Chapter 1

Construction Projects
1. Construction Engineering:
Construction Engineering is a professional discipline that deals with
the designing, planning, construction, and management of infrastructures such as roads, tunnels,
bridges, airports, railroads, facilities, buildings, dams, utilities and other projects. Construction
Engineering is considered a professional sub-practice area of civil engineering or architectural
engineering.
2. A Construction Project:
The Guide to the Project management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) published by Project
Management Institute (PMI) defines project as “a temporary endeavor to provide unique product
or service.” The product in case of a construction project is the constructed facility such as
building, assembly of some infrastructure and so on. The constructed facilities are supposed to
adhere to some predetermine performance objectives. Examples of service in context of a
construction project would be, planning, execution and so on.
Construction projects involve varying manpower and their duration can range from a few weeks
to more than five years. Each one of them is ‘unique’ and ‘temporary’ in nature and so is the
management involved. Here, the term ‘unique’ means that every project is different in some way
from other projects, and the term ‘temporary’ that every project has a definite beginning and an
end (PMBOK 2000).
1. Unique Features of a Construction Project

• One- time activity---it must be performed correctly the first time every time.
• Complexity—it is multidisciplinary because it involves a set of interrelated tasks to
be done by specialists
• High cost and time for execution
• High risk of failure
• Difficulty in defining quality standards
• Uniqueness of people relationship
• Feedback mechanism
• Lack of experience of client/owner
• Untrained workforce
A project involves a series of complex or interrelated activities and tasks that consume resources
to achieve specific objectives. It has to be completed within a set of specifications under limited
budget (Munns and Bjeirmi 1996, Pinto and Slevin 1988a).
3. The Life Cycle/Phases of a Construction Project:
There are three broad phases of a construction project.

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I. Pre-Project Phase (Concept and feasibility studies)
There are three sub-phases under Pre-project phase as shown in Fig. 1.1.
Idea or initiation Phase Project Concept Phase Feasibility Phase

II. Project Phase

The project phase is also refereed as project implementation phase, project realization phase, or
project materialization phase. It can be broken into down into five sub-phases as shown in Fig. 1.2.

Basic Detailed Procurement Construction/ Closure

Design Design /Tendering Execution /completion
Phase Phase Phase phase Phase

III. Post-Project Phase

The post-project phase is also known as turnover phase or start-up phase. During this phase, the
responsibility of material deliverable is transferred from engineer, the architects and/or the general
contractor to the owners. The two general phase under Post-Project phase are shown in Fig. 1.3.

Utilization or Close-down
operation phase
Phase

According to Planning Commission of Pakistan, the Project life cycle comprises five stages;
1. Identification and preparation
2. Appraisal and approval
3. Execution
4. Completion and
5. Evaluation

4. Participants /Stakeholders of a construction Project

1. Architect
2. Client/owners
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3. Constructor
4. Consultant / Engineer
5. Subcontractor/Supplier/Vendor
6. Lawyer, Insurer, etc.

Project Life Cycle (Planning Commission of Pakistan)

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Stakeholders of a construction project

5. Project Goals and Objectives

Goals and objectives are statements that describe what the project will accomplish, or the
business value the project will achieve.
Goals are high level statements that provide overall context for what the project is trying to
achieve, and should align to business goals.
Objectives are lower level statements that describe the specific, tangible products and deliverables
that the project will deliver.
The definition of goals and objectives is more of an art than a science, and it can be difficult to
define them and align them correctly.
Goals
Goals are high-level statements that provide the overall context for what the project is trying to
accomplish. Let’s look at an example and some of the characteristics of a goal statement. One of
the goals of a project might be to “increase the overall satisfaction levels for clients calling to the
company helpdesk with support needs”.
• Because the goal is at a high-level, it may take more than one project to achieve. In the
above example, for instance, there may be a technology component to increasing client
satisfaction. There may also be new procedures, new training classes, reorganization of the
helpdesk department and modification of the company rewards system. It may take many
projects over a long period of time to achieve the goal.
• The goal should reference the business benefit in terms of cost, speed and / or quality. In
this example, the focus is on quality of service. Even if the project is not directly in support

