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The manuscript was received on 19 July 2004 and was accepted after revision for publication on 24 August 2005.
DOI: 10.1243/095440705X35116
Abstract: Heat exchangers used in modern automobiles usually have a highly non-uniform
air velocity distribution because of the complexity of the engine compartment and underhood
flow fields; hence ineffective use of the core area has been noted. To adequately predict the
heat transfer performance in typical car radiators, a generalized analytical model accounting
for airflow maldistribution was developed using a finite element approach and applying
appropriate heat transfer equations including the e–NTU (effectiveness – number of heat
transfer units) method with the Davenport correlation for the air-side heat transfer coefficient.
The analytical results were verified against a set of experimental data from nine radiators tested
in a wind tunnel and were found to be within +24 and −10 per cent of the experimental
results. By applying the analytical model, several severe non-uniform velocity distributions
were also studied. It was found that the loss of radiator performance caused by airflow
maldistribution, compared with uniform airflow of the same total flowrate, was relatively minor
except under extreme circumstances where the non-uniformity factor was larger than 0.5.
The relatively simple set of equations presented in this paper can be used independently in
spreadsheets or in conjunction with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis, enabling a
full numerical prediction of aerodynamic as well as thermodynamic performance of radiators
to be conducted prior to a prototype being built.
1 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES vehicle geometry strongly influences the airflow path
entering the radiator (see reference [4]).
The cooling airflow is seldom uniformly distributed There is only limited research published using
across an automotive radiator front face, and con- analytical approaches in determining the heat transfer
sequently the radiator cooling performance may be performance of automotive radiators. Analyses of
impaired [1–3]. The causes of non-uniformity of the radiator performance have often been based on
cooling airflow include objects upstream and down- the inadequate assumption that the airflow has a
stream of the radiator, particularly the upstream uniform distribution over the radiator face. An
bumper and associated crash structure. Figure 1 important deficiency in that assumption is that the
shows a normalized velocity contour measured at the air velocity distribution over the face of a real radiator
radiator front face in a typical passenger car, in in the engine compartment is always highly complex
ram-air condition (i.e. no fan operation), at a vehicle and non-uniform, and the airflow rate cannot easily
driving speed of 100 km/h. It is evident that the be analytically determined.
Heat exchanger performance can generally be
* Corresponding author: 7 Ellerton Court, Donvale, Victoria, VIC determined using either one of the following
3111, Australia. email: eton_ng@hotmail.com approaches [5]: the log mean temperature difference
D13604 © IMechE 2005 Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
1452 E Y Ng, P W Johnson, and S Watkins
Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D13604 © IMechE 2005
Heat transfer performance of radiators 1453
D13604 © IMechE 2005 Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
1454 E Y Ng, P W Johnson, and S Watkins
Louvre pitch (L ) air-side convection, fouling on the air side, wall con-
p
Louvre length (L ) duction, fouling on the coolant side, and coolant-side
l
Fin thickness (F ) convection. In mathematical form
t
Fin height (F )
h
Fin pitch (F ) 1 1 Dx 1
p = +R + +R + (10)
Fin end radius (R ) UA (g hA) f,a (kA) f,c (g hA)
f 0 a w 0 c
Angle of fin (a )
f
Coolant tube length (Y ) It is noted that without the use of extended surfaces
l
Coolant tube cross-section length (Y ) (i.e. prime surface) in the coolant tubes in typical
cl
Coolant tube cross-section width (Y ) radiators, the value of g becomes unity.
cw 0,c
Coolant tube thickness (Y ) For simplicity, the fouling resistances on both
t
Coolant tube pitch (Y ) sides were assumed to be small and not considered
p
Coolant tube end radius (R ) in this analysis. Also, coolant tubes are often made
t
of aluminium or copper, which have large thermal
3.2 Calculation of relevant heat transfer areas conductivity, and the wall thickness is small. There-
Based on the preceding definitions, derivations of fore, the thermal resistance of the wall conduction
various surface areas, which are relevant to heat term (Dx/kA) in comparison to the other two terms
w
transfer, are given below: was treated as negligible. It is noted that this wall
term does not include fin conduction, which is
Fin length, F treated separately in the next section.
l
F −2R With these stated restrictions and combining
F =pR + h f (1)
l f cos a the nomenclature used in this study, equation (10)
f becomes
Radiator core frontal area, A
fr,r
A =B B (2) 1 1 1
fr,r H W = + (11)
Coolant tube frontal area, A UA g h A hA
fr,t fr,r 0,a a a c c
A =Y Y N (3) Under typical operating conditions, the air-side
fr,t cw l ct
Fin frontal heat transfer area, A resistance is dominant (i.e. the controlling resistance).
fr,f Davenport [9] showed that at higher water flowrates,
A =F F N YN (4)
fr,f t l f(per metre) l p the coolant-side thermal resistance contributed only
Fin heat transfer area, A 5 per cent of the total resistance.
f
A =2B F N YN (5) Equation (11) is the equation that governs the heat
f T l f(per metre) l p transfer performance of a cross-flow type radiator.
