guide behaviour. As such, within this level of analysis, emotion has been investigated in terms
of its cognitive influences.
One theory of how emotion may affect the cognitive process of memory is Flashbulb Memory (FBM)
suggested by Brown & Kulik (1977).
Theory of FBM involves how emotion affects memory by enhancing it.


According tLe Doux, the arousal of emotion can facilitate the memory of events that occur

during the aroused state; however, even though these emotional memories are emotions
evoked by a particular event, the memories may not always be correct. (MOVE TO
EVALUATION)
 Flashbulb Memory (FBM)
o Flashbulb Memories is a special kind of emotional memory, which refers to vivid and detailed
(photographic-like) memories of highly emotional events that appear to be recorded in the brain
as though with the help of a ‘camera’s flash.’
o Brown & Kulik (1977) also argued that the special biological memory mechanism of FBM is
triggered when an individual usually encounters significant, often unexpected and emotional
events or experiences (that has had exceeded levels of surprise and emotion) therefore creating a
FBM of the immediate experiences surrounding the highly emotional (happy) experience or
traumatic event. (*)
o FBM theory also have unique features distinguishing/that differ them from other memories in that
they are more vivid, detailed, accurate, long-lasting, consistent and easily to remember. This is in
contrast to normal memories, which most researchers are believed to be selective, unreliable and
malleable (easily changed or distorted).
 Example:
o Some events stand out in the memory much more than others.
 When the event happens, the person experiences a highly emotional state, extreme happiness,
extreme sadness, etc. The result is that this event is imprinted on the memory.
o It can be personal or something that provokes worldwide interest, such as the assassination of
President Kennedy in 1963 or the death of Prince Diana in 1997.
Main Study: Brown and Kulik (1977)
 FBM was firstly demonstrated by Brown and Kulik in their main study occurring in 1977.
Aim:
 To investigate FBM and how it works (to support their theory).
Method:
 Interviewed 80 Americans
40 African Americans
o
40 Caucasian Americans
o
 Had to answer questions about 10 events
o 9 of these events were mostly on assassinations or attempted assassinations of well-known
American personalities
o The last event was self-selected of personal events that included self-shock
 They were asked how much they rehearsed these events (overtly or covertly)
o Overly: rehearsal by discussing with other people
o Covertly: private rehearsing or ruminating
Results:
 They found that J.F. Kennedy's assassination in 1963 led to the most flashbulb memories of all
participants (90% of participants recalled this in context and with vivid detail)
 African Americans recalled more FBM's of civil right leaders; e.g. the assassination of Martin Luther
King more than the Caucasians recalled it (as a FBM)
 For the tenth event (which was self-selected) most participants recalled shocking events like the death
of a parent
Conclusions
 This study carried out by Brown and Kulik (1977) supported the theories of flashbulb memories
whereby they were:
o Form in situations where we encounter surprising and highly emotional information
o Are maintained by means of overt rehearsal (discussion with others) and covert rehearsal
o (private)
o Differ from other memories in that they are more vivid, last longer and are more consistent and
accurate
o Require for their creation the involvement of a specialized neural mechanism which stores
information permanently in a unique memory system
Evaluation:
 State explanation of FBM in terms of how emotion can affect memory

o FBM can be explained in how emotion can affect/influence memory by either enhancing it or
impairing it.
 Enhanced memory leads to more vivid memories of the event (FBM) Impairing memory leads
to
 Repression due to traumatic events
 Repression is used to describe a certain type of memory, usually of a traumatic type, when
information cannot be retrieved as a result of being locked out of our consciousness.
 Mood dependent memory and depressive state
One can argue that to a large extent that in terms of FBM, emotion affects memory
Body
 FBM theory component 1

o According tBrown and Kulik (1977), the event must be surprising and have real consequences for
the person’s life.
 Evidence for this theoretical component of FBM

o Some studies have indicated that childhood memories with high emotional context, such as high
school graduation can be as vivid and clear as flashbulb memories of less personal importance,
such as national events, e.g. Rubin & Kuzin (1984).

