I_

I
1
AlAA 95-2966
A Modular Method for the Analysis of
I

1I Liquid Rocket Engine Cycles

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~ Christoph Goertz
I

DLR, German Aerospace Research Establishment

Space Propulsion Department
Lampoldshausen
0-74239 Hardthausen, Germany
1

31st AIANASM €/SA€/AS€€

Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit
July 10-12,1995/San Diego, CA
For permission to copy or republish, contact the American Institute of Aeronautlco and Aotronautlcr
370 L'Enfant Promenade, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20024
 AIAA-95-2966,

A MODULARMETHODFOR THE ANALYSISOF

LIQUIDROCKETENGINECYCLES
Christoph Goertz
DLR, German Aerospace Research Establishment
Space Propulsion Department, Lampoldshausen, 74239 Hardthausen a.K., Germany

Abstract the main characteristics of a cycle are used, the mod-

ular approach allows a greater range of component
A new method has been developed for the analysis of and cycle modeling at the expense of additional com-
complcx liquid rockct engine cycles. A modular ap- putational effort.
proach has been chosen, i.e. an engine cycle is assembled
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from elements of a predefined component library. One- 2.2 Sequential Method

dimensional flaw is assumed in all components. Fluid
properties are computed asing empirical cquations of A sequential method is employed. The components
state for propellants and assuming chemical cquilib- of an engine cycle are calculated repeatedly in a pre-
rium for combustion products. The fundarncntals of thc det,ermined sequence until the desired solut,ion state
method are presented togethcr with results for several is achieved. The basic idea for the method was taken
engine cycles with different propellant comhinatians, in- from [2], where a scquential method is used for the
cluding a tripropcllant cngine. calculation of complex power plant processes with a
large number of different components.
1 Introduction There arc several advantages of the sequential
method for the present task: First, the modeling of
A large number of liquid rocket engines (LRE) of components in separate subroutines m a l m possible
different design is currently in use as core, booster, a wide range of modeling from simple to sophisti-
or upper stage engines for a wide range of lannch- cated, depending on the accuracy required and on
ers. Other LREs are proposed for future launchers, the data available. Existing subroutines caii be in-
including engines for the challenging single-stage-to- tegrated easily, iiew component models can be de-
orbit type of vehicle. Among the proposed LREs vclopcd independently and integrated when needed.
u'are some rather complex designs such as dual-mode Second, the seqnential method is a rather intuitive
or tripropellant engines. Each type of LRE has its approach, which is qnickly understood by the en-
specific advantages and disadvantages, depending on gineer. Complex engine syst,ems can be assembled
the mission in consideration. gradnally, which allows for checks and early detcc-
For system analysis purposes it is often iieccssary to tion of coding errors.
calculate feed system and performance data of LREs,
t o compare different LREs and to assess the influ- 2.3 Program S t r u c t u r e
ence of key parameters on the behavior of a given
engine. For these tasks, a new method has been dc- The program itself has a inodrilar structure. The
vcloped at DLR Lampoldshausen during the last few core consists of the component library, the system
years. administration, and the solver (Fig. 1).

2 Fundamentals of the Method

2.1 Modular Approach
Despite the great numlm of existing and proposed
LRE cycles, most of them basically ronsist of similar
components (pumps, turhines, gas generator, com-
bustion chamlicr. nozzle etc.). Thcrcfore, a modular
approach has been chosen for the analysis, i.c. an
engine cycle is assembled from elements of a prcdc-
fined component Iihrary. It has been found, that a
comparatively small component lihrary is sufficiwt. Figure 1: Simplified Program Structure
for a general analysis of most complex engine cycles.
Tlic component library contains subsoutines for all
In comparison with the more traditional cycle anal- rock?: cnginc components and some additional "log-
ysis of [l],where analytically derived expressions for ical" siiI,roritincs for the calculation of overall data
of the cycle. The system administsation part is re-
Copyright 0 1 9 9 5 by t h e author P u h l i s l ~ c c lby t h c American sponsible for the asseinbly of the engine cycle, i.e. the
I n s t i t u t e of A e r o n a u t i c s and A s t r o n a u t i c s , Inc. with permission. calliug of the component snbroritines in the proper