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of the business, there should be an indirect tie. For instance, an IT infrastructure project to
install new web servers may ultimately allow faster client response, better price
performance, or other business benefit. If there is no business value to the project, the
project should not be started.
• Generally, non-measurable: If you can measure the achievement of your goal, it is probably
at too low a level and is probably more of an objective.
• If your goal is not achievable through any combination of projects, it is probably written at
too high a level. In the above example, you could envision one or more projects that could
end up achieving a higher level of client satisfaction. A goal statement that says you are
trying to achieve a perfect client experience is not possible with any combination of
projects. It may instead be a vision statement, which is a higher level statement showing
direction and aspiration, but which may never actually be achieved.
It is important to understand business and project goal statements, even though goals are not a part
of the Ten Step Project Definition. Goals are most important from a business perspective. The
project manager needs to understand the business goals that the project is trying to contribute to.
However, you do not need to define specific project goals. On the other hand, objectives definitely
are important.
Objectives
Objectives are concrete statements describing what the project is trying to achieve. The objective
should be written at a lower level, so that it can be evaluated at the conclusion of a project to see
whether it was achieved or not. Goal statements are designed to be vague. Objectives should not
be vague. A well-worded objective will be Specific, Measurable, Attainable/Achievable, Realistic
and Time-bound (SMART).
An example of an objective statement might be to “upgrade the helpdesk telephone system by
December 31 to achieve average client wait times of no more than two minutes”.
• Note that the objective is much more concrete and specific than the goal statement.
• The objective is measurable in terms of the average client wait times the new phone
system is trying to achieve.
• We must assume that the objective is achievable and realistic.
• The objective is time-bound, and should be completed by December 31.
Objectives should refer to the deliverables of the project. In this case, it refers to the upgrade of
the telephone system. If you cannot determine what deliverables are being created to achieve the
objective, then the objective may be written at too high a level. On the other hand, if an objective
describes the characteristics of the deliverables, they are written at too low a level. If they describe
the features and functions, they are requirements, not objectives.

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6. Basic Management Activities
Management theory identifies four essential management activities that must be accomplished in
any successful organization.
• Scoping------Clearly define desired project objectives.
• Planning------Predetermine a course of action to achieve project objectives.
• Organizing-----Integrate individual, consultant and contractor efforts into an effective
team.
• Controlling-----Monitor, influence, and direct achievement of project objectives
throughout the performance phase.

7. Construction project categories/types/segments

Two very broad categories: - General building construction
- Engineered construction.
1. General Building Construction
Include residential, commercial, institutional and industrial buildings.
Residential construction produces buildings for human habitation, including single-family
dwellings, condominiums, multifamily townhouses, flats and apartments and high-rise apartment
buildings.
Commercial construction includes retail and wholesale stores, markets and shops, shopping
centers, office buildings, warehouses and small manufacturing facilities.
Institutional construction are medical clinics and hospitals, schools and universities, recreational
centers and athletic stadiums, governmental buildings and houses of worship and other religious
buildings.
Industrial construction is a special segment of the industry that develops large-scale projects
with a high degree of technical complexity.
Such endeavours result in facilities that manufacture and process products; examples include steel
mills, electric power-generating plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical processing plants
2. Engineered construction
This broad category of construction, sometimes called engineering construction, is characterized
by designs prepared by engineers rather than architects, the provision of facilities usually related
to the public infrastructure and thus owned by public-sector entities and funded through bonds,
rates or taxes and a high degree of mechanization and the use of much heavy equipment and plant
in the construction process.