Total heat transfer area on the air side, A Detailed derivations of the air-side and coolant-side
a
A =A +2N Y N [(Y −2R )+(2pR )] (6) heat transfer coefficients (i.e. h and h ) and their
a c
a f ct l r cl t t governing equations, which involve an extensive
Total heat transfer area on the coolant side, A
c review from the literature, are presented in section 6.
A =[2p(R −Y )+2(Y −2R )]Y N N (7)
c t t cl t l ct r
Total air pass area, A
p,a 4.2 Air-side fin efficiency and total surface
A =A −A −A (8) efficiency
p,a fr,r fr,f fr,t
Total coolant pass area, A Fins attached to the coolant tubes are primarily used
p,c
A =[p(R −Y )2+(Y −2Y )(Y −2R )]N N for increasing the surface area and consequently
p,c t t cw t cl t ct r increasing the heat transfer rate. As temperature
(9) gradients along the fins extending into the air create
conduction resistance, the temperature efficiency of
the surface is reduced. Hence, the air-side heat con-
4 HEAT TRANSFER ANALYSIS
ductance term (hA) must be multiplied by a factor
a
to account for the temperature gradient in the fin.
4.1 Thermal circuit and overall heat transfer
The fin efficiency (g ) is defined as the ratio of the
coefficient f
actual heat transfer rate through the fin base (Q )
f
The overall heat transfer resistance for a radiator divided by the maximum theoretical heat transfer
can be considered to derive from the following terms: rate through the fin base (Q ), corresponding to
f,max
Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D13604 © IMechE 2005
Heat transfer performance of radiators 1455
the entire fin surface being at the base temperature radiator on air and coolant sides are typically in
the range of a 20–35 °C rise and a 4–10 °C drop
Q
g= f (12) respectively. Hence
f Q
f,max
C =C and C =C
For a straight fin of uniform cross-section, the fin min a max c
efficiency can be expressed as For a typical automotive radiator it is assumed
tanh(mL) that the approaching air stream is directed into a
g= (13) large number of separate passages with no cross
f mL
mixing when the air is travelling through the radiator.
where L=effective fin length and m=fin efficiency The same assumption is commonly applied to
parameter. For the fins extending from wall to wall coolant flow. Hence, radiators are often considered
F as a type of cross-flow arrangement heat exchanger
L= h with both fluids unmixed [13, 14]. The appropriate
2
e-NTU relationship for this type can be found in
For thin sheet fins (see reference [5]) graphical form in reference [5], and mathematically
in reference [15].
m=
S 2h
kF
a
t
Radiators are typically of a finned-tube con- 5 FINITE ELEMENT APPROACH
struction. Hence, heat transfer takes place in both the
fins and the unfinned (primary) surface at the same To account for the effects of airflow maldistribution,
time. For this reason, the total surface efficiency (g ) a finite element approach was used, which divides
0
is introduced to account for the weighted mean the entire radiator into a number of independent
efficiency of the composite structure consisting of small radiators (cells). The e-NTU method was applied
the fins and the base structure. The total surface to each cell, with the outlet coolant temperature
efficiency can be calculated from of the upstream cell being the inlet temperature of
the downstream cell, in order to determine its heat
A
g =1− f (1−g ) (14) dissipation rate (see Fig. 3). As a coolant horizontal-
0 A f flow radiator was considered, the coolant flow into
a
This equation is based on the assumption that the each cell was equal to the total coolant flow divided
air-side heat transfer coefficient is unchanged by by the number of rows. The heat dissipation of
addition of the fins. the entire radiator was equal to the sum of the heat
dissipation of all cells.