1
 sequence aiid with their respective data. Fiitally, the
solver will iteratively drive the system towards the
desired solution state.
2.4 Fluid P r o p e r t i e s
Many components need fluid properties of fiicl, oxi-
dizer, or hot gas. A central interface is used to ~ C C P S S
fluid properties subroutines so that new subroutines
have t o be integrated in only one place to he avail-
ahle for all components (Fig. 1).
Currently in use are subroutines for hydrogen and
oxygen (empirical equations of state for liquid, gas,
and two-phase states [3]), kerosene (treated as ideal
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liquid), and for hot gases produced from coinbina-
tions of these. For the hot gases, chcmical rqiiilih-
rium is assumed. Their properties are calcolated us-
ing the NASA Lewis code [4, 51 or, altcrnativcly for
hydrogen-oxygen-systems, a very fast code "202N2
developed at DLR by Sassnick, which yiclds nearly
identical results. One-dimensional flow is assuined
in all components.
2.5 Engine Cycle Description
A LRE cycle is described in an input file, so that itsn-
ally no reprogramming is necessary to aua1y.r a iicw
engine scheme. The cycle dcscription is coinpoiicnt-
oriented, i.e. the components are listed with thcir
respective datasets (input aiid output). In tlic cx-
ample scheme in Fig. 2, component K10 has acccss
to datasets S10, S11, and 530. The inpiit,-ilatasct In the present case, a slightly niodified damped
Si0 is read-only for K10, while 511 and 530 arc cal-
culatcd and updated by K10.
Figure 2 : Example Scheme
The sequence of computation (iii tlic ~ x ~ i n t p I e : for thc a, have to he supplied by the user. Once a
KlO-Kll-K20-K30) is dcterinined by tlic cimdit,ioii solntion for a point of reference is found, these values
that all input-datasets of a compoiicnt havi: to I)c
known before the calculation. Thc sequence iisiially
follows physical flow.
2.6 Solution State a n d Solver
In most cases, thc first sequential compiitatiori of tlic
systcni does not Icad to the iiitciidctl solntiim, so it
has to be fonnd itcratively.
Thc solution state of the systcm is clafini~rl Iiy
two groups of conditions: First, physical hws for
the system (c.g. power balance of turbopiinips or
pressure-matching of converging flows) havi: to bc
fulfilled. Sccorid, user-dctincd criteria (snch as i i spc-
cific chamber pressurc, mixtiire ratio ctc.) 1iai.v t,o IJC
mct. The compliance with these conditions is mea-
sured as the difference of two values, e.g. the diffcr-
cticc between actual arid required chamber pressure.
L/
In order to satisfy the conditions outlined above,
an cqual iiuinber of dcgrees of freedom of the sys-
tem (system parameters that can be changed by the
solver, e.g. pump discharge pressures) has to be spec-
ified
In a complex system, a nonlinear intcrdependence
of all conditions and degrees of freedom is to be ex-
pccted. Thus, the calculation of the solution state of
a system with N conditions and N degrees of free-
dom is similar to solving an N-dimensional system
of nonlinear equations
(1) ft(zi,z2,. . . ,X N ) = 0 i = 1,2,. . , ,N.
In this analogy, the zi correspond to the degrees of
freedom and the equations f, = 0 are the cqriivalent
of tlic conditions.
Finding a solution for a nonlinear set of equations is
one of the standard problems in the field of numer-
ical mathematics. Several methods exist, but there
is none which is guaranteed to find a solution. A
good set of initial valiics for the z%is crucial in all
cases and will dccide if and how fast the method will
coiivcrge. This is especially true for the Newton-
Raplison met,hod, which is known to converge very
fast once it is in tlic ncighboiirhood of a solution but
will often fail if it is started too far away.
Newton-Raphson method taken from [ S ] is used as
solver. In this implementation, the partial deriva-
tives needcd for the Newton-Raphson method are
suhstitiited by diffcrential quotients which are com-
puted numerically. Two modifications were found to
be ncccssary: First, all values given to the solver are
scaled sincc the numerical values can differ by several
orders of magnitude. Second, a step size limiter was
introduced, since largc steps usually make no sense
