406 {THE WRITINGS OF ANNA FREUD the analytic setting, places him at a disadvantage in the treatment. Compared with patients whose symptomatology is of a different kind, his main avoidance has to be over- come somehow before he can even approach the material sufficiently to have it analyzed. 19 The Problem of Training Analysis (1950 [1938]) TRAINING ANALYSIS VERSUS THERAPEUTIC ANALYSIS It is by now more than twenty years that the future analyst's personal analysis has been regarded as the indispensable prerequisite for his theoretical and clinical training as well as the decisive factor in determining his further personal and scientific fate. Following this evaluation, our analytic Institutes base their reputations less on the range and erudi- tion of the lectures and seminars which they have to offer ‘This paper was originally written in 1938 as a report to the Inter- rational Bateation Comision in Par. Fist poblihed in Cet roan: Probleme det Lehranalse In Max itingon in Memoriam. Jerusalem: Isracli Psychoanalytic Society, 1950, pp. 84.94. ‘The English translation was written in 1965 and is hete published for the frst time,408 THE WRITINGS OF ANNA FREUD than on the quality, experience, and number of training analysts who are at their disposal, So far as the comparison of training analysis and thera- peutic analysis is concerned, it is generally assumed that oth are carried out by means of the same method, the former on a healthy, the latter on a more neurotic individ- ual. Accordingly, training analyses are not expected to be more difficult to conduct or to prove less effective than ordinary therapeutic analyses and, to date, technical dif- ferences between the two processes have been infrequent subjects for discussion The Aims of Training Analysis Experience has taught us that the only way to acquire con- viction of the existence of a dynamic unconscious is to sce the analytic method in action, and that neither reading of analytic literature nor other forms of theoretical instruc- tion can substitute for this, Since the situation between analyst and patient does not permit the presence of an observer, demonstration by means of clinical material is out of the question and, for the purpose of training, the candidate has to become his own object of examination. By looking into the dark corners of his own mind, he finds proof of the scientific contentions of psychoanalytic theory. But training analysis does more than uncover hidden psychic content; it demonstrates simultaneously the ways and means by which this unconscious content is brought into consciousness. In his own analysis, the candidate ex- ‘periences passively the technical method which he will apply actively to his patients in the subsequent phase of training. ‘THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING ANALYSIS 409 It is only to be expected that at the beginning of his analysis the candidate has few thoughts to spare for matters of technique. The upheavals of a personal analysis such as the return of repressed memories, the reliving of infantile attitudes, and the undermining of the defénse organization leave little room for objectivity and methodical observation. But this wholly subjective experiencing of analysis docs not govern the whole field, nor is it equally relevant for all periods of the training analysis. When theoretical instruc- tion is added and especially when he starts supervised ana- lytic work with patients, the whole process inevitably becomes a twofold one for the candidate in training: as the training analyst’s patient he reacts emotionally and subjectively, as all patients do; as his patients’ analyst he also takes account of the analytic process, the method used, and the technical devices employed. Inevitably, he models hhis own technique on the pattern offered to him by his training analyst. ‘A further function of the candidate's analysis has to be recognized, perhaps, as more important still. It is well known that in understanding his patients, every analyst's limits are set by the extent to which he has learned to understand his own unconscious. Blind spots for his own fixations create equivalent blindness to similar disturbances in others; repressions which have remained unanalyzed block his objective view and diminish his perceptiveness. Fear of the retum of repressed material in the analyst turns into a disinclination to reach and work with the same ‘material in the patient and leads to a whole host of theo- retical rationalizations against doing so. In this particular respect, as well as in those mentioned before, the depth410 ‘THE WRITINGS OF ANNA FREUD and thoroughness of the carididate’s own analysis are de- cisive for the quality of his future work. ‘We can thus describe a training analysis as having three functions: to experience the unconscious; to demonstrate technique; and to increase the future analyst's perceptive- ness for internal events through work on his own defense organization. In the first respect, the candidate's analysis is truly identical with that of the neurotic patient. In the two latter respects the aims of training analysis go beyond the therapeutic one, The Duration of Training Analyses: Resistances At one time, we were optimistic enough to believe that the analyses of comparatively healthy people would be shorter than those of the severely nenrotic, but such expectations have not been fulfilled in practice. After all, the period needed for carrying out an analysis is determined by the. resistances, which are almost identical in both instances. Before the existence of Training Institutes with their formal rules, attempts had frequently been made to conduct train- ing analyses informally, in discussion between senior and junior analyst, etc., but such approaches were found to be unsatisfactory, and to lead to bypassing of resistance rather than to its analytic solution. Other experiments in conduct- ing training analyses interspersed with instruction proved ‘equally abortive and led to neglect of the emotions in favor of intellectual experience. Also, it is not sufficient for the _ training analysis to set the analytic process in motion and to leave the working-through phase to the candidate's own efforts. Such efforts are bound to fail since the relatively ‘THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING ANALYSIS 4 healthy individual is no less at the mercy of his resistances than the neurotic patient. Differences in the Conscious Treatment Alliance of Candidate and Patient ‘What differs in therapeutic and training analysis are the motives for entering upon and carrying out the venture. While the neurotic patient aims at relief from suffering, the candidate looks forward to professional advancement. Nevertheless, this massive contrast in motivation has no more than a slight influence on the essence of the analytic process. The further the analysis advances, the more all conscious motives recede into the background to make way for the unconscious forees which either urge toward the progress of analysis or resist its continuation, Emotionally, the neurotic’s wish to be cured may be based more firmly than the candidate's wish to learn, but under the pressure of resistance the latter motivation often proves more re- liable, An acting-out patient frequently breaks off his anal- ysis at the height of resistance or negative transference, while’ a candidate in training seldom does so in similar cirenmstances. Differences in Uncovering Unconscious Material ‘The healthier the individual under analysis the more dif- ficulties the analyst often experiences in reaching and un- covering unconscious material, The relatively normal per son’s intemal equilibrium is based on successful repressions, on stable defenses, and on conflict solutions which are experienced as ego syntonic. To bring infantile psychic ma- tetial back to consciousness, many of these achievements