Electrical Circuits Analysis

Middle Technical University
Electrical Engineering Technical College

Department of Electrical Power Engineering
Technique
Electrical Circuits Analysis
T. Salam Ibrahim
A.T. Mohammed Dyhia

2018 1440
T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis
1
Electrical Circuits Analysis
Definitions and units
In electrical engineering, we are often interested in communicating
or transferring energy from one point to another. To do this requires an
interconnection of electrical devices. Such interconnection is referred
to as an electric circuit, and each component of the circuit is known as
an element.
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.
Systems of Units
As electrical engineers, we deal with measurable quantities. Our measurement,

however, must be communicated in a standard language that virtually all professionals can
understand, irrespective of the country where the measurement is conducted. Such an
international measurement
In this system,
there are six principal units from which the units of all other physical
quantities can be derived. Table 1.1 shows the six units, their symbols,
and the physical quantities they represent. The SI units are used
throughout this text.
One great advantage of the SI unit is that it uses prefixes based on

the power of 10 to relate larger and smaller units to the basic unit.
Table 1.2 shows the SI prefixes and their symbols. For example, the
following are expressions of the same distance in meters (m):

2
Charge and Current
Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists

measured in coulombs (C).
Electric current is the time rate of change of charge measured in amperes (A).

3
A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time.
An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time.

4
5
Voltage
The voltage between two points a and b in an electric circuit is the energy (or work)
needed to move a unit charge from a to b; mathematically,
where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C). The voltage or simply v is
measured in volts (V), named in honor of the Italian physicist Alessandro Antonio Volta
(1745–1827), who invented the first voltaic battery. From Eq. (1.3), it is evident that
Thus
Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit

charge through an element, measured in volts (V).
Power and Energy
To relate power and energy to voltage and current, we recall from

physics that:
Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy measured in watts (W).
We write this relationship as

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7
Passive sign convention is satisfied when the current enters through the positive terminal of
an element and p = +vi. If the current enters through the negative terminal, p = - vi.
Energy is the capacity to do work measured in joules (J).
The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hours (Wh), where

8
9
Circuit Elements
There are two types of elements found in electric circuits: passive elements and active
elements. An active element is capable of generating energy while a passive element is not.
Examples of passive elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Typical active
elements include generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers. Our aim in this section is
to gain familiarity with some important active elements.
The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that generally deliver
power to the circuit connected to them. There are two kinds of sources: independent and
dependent sources.
An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a

specified voltage or current that is completely independent of other
circuit elements.
An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source quantity
is controlled by another voltage or current.

11
Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols, as shown in Fig.
1.13. Since the control of the dependent source is achieved by a voltage or current of some
other element in the circuit, and the source can be voltage or current, it follows that there are
four possible types of dependent sources, namely:
1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).

2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).
Summary

11
12
Sinusoids and Phasors
We now begin the analysis of circuits in which the source voltage or current is time-varying.
In this chapter, we are particularly interested in sinusoidally time-varying excitation, or
simply, excitation by a sinusoid.
A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.
Sinusoids
Consider the sinusoidal voltage
v(t) = Vm sin wt
where
The sinusoid is shown in Fig. 9.1(a) as a function of its argument and in Fig. 9.1(b) as a
function of time. It is evident that the sinusoid repeats itself every T seconds; thus, T is
called the period of the sinusoid. From the two plots in Fig. 9.1, we observe that

13
A periodic function is one that satisfies f (t ) = f (t + nT) for all t and for all integers n.
As mentioned, the period T of the periodic function is the time of one complete cycle or the
number of seconds per cycle. The reciprocal of this quantity is the number of cycles per
second, known as the cyclic frequency f of the sinusoid. Thus,
From Eqs. (9.2) and (9.5), it is clear that
While is in radians per second (rad/s), f is in hertz (Hz).
Let us now consider a more general expression for the sinusoid,
Where is the argument and is the phase. Both argument and phase can be in
radians or degrees. Let us examine the two sinusoids

14
shown in Fig. 9.2. The starting point of in Fig. 9.2 occurs first in
time. Therefore, we say that leads by or that lags by
If we also say that and are out of phase. If then
and are said to be in phase; they reach their minima and maxima
at exactly the same time. We can compare and in this manner
because they operate at the same frequency; they do not need to
have the same amplitude.
A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form. When comparing two sinusoids, it
is expedient to express both as either sine or cosine with positive amplitudes. This is
achieved by using the following trigonometric identities:
With these identities, it is easy to show that

15
Using these relationships, we can transform a sinusoid from sine form to cosine form or
vice versa.
The graphical technique can also be used to add two sinusoids of the same frequency when
one is in sine form and the other is in cosine form. To add and we note
that A is the magnitude of while B is the magnitude of as shown in Fig.
9.4(a). The magnitude and argument of the resultant sinusoid in cosine form is
readily obtained from the triangle. Thus,
Where

16
For example, we may add and as shown in Fig. 9.4(b) and obtain
Compared with the trigonometric identities in Eqs. (9.9) and (9.10), the graphical approach
eliminates memorization. However, we must not confuse the sine and cosine axes with the
axes for complex numbers to be discussed in the next section. Something else to note in
Figs. 9.3 and 9.4 is that although the natural tendency is to have the
vertical axis point up, the positive direction of the sine function is down in the present case.