physically and can cause problems in component and
floid propcrties subroutines.
For t,he first calcnlations of a system, initial values
can tic uscd as initial valncs for other calculations.
Since tlic iteration proccdurc has access to all com-
pntcd data, it can be used very flexibly to drivc
cithcr single components or the systcm as a whole
towards any desired solntion state.
3 Component Modeling
3.1 General
A wide range of component inodcliiig from very sim-
glc to sophisticated is cmployed. For instance, in a
sitnplc model, a pump is described by a given pres-
sore rise and isentropic efficicncy. A marc sophisti-
(.at,cd model incliidcs theoretical or cmpirical char-
.
1
2
 -'
(hais-hl)
@ s
Figure 3: Changes of State in an Enthalpy-Entropy-Diagram
acteristics which allow the calculation of diffcrciit
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operating points. Simple models are available for all
common LRE components, more sophisticated mod-
els are being integrated continuously. The following
sections will give a brief overview of thc key compo-
nents needed for the modeling of an LRE cyclc.
Within the cnginc cycle, stagnation states arc used.
Static states are calculated only where higher speeds
are involved, e.g. in the nozzle.
3.2 Turbomachinery
The change of state of the working flnid in a pump
or turbine can be descrihcd by tlic prcssrirc changc
(2) A P ~2 PI ~
bet,accn entry (1) and exit (2), and by the isentropic
efficicncy which is defined by
d
(3) qs,p= ( R 2 i S - ll,i)/(h,z - /l,i)
for a pump and by
(4) ~ s ,=
t (111 - 112)/(!11 - hiis)
for a turbine (Fig. 3a,b). For the calculat,ion, the
change of state ( 1 1 2 ) is treated as a comhination
of an isentropic (1-2is) and an isobaric (2is-2)
changc of state. The mechanical power needed in
a pump or rcleased in a turbine is calculated fsom
mass flow rate and enthalpy difference:
(5) P = -7q! 12 -hi).
3.3 P r e s s u r e Losses and Heat n&
Pressure losses in the engine cycle occur in valves,
lines, injcctor elements etc. The changc of state in
these components is treated as an isenthalpic proccss
(such ns 2p+2 in Fig. 3c).
Hcat transfer between fluid flows such as in a licnt
exchanger is oftcn accompanied by somc pressure
loss. Thus, the change of state is calculatcd as a com-
bination of isobaric heat transfer (11211 in Fig. 3c)
and pressure loss ( 2 p i 2 ) .
One special case of heat transfer combined with a
large pressure loss is the regencrativc cooling uscd in
most high-pcrformancc LREs. Cold fuel or oxidizer
is primped through cooling clianncls in t,lic wall of
3
(h2~hl)
I Hcat Transfer + Prcssurc Loss
combustion chamber and nozzle in order t o kcep tlie
wall temperature within tolerablc limits. The change
of state of the coolant is treated as shown in Fig. 3c
(1-2). In ordcr to close the energy balance in the
cycle, a c.orrcsponding heat flux is transferrcd from
the cxpanding hot gas flow in the throat. In [7], an
arialysis of the influence of regencrativc cooling on
the cycle has bcen performed.
3.4 Gas Generator, C o m b u s t i o n Chamber
Gas generator and combustion chamber arc com-
bustion devices whcre scvcral flows are mixed and
burned to produce hot gas which is either needed
to drive turbines or expandcd through tlic nozzle to
prodiice thrust.
It is assumcd that tlic hot gas is in chcmical equi-
librium. In this case, thc composition and thermo-
dynamical state of the hot gas is detcrmined by the
combustion pressure, the relative amount of fuel and
oxidizer, and by the enthalpy of tlie incoming flows.
Thc effect of incomplete combustion can be treated
as a lowering of the resulting hot gas temperaturc
(see [7]). As a simplcr altcrnative, the influcnce
of incomplete combustion oii the performance can
be accoimtcd for hy milltiplying pcrformance data
(thrust, specific impulsc) with the efficiency of the
characteristic velocity qc..
For thc combustion chamber, either the infinite area
combnstion chambcr modcl (IAC) or the finite area
comhiistion chamber niodel (FAC, Fig. 4, see [ 8 ] )can
be cmployed. The influence of the FAC inodcl on the
performance has bccn analy;.cd in [7]
Ih pinj=pc,ig
Figure 4: Finite Area Combustor
 ~.
. ..
..
.
... ..
....
....
..
.
....
....
....
..
.
....~ n ~ t ~ :

