Anisotropic Behaviour of Shallow

Opalinus Clay

Eleonora Crisci1(&), Alessio Ferrari1, Silvio B. Giger2,

and Lyesse Laloui1
1
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland
eleonora.crisci@epfl.ck
2
National Cooperative for the Disposal of Radioactive Waste, NAGRA,
Wettingen, Switzerland

Abstract. Opalinus Clay shale, the selected host geomaterial of a high-level

radioactive waste repository in Switzerland, was sourced at shallow depth in a
borehole in the northern part of the country. Pairs of specimens, retrieved from
the same depth were prepared to be tested in oedometric conditions, with
loading in the direction either parallel or perpendicular to the bedding planes.
The results showed a marked anisotropy of the material response in the low
effective stress ranges (<10 MPa), with stiffer response in the direction of the
bedding planes. The anisotropy reduced markedly at higher effective stress
levels (
10 MPa), resulting in similar compressibility in the two loading
directions at the highest investigated effective stress level. Similarly, the com-
puted hydraulic conductivity (via the consolidation theory) revealed larger dif-
ferences in the low stress range, where the hydraulic conductivity is greater in
the direction of the bedding planes.

1 Introduction

Opalinus Clay shale is the geological formation that has been selected to be the host
geomaterial for the deep geological repository for the high-level radioactive waste in
Switzerland. The formation is found all over the northern part of the country, at
variable depths (outcropping at the surface and reaching depths of a few kilometres).
The current depth variability of the formation is related to the geological history of the
area, strongly affected by the forebulge in association of the Alpine orogeny leading to
a southern dip of the Mesozoic strata.
The minimum depth for the construction of a radioactive waste repository is
selected to meet the required isolation period (106 years) from possible geological
processes (exhumation and erosion) which could affect barrier integrity.
To investigate the effect of exhumation on the barrier integrity, Opalinus Clay was
sourced from a borehole in Northern Switzerland in which the formation is found at a
very shallow depth (<100 m below ground). The current depth of the formation in this
site is the result of an exhumation phenomenon, driven by glacial erosion, which
occurred over the geological timescale, and brought the formation close to the surface
from a much greater depth (likely in excess of 1000 m).

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

A. Ferrari and L. Laloui (Eds.): SEG 2018, SSGG, pp. 442–448, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99670-7_55
 Anisotropic Behaviour of Shallow Opalinus Clay 443

One-dimensional consolidation tests were performed on several specimens obtained

from various depths. Two specimens, sourced from approximately the same depth were
prepared to be tested in the direction either perpendicular or parallel to the bedding
planes, to compare the results from the two directions, and gather information on the
anisotropy of the material properties. The main findings regarding the anisotropic
behaviour of the Opalinus Clay from shallow depth are discussed in this contribution,
and an example of the obtained oedometric curves is reported.

2 Tested Material

The investigated shale is a sedimentary formation, deposited about 180 million years
ago, that is mainly composed of clay minerals, carbonates and quartz (Mazurek 1999).
The formation is characterized by low porosity, ranging from 0.09 to 0.24 for more
superficial specimens, and low hydraulic conductivity, 10−10–10−14 m/s (Nussbaum
and Bossart 2008). The material is transversely isotropic, with the planes of isotropy
corresponding to the sedimentation planes (also referred to as bedding). The anisotropy
could be attributed to the reorientation of the clay particles, in the bedding direction,
and to the depositional and post depositional phenomena.
A relevant part of the research until now was conducted on cores from the Mont
Terri Underground Rock Laboratory (URL), where Opalinus Clay, estimated to have
reached a maximum burial depth of approximately 1350 m (Mazurek et al. 2006), is
found nowadays at about 300 m depth. Several works, studying the anisotropic features
of Opalinus Clay have been conducted, and highlighted the anisotropy in the
mechanical behaviour (e.g. Bossart and Thury 2008; Favero et al. 2018) and in the
sensitivity to water saturation (Ferrari et al. 2014; Minardi et al. 2016). In particular, the
stiffness of the material was found to be greater when loaded in the direction of the
bedding planes, rather than in the orthogonal direction.
From the mentioned shallow borehole, several samples were sourced at different
depths between 6 and 70 m and part of those were used for a laboratory geomechanical
program. Some preliminary results, presented in Crisci et al. (2017), explored the
similarities in the behavior of samples sourced at different depths.
Complete geotechnical characterization of the specimens was performed. The
obtained geotechnical parameters vary among the specimens in the following ranges:
void ratio e = 0.15–0.31; bulk density q = 2.31–2.53 Mg/m3; particle density qs =
2.74–2.79 Mg/m3; water content w = 5–10%.
Grain size distributions of several samples from various depths were also obtained.
The range of grain size distributions obtained via the mentioned procedure is reported
in Fig. 1. The grain size distribution of sample L8, later mentioned for the oedometric
behavior, is highlighted. The samples showed a higher percentage (70–95%) of par-
ticles with sizes in the silt-clay range, coherent with the expected average mineralogical
composition. Only a small percentage of sand size grains was detected.
The sample microstructure was investigated using the Mercury Intrusion
Porosimetry (MIP) technique on cubic specimens with side of 0.8 cm, showing a single
dominant pore size in the range of 15–30 nm of pore throat diameter.
444 E. Crisci et al.