o Brown and Kulik also suggested that there may be a special neural mechanism which triggers an
emotional arousal because the emotional event is unexpected or extremely important.
 Supporting evidence for this theoretical component of FBM

o At the time, it was only a hypothesis, but it is supported by modern neuroscience: in that
emotional events are better remembered than less emotional events – perhaps because of the
critical role of the amygdala.
 Arguing evidence for this theoretical component of FBM that the creation of FBM requires the
involvement of a specialized neural mechanism which stores information permanently in a unique
memory system
o Hard to identify (hasn't been identified)
o How do we know about this (any evidence)
o Further research and testings required to prove /support this theory

o They also believed that this is a special type of memory because of the detail and accuracy with
which the event is remembered and the fact that the structural form of the memory is always so
similar.
Evidence supporting Flashbulb Memory
Supporting Study 1: Conway et al (1994) “UK and non-UK on Flashbulb Memory”
There has been some research untFBM such as by Conway et al. (1994).
Aim:
 To test the theory of Flashbulb Memory
Method:
 Participants were either UK or non-UK undergraduates

 Was based on the resignation of Margaret Thatcher (British Prime Minister,1990)
 Participants were asked and interviewed about the event a few days after the event
 They were asked again 11 months after the event
Results:
 They found that 86% of UK participants still had FBM of the resignation of Margaret Thatcher
 While there were fewer non-UK participants (29%) had flashbulb memories of the event
Conclusions:
 Thus, Conway claimed that this event met the criteria for FBM for British people as it was an
unexpected and highly significant event pertaining to their culture, therefore arousing deep
emotions, influencing the special neural mechanisms and therefore creating FBM of the event.
Evaluation:
 Strengths :
Ecologically Valid: real event
o
Interview: in depth qualitative data
o
 Not focussed (don't have specific questions Questionnaire) o
 Limitations
o Distress in having to remember a tragic event
o Some methodology was not controlled
 Suggests that flashbulb memories exist and are different from normal memories
 However, they may only exist for events with personal significance
Evidence arguing against Flashbulb Memory
Arguing Study 1: Neisser and Harsch (1992)
 One of the most significant research arguing the validity and accuracy of FBM is by Neisser (1982),
and later on by Neisser and Harsch (1992).
 Neisser questioned the idea of FBM’s, in which he suggested that the memories are so vivid because
the event itself is rehearsed and reconsidered after the event.
 According tNeisser, FBM may simply be a narrative convention. He explained this idea by saying that
flashbulb memories are governed by the conventions of a storytelling schema, following a specific
structure. In other words, when we recount important events, we do by using conventional
storytelling techniques.
 Neisser also argued that FBM’s are subject to the same types of inaccuracy and forgetting as any
other memories.
Aim:
 To investigate the accuracy of flashbulb memory
Method:
 Participants were asked to report on the circumstances of their learning about the challenger space
disaster on 1986.
 Neisser and Harsch investigated people’s memory accuracy of the incident 24 hours after the accident
and then again two years later.
Results:
 1 day after the disaster, 215 of the participants reported that they heard about the disaster on
television
 Those that recalled 2 and a half years later, 45% said they heard it on T.V
 Clearly, their memories of how they learned the news about the challenger disaster changed over
time
 Assuming that participants' memories were more accurate one day after the disaster, it can be
concluded that their memories about how they had heard about the news had deteriorated
significantly during the subsequent two and a half years. o
Conclusions:
 Connection of study to question

o This thus suggests that FBM are not reliable (as influenced by post-event information).
o Neisser and Harsch claimed that such findings suggest that FBM's may just be ordinary memories
Arguing Study 2: Wright (1993) “Hillsborough Disaster and (5 months) recall
 Another study investigating the accuracy of FBM was by Wright (1993)
Aim:
 To investigate the accuracy of FBM
Method:
 Interviewed people about the Hillsborough disaster