Kl8: Q x i d i i ~ lank
r
KII: nx. purn is: SL
W
KIZ: 50111 Or. -> tl
K13: O x . Yvnp 2nd SL
Klt: I n j c t Ox -) CG
K15: Inlect Or -> CC
KB: Fuel Tank
121: Fuel Pump
KZZ: R r p Coolinn
KZ3: P r i r i LOIS Cool
K24: I n l d i u -> GG
KJI: Cas Grnrrolnr
K37: I p l i t Hot Gar
K33: O x . Iurhinp
K33: Injwri Nli > CC
Ktl: Furl Turbinn
112: Inject HF -> CC
El: to.hvr1 Shonhrr
152: Fxpon5 L C ~ > l h r o
151: Cooling 1hrOGL
KSI: Frpon.;ion~)Fxii
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~6% roVwilatia QIP

163: POW Ratio FlP
K75: W u i i sir.
KBI: wr lank
182: VTlM
KBt: T r i p - O l f i . RCGC

i
[ Condition I Datmets (Value) 11 Degree of Reedom

_. - - .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . - ..... - . .
Figure 5: Staged Combustion Cycle with Split Oxidizer Pump: Modeling, nesults, Conditions

3.5 Nozzle and Performance Data
The hot gas produced in the combustion chamber
is expanded through a convergent-divergent, nozzle
and accelerated to high speeds. Usually an isen-
tropic change of state is assumed (l-iZis in Fig. 3b or
c+t+e in Fig. 4). The enthalpy differelice is coli-
verted into kinetic energy and the resultiug speed
can be computed from
the wall. Therefore and because of the influence of
friction and kinetic effects, one-dimensional perfor-
mance data have to be corrected by the nozzle effi-
ciency qcr, which can be eit,her an empiric value or
the result of two-dimensional computations (see [9]).
Thrust, effective exhaust velocity, and specific im-
pulse are computed from data at the nozzle exit,
eventually corrected with qc. and q c F :

(6) "2 = Ju,2 - Z ( R 2 - h l ) .

(7) F = qc+qcF(mu, + (P. -pa)&),
(8) c, = FIm,
While the flow from combustion chamber to throat
can be fairly well treated as one-dimensional, thc (9) I, = cJg0.
expansion process in the nozzle is generally two-
dimensional (assuming rotational symmetry), with
higher speeds (lower pressure) in the center of the
nozzle and lower speeds (higher pressnre) closcr to