Fig. 1. Grain size distribution range obtained on Opalinus Clay samples from shallow depths;
sample L8 curve is highlighted.

3 Testing Methods

The specimens for one-dimensional testing were obtained with a procedure finalized to
minimize the damage to the specimens. A slice of thickness approximately double the
final specimen height was sawed from the core, before removing the PVC tube and
aluminum foil where the core is stored. Then, the slice was cut to obtain a smaller
block, whose surface was smoothed and reduced to the desired size by the use of a
lathe. The sample was finally inserted in the oedometric ring, made of stainless steel,
using a hydraulic press.
A high pressure oedometric cell, designed to perform loading-unloading cycles at
high stress levels (Ferrari and Laloui 2013), was used in this experimental program to
perform one-dimensional consolidation and permeability test. The cell was designed to
hold cylindrical specimens of 35 mm in diameter and 12.5 mm in height. The
oedometer ring was inserted into a rigid stainless steel frame.
In this setup, the loading ram is positioned in the lower part of the system and a
hydraulic jack connected to a volume/pressure controller applies the vertical load. The
maximum applicable vertical total stress to the specimens is about 100 MPa. The
volumetric strains are measured by two LVDTs (with a resolution of 1 lm), which are
fixed to the frame and are in contact with the loading ram. The tests are performed in
incremental loads, and a pore water pressure controller is used to control the pore water
pressure at the bottom and top bases of the specimen.
The specimens were first re-saturated inside the oedometric cell at constant-volume
condition. To constrain the swelling induced by the saturation, the vertical load was
increased in steps to counterbalance axial expansion until equilibrium. Specimen sat-
uration and loading/unloading steps were performed using synthetic water, following
 Anisotropic Behaviour of Shallow Opalinus Clay 445

preliminary results of in situ water analysis (complete recipe in Mazurek et al. 2017), in
order to reproduce closely the chemical composition of the in situ pore water at
different depths. At each loading step, the induced water overpressure was allowed to
dissipate from the two end surfaces of the cylindrical specimen and the settlements
were recorded.
The results in terms of settlements versus time for each loading/unloading step were
interpreted using an analytical solution that extends the one-dimensional consolidation
theory to consider the poroelastic behaviour of shales and the non-instantaneous
loading condition (Ferrari et al. 2016), that is necessary to apply such high stresses.