 After 5 month he asked participants to recall what had happened at this event/disaster
Results:
 After five months, memories were vague, and subject to systematic biases.
 Found that memories were a blend of their own real experiences, and information that had come
after the event.
Conclusions:
 Thus concluding that flashbulb memory is no different to any other type of memory
 Shows that the memory that is “flashbulb” can decay over time, unlike as assumed
 This study shows that FBM is no different than any other type of memory.
Arguing Study 3: McCloskey et al (1988) “Challenger Disaster and (9months) recall”
Aim:
 To test the accuracy of flashbulb memory
Method:
 Participants were interviewed and asked questions about the explosion of the challenger a few days
after 9 months
 Also asked on personal memories
Results:
 It was found that there were discrepancies over time between what was recalled shortly after the
accident and what was remembered nine months later.
 There were inaccuracies in the memories.
Conclusions:
 FBM can be forgotten and thus cannot be considered as a special memory, but are products of
ordinary memory mechanisms.
Evaluation:
 Strengths:
The type of methodology used was interview thus questions asked in the experiment were not
o
focused thus could vary from participant to participant
 Weaknesses:
o Ethics
o Not ecologically valid because the Challenger was deemed not personal/emotional therefore not
meeting the criterion of FBMs.
Connection of study
 Does not support this theory of flashbulb memory

o Differ from other memories in that they are more vivid, last longer and are more consistent and
accurate
 This study showed that flashbulb memories are not different as they don't last as long as assumed by
Neisser.
Conclusion
 In conclusion, FBM (affected by emotion) can influence the recall of memories.

o However, it is hard to test accuracy of memories as the evidence is very retrospective
 Overall Strengths: The majority of research into flashbulb memories is naturalistic. It all involves
people’s
 reactions and memories formed from real life events. Therefore there is high in ecological validity.
 Overall Weaknesses: However, the studies can lack reliability as they cannot really be replicated.
Therefore, we cannot test to see how consistent the results are. Also, much of the research is
retrospective, and there is the issue that we cannot reliably measure how accurate people’s initial
memories are.

Cognitive Level of Analysis

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Cognitive Level of Analysis

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

COGNITIVE LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

There are three underlying principles that define the CLA:

Purpose of the principles

 Information is examined from the outside world is received and encoded

o Attempted to understand what occurs between input and output.

o This information processing approach/principle can be seen in:

o Testable theories can be developed and derived from unobservable cognitive

o This information processing approach/principle can be seen:

o An example of a cognitive process is schemas

There are three underlying principles that define the CLA:

Purpose of the principles

o This information processing approach/principle can be seen in:

o Testable theories can be developed and derived from unobservable cognitive

o This information processing approach/principle can be seen:

o An example of a cognitive process is schemas.

o Sometimes in research, researchers incorporate the use of 2 or more research methods of

o There are two major types of biases, which are:

o What is the purpose of an experiment?

 Types of experimental settings

o Determines cause-effect relationship between two variables (IV & DV)

Experiments used in the CLA:

o Loftus & Palmer (1974)

Study 1: Loftus & Palmer (1974)

 How does it reflect an experiment?

Study 2: Craik and Tulving, 1975

 How does it reflect an experiment?

 Why was an experiment used?

 How does it reflect an experiment?

 Why was an experiment used?

o In-depth study of an individual or small group

Case studies are used:

o Researchers may develop more personal relationships with participants

Case studies used in the CLA:

o Shallice & Warrington “KF” (1974)

Study 1: Shallice & Warrington (1974) – KF

 How does it reflect a case study?

Study 2: Curtiss (1981) – Genie

 How does it reflect a case study?

Study 3: Milner (1966) – HM

 How does it reflect a case study?

 To determine a cause-effect relationship between two variables (IV & DV)

 Researchers encouraged her to verbalise and socialise.

Ethical issues of this study:

 There were a set of ethical issues in this study, which include:

 Genie was protected from harm during the study

 Genie was not debriefed at the end of the study

 Researchers had a very personal and attached relationship with Genie

Study 2: Clive Wearing Sacks (2007)

 Clive Wearing was a musician who got a viral infection encephalitis.

Ethical issues of this study

 There were a set of ethical issues in this study, which include:

 Wearing did not give consent to being in a study

 Sacks violated Wearing's right to confidentiality

 Wearing was not debriefed

APA Guidelines for Animal Research

 Tries to avoid harm to animals

Study 3: Blakemore & Cooper (1970) “Kitten carrousel”

 Cats could not be fully informed about the study

 Cats were not debriefed

Study 4: Gardner and Gardner (1969) “Washoe”

 To demonstrate that a chimpanzee has the capability to use human language

Ethical issues of this study:

 Washoe could not be fully informed about the study

 Washoe was not debriefed