4
 4 Cycle Modeling and Example
Similar to the component modeling, a wide range of
d cycle modeling from simple to detailed is possible.
In order to get a quick overview of the performance
and hehaviour of a new LRE cycle, a simple model
with only the key components will be sufficient. For
a more detailed analysis of a LRE cycle, additional
components will be needed with a different level of
component modeling, for instance for the calcula-
tion of different operating points of an engine. In
the following paragraphs, the modeling of a rather
simple LRE cycle will be described in some detail as
an example.
Fig. 5 shows the modeling and results for a staged
Downloaded by SEOUL NATIONAL UNIVERSITY on October 16, 2018 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1995-2966
combustion LRE cycle. The cycle uses a split oxi-
dizer pump and a fuel-rich gas generator. Two tur-
bines are employed in parallel to drive fuel and oxi-
dizer pumps. Cold fuel is used for regenerative cool-
ing of combustion chamber and nozzle. The model-
ing is simple in that no further cooling flows or valves
for the adjustment of operating points are included.
A constant isentropic efficiency of 0.75 is assumed
in all pumps and turbines. The pressure ratio in all
pressure-loss-elements (injectors, regenerative cool-
ing) is prescribed. The heat flux in the regenerative
cooling is iteratively adjusted so that a predeter-
mined temperature change in the hot gas is achieved.
The power ratio P ~ / P Tof pump(s) and turbine is
calculated with the auxiliary components K62 and
d K63. The value of -0.995 implies a mechanical loss
in the turbopump of 0.5% of the turbine power. Al-
ternatively, a fixed power difference or a zero power-
sum of pumb and turbine could have been required.
Overall mass flow rate and mixture ratio are set in
K 8 1 , thrust and other performance data are com-
puted in K75 and K82. The temperature change of
the hot gas due to regenerative cooling is determined
in K84.
For the modeling of the cycle, 27 components and
some 85 datasets were used. The table in Fig. 5
shows an overall of nine conditions and degrees of
freedom needed for the calculation. Typical require-
ments for the solution state are matching pressures
for converging flows, the power balance of turbo-
pumps, and user-defined pressures and temperatures
in the system. Typical degrees of freedom of the sys-
tem are the discharge pressures of pumps and tur-
bines, and the mass flow distribution in branching
elements such as K12 and K32. In the table, data
provided by the user have been marked with (*).
It has been found practical t o specify conditions and
corresponding degrees of freedom in pairs with a
strong relationship as shown in the table in Fig 5. In
this way, an equal number of Conditions and degrees
of freedom is enforced and the danger of specifying
a non-solvable system of equations is reduced. With
some experience in cycle modeling, most pairs can
be chosen rather intuitively.
5 Cycle Analysis
5.1 General
In the following sections, three different LRE cycles
will be analyzed in order t o demonstrate some of the
capabilities of the method. The focus will be on the
handling of different propellant combinations with
two bipropellant and one tripropellant LRE, and on
different levels of cycle modeling. In all three cases,
only one (nominal) operating point will be consid-
ered. The method’s capability of calculating differ-
ent operating points (e.g. for throttling) has been
shown in a previous paper [lo].
The computational effort needed for finding the de-
sired solution state depends mainly on the complex-
ity of the cycle, on the speed of the fluid properties
subroutines used, and on the quality of the initial
values for thc degrees of freedom of the system. Typ-
ical examples range from a few seconds t o about five
minutes CPU time on a state-of-the-art workstation.
5.2 Space S h u t t l e Main Engine
The Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) is one of
the most complex rocket engines in operation today.
The SSME uses a staged combustion cycle with a
separate gas generator for each high-pressure tur-
bopump. Two low-pressure boost-pumps are em-
ployed to raise the propellants from the low tank
pressure level in order to avoid cavitation in the
high-speed main pumps. The boost-pumps for hy-
drogen and oxygen are driven by warm hydrogen and
high-pressure liquid oxygen, respectively. There are
two regenerat,ive cooling circuits, one for cornbustion
chamber, throat, and the upper part of the nozzle,
the other for the lower part of the nozzle. The mod-
eling in Fig. 6 includes tank pressurization and some
smaller hydrogen flows used for cooling of gas gen-
erators and turbines. The full power level with a
combustion chamber pressure of about 225 bar (to-
tal pressure in the finite area combustor) is shown.
Downstream of the low pressure oxygen turbopump
(K10, K15), oxygen from the turbine is mixed into
the main flow from the pump. Since the turbine K15
follows after the mixing element K12 in the sequence
of computation, and because every input-dataset has
t o be known before the calculation, initial values
for the turbine output (S160) have to be estimated
(li.,p,T in S161) and completed to a full dataset
(K11, S162). During the i t e r a h n , t,he initial val-
ues in 5161 are updated t o match the t,urbine output
S160.
For the modeling in Fig. 6, a total of 62 compo-
nents, some 200 datasets, and 29 conditions were
needed. The combustion chamber was modeled as
a finite area combustor, the influence of non-perfect
combustion has been treated as a lowering of cwi-
hustion chamber temperature.
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Downloaded by SEOUL NATIONAL UNIVERSITY on October 16, 2018 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1995-2966

Knp~mlm: 38
.
...
...
...
...
...
K 9: lcnk L3X
KIB: Purl; 1mTP
KI1: IIIL.VOLU~ LOX
K12: Iix LOX
K13: Ox-Punp WIP
Kl4: LOX -> LPOIP
K15: lvrbirrp LPOIP
K21:
Kin: W l u e~>Xi
~ V a Fu
inject $5
K22: R?I-Value x
K24: lank UP-I
KB: >dap 1PFT
KX: init.Vaiuc RP-I
Kn: iix PP-i
Kn: kPw I HPIP
KR: R?l -> LRIP
K38: ->
%?I Regcod
K3I: Fd-Punp 2 P I P
K34:
K32: Reg-cool
9eg-imi KCC-1:
hozzk

KT: Tiibine
K36: h j e c t 2PI-l 3(
LPFT?