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• Examples: PSDP mega projects in Pakistan
• Two common subcategories of engineered construction are:
-Highway construction (Dams, tunnels)
- Heavy construction.
8. Building permits
A type of authorization that must be granted by a government or other regulatory body before the
construction of a new or existing building can legally occur.
The permits provide a permanent record of the work performed and inspections conducted on the
project.
9. Codes, standards and regulations
Building Codes
• which are concerned primarily with public safety, provide minimum design
and construction standards for structural and fire safety. As the name
implies, such codes apply only to the construction of buildings.
• Model codes are adopted in whole or in part by the local municipality, and
become enforceable under the law
• The purpose behind building codes is to give reasonable assurance that a
home is safe from structural failure, fire hazards from electrical and heating
systems, electrical shock, and health risks.
• Basic/National Building Code (BOCA Code)
• Uniform Building Code
• Standard Building Code
• National Electric Code (NEC) and Life Safety Code by the NFPA under
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• The International Building Code 2000 (IBC) replaces the first three codes.
Several subcodes of the IBC include Fire, Residential, Plumbing, Energy
Conservation, Mechanical, & Private Sewage
Zoning Regulations
• which control land use, limit the size, type, and density of structures that
may be erected at a particular location. Some typical zoning classifications

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include commercial, residential (with specified density), industrial, office,
recreational, and agricultural
• imposed by local zoning commissions
Environmental Regulations
• protect the public and environment by controlling such factors as water
usage, vehicular traffic, precipitation runoff, waste disposal, and
preservation of beaches and wetlands.
• imposed by the EPA, State DEP (DNREC), or local agency
Standards
• ASTM
• Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL)
• AASHTO
• ACI
• AISC
• many, many others
• no enforcement by these agencies
• specifications generally refer back to these standards

10. Construction Contract

Contract means ‘agreement which are enforceable as such made by free consent of the parties, by
person competent to contract for a lawful consideration and lawful object and which are not
expressly declared to void by any statute.’ From definition, we can infer the criteria required for a
contract to be valid. The criteria are:
• There must be mutual agreement between the two parties.
• There must be an offer made by one party called the promisor.
• The other party, called the promisee, must accept the offer.
• There must be considerations, which is usually payment in the form of money for doing of
an act or abstinence form doing a particular act by promiser for promise.
• The offer and acceptance should relate to something that is not prohibited by law.

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• The offer and acceptance constitute an agreement that when enforceable by law becomes
a contract.
• The contracting parties entering into agreement should be competent, i.e., not disqualified
by either infancy or insanity to make such agreement.

9.1 Contract document

Characteristics of a “good” contract document:
1. Carefully considered
2. Expressed clearly
3. Time-tested
4. Comprehensive
5. Fair
6. Balanced
7. Applicable to the elements of a construction projects
A construction contract comprises essentially the following documents:
• The contract drawings
• The specification
• The general conditions of contract (GCC)
• The special conditions of contract (SCC)
• The agreement
• The bill of quantities (BOQ)

9.1.1 The contract drawings

The contract drawings are means through which the physical, quantitative and visual descriptions
of the project are conveyed to the contractor.
• Three important functions of design drawings:
• Basis for competitive bidding or negotiations
• Contract administration during construction
• Basis for settlement of claims and disputes
• Also, with modification serve as “as builts”
• Typical subgroups in a set of drawings
• Site plan
• Structural
• Architectural
• Plumbing

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• Mechanical
• Electrical
• Standardized drawing details (typically engineering details for site and civil work-roads,
utilities)

9.1.2 The Specifications

Specifications or technical provisions, are written instructions to carry out a work. It also contains
information not possible to show on piece of drawing. Drawings mention earlier together with
specifications furnish the complete instructions to convert an architects and a designer
imaginations into reality. The drawings and specification are useful for preparing the cost estimates
of work items of a project. Specification commonly deal with the following aspects:
• The quality of materials
• The quality of workmanship
• The frequency of testing
• The approved manufacturer
• The relevant standard describing the material
• The inspection and installation method
The specifications could be of any type mention in Fig.1.4.
Standard specifications.
• Most common for roads, utilities
• Not issued as part of the specifications book for the specific project
• Issued as a separate specifications book by many state Departments of
Transportation, Cities and Towns
• Cover standard materials used in most projects
o Concrete mix designs
o Fire Hydrants
o Manhole structure
Communications and works departments has issued standard specifications for execution of
building works and materials of building constructions.