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Phasors
Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more convenient
to work with than sine and cosine functions.
A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid
A complex number z can be written in rectangular form as

19
Where x is the real part of z; y is the imaginary part of z. In this context, the
variables x and y do not represent a location as in two-dimensional vector analysis but rather
the real and imaginary parts of z in the complex plane. Nevertheless, we note that there are
some resemblances between manipulating complex numbers and manipulating
two-dimensional vectors. The complex number z can also be written in polar or exponential
form as
where r is the magnitude of z, and is the phase of z. We notice that

z can be represented in three ways
The relationship between the rectangular form and the polar form is shown in Fig. 9.6, where
the x axis represents the real part and the y axis represents the imaginary part of a complex
number. Given x and y, we can get r and as
On the other hand, if we know r and we can obtain x and y as

21
Thus, z may be written as
Addition and subtraction of complex numbers are better performed in rectangular form;
multiplication and division are better done in polar form. Given the complex numbers.
the following operations are important.
Addition:

21
These are the basic properties of complex numbers we need. Other properties of complex
numbers can be found in Appendix B. The idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s
identity. In general
which shows that we may regard and as the real and imaginary parts of we
may write
where Re and Ima stand for the real part of and the imaginary part of.
Given a sinusoid we use Eq. (9.20a) to express

22
23
24
25
Note that in Eq. (9.25) the frequency (or time) factor is suppressed, and the frequency is
not explicitly shown in the phasor domain representation because is constant. However,
the response depends on For this reason, the phasor domain is also known as the
frequency
domain.

26
Evaluate these complex numbers:

27
Evaluate the following complex numbers:

28
29
31
31
Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements
resister

32
Inductor

33
Capacitor

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35
Impedance and Admittance
The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the phasor current I
measured in ohms (Ω).

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The admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance measured in siemens (S).

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Kirchhoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain

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which is Kirchhoff’s current law in the frequency domain. Once we have shown that both
KVL and KCL hold in the frequency domain, it is easy to do many things, such as
impedance combination, nodal and mesh analyses, superposition, and source transformation

42
Impedance Combinations
Consider the N series-connected impedances shown in Fig. 9.18. The same current I flows
through the impedances. Applying KVL around the loop gives

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44
45
46
47
A delta or wye circuit is said to be balanced if it has equal impedances in all three branches.

48
49
51
Find current I in the circuit of Fig. 9.28.

51
Summary
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53
Sinusoidal Steady- State Analysis
In this chapter, we want to see how nodal analysis, mesh analysis, Thevenin’s theorem,
Norton’s theorem, superposition, and source transformations are applied in analyzing ac
circuits. Since these techniques were already introduced for dc circuits, our major effort here
will be to illustrate with examples. Analyzing ac circuits usually requires three steps.
Steps to Analyze AC Circuits:

1. Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency domain.
2. Solve the problem using circuit techniques (nodal analysis, mesh analysis, superposition.
3. Transform the resulting phasor to the time domain.
Nodal Analysis
The basis of nodal analysis is Kirchhoff’s current law. Since KCL is

valid for phasors, we can analyze ac circuits by nodal analysis. The following examples
illustrate this.
Example 10.1 : Find ix in the circuit of Fig. 10.1 using nodal analysis.

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Electrical Circuits Analysis

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Middle Technical University

Electrical Engineering Technical College

Electrical Circuits Analysis

A.T. Mohammed Dyhia

An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.

As electrical engineers, we deal with measurable quantities. Our measurement,

One great advantage of the SI unit is that it uses prefixes based on

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time.

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit

Power and Energy

To relate power and energy to voltage and current, we recall from

We write this relationship as

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

Energy is the capacity to do work measured in joules (J).

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

From Eqs. (9.2) and (9.5), it is clear that

While is in radians per second (rad/s), f is in hertz (Hz).

Let us now consider a more general expression for the sinusoid,

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

With these identities, it is easy to show that

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

A complex number z can be written in rectangular form as

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

where r is the magnitude of z, and is the phase of z. We notice that

On the other hand, if we know r and we can obtain x and y as

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

the following operations are important.

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

Steps to Analyze AC Circuits:

The basis of nodal analysis is Kirchhoff’s current law. Since KCL is

T. Slam Ibrahim & AT. Mohammed Dyhia Electrical Circuit Analysis

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