K38: iijm Ox ~> GS

K W s?i
K11: Turbiw
Generator
WlP

~a i
K12: l n j m i i -)
K58: n i x C m h n b e -
K51: =AC CcnbChonbPr
K V : Cooling
K53: Coci Xf+lhrozl
Nozzle

K5+: Expanr. -> E x i t

K75: PerFornm~e
KBI: O l F Tank
KU2: Tmk-Vol-Oata
Kffi: FlhCSlh7
KN: %i~r t m
K91: %wer HPTP
K95: ? o w l LPFP
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J
3
 SSME data were taken from an engine scheme shown
in [ll],which was one of the most complete sets of
data available. A good overall agreement of data
-' could be achieved. This result, together with other
comparisons published in [lo] demonstrates the ca-
pability of the new method to analyse very complex
LRE cycles with a good overall accuracy. In general,
the accuracy of the method is determined by the de-
tail of component modeling and by the assumption
of one-dimensional flow. Deviations from thcse lim-
itations have t o be accounted for by empirical cor-
rection factors.
5.3 RD-120
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Fig. 7 shows a modeling of the RD-120 oxygen-
kerosene engine which is used in the second stage
of the Russian Zenit launcher. While the engine
scheme and overall performance data are known,
only few and sometimes contradictory data about
the feed system are available [12, 13, 141. Thus part
of the data shown in Fig. 7 are based on estimates.
As in the case of the SSME, the engine uses a staged
combustion cycle with boost-pumps for both pro-
pellants. In contrast t o the SSME, only one high-
pressure turbopump with pumps for both kerosene
and oxygen is employed. This is possible due to the
similar density and therefore similar pump speed re-
quirements for both propellants. An especially iu-
teresting feature of the engine is the use of oxidizer-
rich hot gas t o drive the low pressure oxidizer tur-
d bopump, after which the hot gas is dumped into the
cold liquid oxygen flow. The analysis shows that the
mass-flow needed to drive the turbine is very small
in comparison to the use of high-pressure liquid oxy-
gen as in the SSME or RD-0120 engines, and that
the temperature rise of the combined LOX and hot
gas flow is small enough to avoid the evaporation of
oxygen.
5.4 Tripropellant Engine
Fig. 8 shows a tripropellant engine which uses a com-
bination of liquid oxygen, kerosene, and liquid hy-
drogen as propellants. The two high-pressure tur-
bopumps are driven by oxidizer-rich hot gas pro-
duced in two separate gas generators. Hydrogen
is employed for regenerative cooling of combustion
chamber and nozzle. As in the RD-120. oxmen and
1 -
kerosene boost-pumps are driven by oxidizer-rich hot
gas and kerosene, respectively. Warm hydrogen is
used to drive the hydrogen boost-pump as in the
SSME.
An attempt has been made to match the main char-
acteristic data of the RD-701 engine in tripropel-
lant mode. The RD-701 is briefly described in [13],
but no detailed data or engine scheme is available.
The analysis shows, that the very high chamber pres-
sure of 294 bar (S61)can only be realized with very
good turbopump efficiencies, small pressure losses,
2 and rather high preburner temperatures. Even with
9
the optimistic assumptions made for the analysis
shown in Fig. 8, the maximum pressure in the sys-
tem (939 bar in S26 after the kerosene-kickpump)
and the preburner pressure (816 bar in S50 and 5 5 2 )
appear t o be very high.
6 Summary and Outlook
The new method has proved t o be viable for a num-
ber of complex engine cycles with different propel-
lant combinations. Results were shown for sev-
eral LREs from the well-known SSME to a pos-
sible configuration of a proposed tripropellant en-
gine. A good overall agreement with published data
has been found. In general, the accuracy of the
method is mainly determined by the assumption of
one-dimensional flow in the cycle and by the detail
of component modeling.
Due to its modular approach, the method is a pow-
erful tool for the analysis of arbitrary LREs. It has
been found possible to assemble complex engine cy-
cles from a comparatively small predefined compo-
nent library. Cycle modifications require only small
changes in an input file. New component models
can be easily integrated into the existing framework
and a wide range of component and cycle modeling
is possible, depending on the accuracy required and
the data available. The flexible iteration procedure
has been found very valuable for driving a complex
system towards any desired solution state.
Future activities will focus on improved and more
detailed component modeling with the aim of calcu-
lating different operating points (throttling, change
of mixture ratio etc.) of advanced liquid rocket en-
gines.
References
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