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Specifications

Performance Design Open Closed Equal Proprietary

Specifications Specifications Specifications Specifications Specifications Specifications

Here, the The process Any product In closed In equal Only one
performance and design that meets the specification, specification, product is
of the both are requirements only product the product is specified.
finished furnished is acceptable of certain specified but Substitution
product is under design under open types are substitution is not
specified. For specification. specification. acceptable. with equal permissible.
example, 28 Designers has Sets standards Not allowed products is
days strength the liability for materials in public acceptable.
of concrete for the quality. projects.
could be performance
specified as of product.
35 MPa.

Technical
Specfications

Fig. 1.4 Types of specifications

9.1.3 The general conditions of contract (GCC)

The general condition are essential part of contract. The term ‘general’ implies that the document
is a standard one used in all contract entered by a party (the owner). The general conditions of
contract set out responsibility and obligation of parties to the contract. It spells out the scope and
performance of the contract, valuation and payment terms, arbitrations and laws, labor regulations
safety code, various form used for the tender and required deeds under general conditions of
contract. (Assignment: Study of Contract form for execution work by Govt. of Punjab).
9.1.4 The special conditions of contract (SCC)
Certain amendments/addition/deletions are made in general conditions of contract in order to make
it suitable for particular project. These amendments are contained in a separate document called
special conditions of contract (SCC). SCC may commonly address the following issues depending
upon the requirements of a project.

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• Materials provided by the owners
• Site visits
• Mobilization advance
• Start date of construction
• Requirements of various reports related to progress

9.1.5 The bill of quantities (BOQ)

The bill of quantities shows the net quantity to be executed in each item of work. Items are
classified into earthwork, anti-termite treatment, waterproofing, brickwork, concreting,
whitewashing and painting, flooring and finishing, doors and windows, structural steel aluminum
works, stone work, etc.

11. Sustainability and Sustainable construction (Koji Sakai)

The concept of sustainable development was proposed in Brundtland Report (WECD 1987).
Sustainable development was defined as “development which meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs”.
The report described three fundamental aspects: environmental protection, economic growth, and
social equality. After the publication of this report, a keyword “sustainable development” become
firmly established as the final target of mainkind.

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Construction is one of the biggest industries around world. Construction has major effects on the
global environment because construction is a major consumer of land and raw materials and the
operation of building is the biggest energy consumer. The quality and quantity of construction will
affect future generations. Therefore, construction industry has a significant role for sustainable
development in which the needs of future generation have to be taken into consideration. In other
words, sustainable construction has to be considered as a part of sustainable development.

Sustainable construction will be achieved by taking the following factors into consideration:
(1) environmentally friendly construction materials
(2) energy efficiency in buildings
(3) construction and demolition waste management

Construction materials provide the environmental impacts at each stage of the life cycle, such as
raw materials extraction, processing, manufacture, distribution, and construction works (on-site
materials fabrication, use, and demolition waste). To reduce the environmental impacts, it may be
the most important to minimize the amount of virgin materials use. Over-design and under-design
should be avoided.

The environmental design system of buildings and structures, in which the selection of materials
and structural shape, construction works, maintenance, and demolition/ recycling are included,
should be established to minimize the use of resources and energy and to manage construction and
demolition waste.

In the conceptual design, in which the owner and designer should agree, environmental aspects for
sustainable construction have to be considered in addition to general matters, which include
structural concept, location, cost, construction term, and performance requirements.

Concrete is made of cement, water and aggregates. Cement production consumes lots of energy
and emits a large amount of CO2. In addition, aggregate extraction causes natural destruction
which includes land use, loss of eco-system, amenity loss etc. The construction and demolish waste
are one of the serious problems in construction industry. On the other hand, several industrial by-
products, such as blast furnace slag, fly ash, silica fume etc., have been used in concrete. Thus,
concrete has a great role for sustainable construction. In other words, sustainable concrete
construction has to be considered.

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