4 Results

The tests allow estimating for each specimen the swelling pressure generated upon
saturation, the compressibility (Cc) and swelling (Cs) indexes. In addition, from the
analysis of the settlement versus time curve for each loading/unloading step, the
consolidation coefficient (cv), the oedometric modulus (Eoed) and the hydraulic con-
ductivity (k) were computed.
In Fig. 2, examples of oedometric curves obtained for two specimens, from the
same depth, tested in two different loading directions is documented. The results are
reported in terms of vertical deformation, attained at the end of the primary consoli-
dation of each loading step, versus the vertical effective stress applied. Similar curves
were obtained for all the performed tests. The compression tests began at the and of the
saturation phase, therefore the first point corresponds to vertical load needed to con-
strain the swelling induced by the saturation phase (i.e. the swelling pressure), and was
found to be higher for specimens loaded in the direction perpendicular, rather than for
those in the direction parallel to the bedding planes.
Generally, the overall vertical deformations obtained for the specimens tested in the
direction perpendicular to the bedding was found to be higher compared to the
orthogonal direction. A higher rigidity was detected for the specimens loaded in the
direction of the bedding planes, in agreement with findings from previous works.
Moreover, a transition in the behavior were identified as a change of slope in the semi-
log curves (i.e. the apparent pre-consolidation pressure), occurring at a vertical stress
2–4 times higher in specimens loaded in the direction parallel to the bedding. Above
these stress levels, the differences in rigidity between samples loaded parallel and
perpendicular to bedding reduced, leading to comparable compressibility values.
It can be inferred that at high stress levels the cement bonds, attributed to the
diagenetic process occurred in the Opalinus Clay (Favero et al. 2016), are weakened,
and that the compressibility on which the material behavior relies depends only on the
particle properties and arrangement. As the stress increases, the porosity reduces and
the material compressibility reduces towards the one of the solid particles.
The consolidation theory was adopted to evaluate the hydraulic conductivity of the
tested specimens, in the two loading directions. The obtained results were found to be
in line with results from previous works, with ranges of hydraulic conductivity found in
446 E. Crisci et al.

Fig. 2. End of primary consolidation curves of two Opalinus Clay specimens from the same
depth tested in the direction perpendicular and parallel to the bedding planes.

the order of 10−11–10−14 m/s for all the tested specimens in a vertical effective stress
range varying from few MPa to 100 MPa.
Concerning the hydraulic conductivity anisotropy, a trend similar to the com-
pressibility response was found. The results of the hydraulic conductivity (k) were
analyzed in terms of ratios of the values obtained for specimens loaded parallel to the
bedding and specimens loaded perpendicular to the bedding ( ). The results for all
the pairs of performed oedometric tests are presented in Fig. 3, in form of the ratio
versus the vertical effective stress at the beginning of the steps.
By and large, the ratios are above 1, highlighting the higher hydraulic conductivity
measured in the direction of the bedding planes. At low stresses the hydraulic con-
ductivity is 2–4 times higher for flows in the direction parallel to the bedding planes
compared to the orthogonal direction. Moreover, a high variability in the results is
observed, while towards high stresses, the variability reduces and the ratios tend to be
closer to the unity. Therefore, the differences among the flow directions are signifi-
cantly reduced at high compaction levels.
 Anisotropic Behaviour of Shallow Opalinus Clay 447

Fig. 3. Ratio of the hydraulic conductivities (in the direction // and ? to the bedding planes)
computed via the consolidation theory, on primary loading steps.

5 Concluding Remarks

In this work, results obtained from an experimental programme on shallow Opalinus

Clay samples were presented. The investigation focused on the hydro mechanical
behaviour of saturated intact shale in one-dimensional loading conditions. Pairs of
specimens from the same depth were obtained to be loaded either parallel or perpen-
dicular to the bedding plane and to compare the results.
The main findings revealed that the compressibility of the saturated samples is
higher for the direction perpendicular to the bedding, and for those same specimens the
change in slope (in the semi-log plane) is detected at lower stress values. Towards high
stresses, on the other hand, the differences between the two loading directions reduced,
and a similar compressibility was found.
The outcomes regarding the hydraulic conductivity, derived from the results of the
primary loading steps, showed similar trends. At low stress level, the differences
between the pairs of specimens, loaded in different directions, is higher, and it is shown
a higher hydraulic conductivity in the direction of the bedding planes. As stress
increases and the porosities reduce, the hydraulic conductivity becomes similar in the
two directions.
Therefore, the anisotropic hydro-mechanical behaviour of Opalinus Clay, in par-
ticular in terms of one-dimensional compressibility and hydraulic conductivity, is
strongly dependent on the range of stress applied, and tends to reduce at very high
stresses towards similar responses in the directions perpendicular and parallel to the
bedding planes.

Acknowledgements. The support of the Swiss National Cooperative for the Disposal of
Radioactive Waste (NAGRA) for this research is acknowledged.
448 E. Crisci et al.

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