4.3 The e-NTU method This approach may be similar to techniques
used in some commercial software such as KULI,
The radiator effectiveness can be expressed as a
FLOWMASTER and GT-COOL, and also techniques
function of two dimensionless groups, NTU and C ,
r developed in the European project V-THERM, except
for a given flow arrangement (such as counter-flow
that this procedure can be carried out where no
or cross-flow) [5]
extensive computing resources or software packages
e= f (NTU, C , flow arrangement) (15) are available. This enables engineers to perform
r
analysis or performance predictions in house by use
where
of simple manipulations.
P
UA 1 The number of cells, including the number of rows
NTU= fr,r = U dA
C C fr,r (m) and the number of columns (n), is given by the
min min A
user. It is assumed that the coolant flow is uniformly
C=heat capacity rate=ṁ×c distributed through the radiator and equally divided
p
C between the different rows. Given the top tank
C = min temperature (T ) and the coolant mass flow, and
r C ci
max assuming the tanks on both sides of the radiator are
C =ṁ ×c =A r V ×c well insulated, it can be demonstrated that the inlet
a a p,a a a a p,a
C =ṁ ×c =A r V ×c coolant temperature of each cell in the first column
c c p,c c c c p,c is equal to the top tank temperature; i.e.
Under normal driving conditions, SAE J1393 [12]
states that the temperature changes across the T =T (16)
ci ci(i,1)
D13604 © IMechE 2005 Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
1456 E Y Ng, P W Johnson, and S Watkins
where T refers to the inlet temperature of the cell Because of the complexity of airflow over louvred
ci(i,1)
(i, 1), with i=1, … , m. fins, it is difficult to determine the heat transfer
Except for the cells in the first column, the coolant coefficient from conventional convection heat trans-
inlet temperature of any cell is equal to the tem- fer equations, as the coefficient is a function of both
perature at the exit of the upstream cell in the same fin geometry and flow conditions. Because the heat
row transfer characteristics of the louvres are closely
related to the flow structure around them, the follow-
T =T (17)
co(i,j) ci(i,j+1) ing subsection provides a brief discussion of the flow
with i=1, … , m and j=1, … , (n−1). The value of phenomena occurring in the louvre array.
the bottom tank temperature (T ) is taken as the
co
average value of the summation of the last cells for 6.1.1 Flow structure in louvre fins
all rows
Following Beauvais [17] and Wong and Smith [18],
m who discovered that louvres act to realign the air-
∑ T
co(i,n) flow in a direction parallel to their own planes,
T = i=1 (18) Davenport [9] performed a detailed investigation on
co number of rows
corrugated louvred fin heat exchangers, demon-
Similarly, the coolant mass flowrate of each cell strating that the flow structure within the louvred
becomes array was a function of Reynolds number.
ṁ Figure 4 illustrates a section through a louvre array
ṁ = c (19) in which two possible extreme flow directions are
c(i,j) number of rows
indicated. Davenport found that at low Reynolds
for all (i, j). numbers the flow did not pass through the louvres
but travelled axially through the fins and behaved like
duct flow (duct-directed flow). He explained that the
6 EQUATIONS FOR HEAT TRANSFER developing boundary layers on the louvres became
COEFFICIENTS
Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D13604 © IMechE 2005
Heat transfer performance of radiators 1457
sufficiently thick to block off the gaps between louvres. corrugated louvred-fin surfaces found in the publicly
This gradually changed to an almost complete align- available literature. The correlations are empirical
ment with the louvres as the Reynolds number was using a multiple regression technique. The corre-
increased. At high Reynolds numbers, the flow was lation for heat transfer for corrugated louvred fin
directed by the louvres flowing nearly parallel to surfaces is valid when 100<Re<4000 and the
them, behaving like flat-plate flow (louvre-directed recommended Colburn modulus j factor correlation
flow). Additional studies conducted by Achaichia and was given as
Cowell [19, 20] and Kajino and Hiramatsu [16] agreed
A B
with Davenport’s investigation. L 1.1
j=0.249Re−0.42 L0.33 l F0.26 (20)
Lp h F h
h
6.1.2 Air-side Reynolds numbers
This correlation is valid for the ratio of the louvre
The flow path over louvres is dependent on Reynolds length to fin height ranging between 0.62 and 0.93,
numbers for a given louvred fin array. However, it which is applicable to modern automotive radiators.
seems that the characteristic length is rather arbitrary The Davenport correlation was reasonably accurate
for louvred fin surfaces. Davenport [21], after testing and easy to apply, and approximately 95 per cent of
32 samples of multilouvred fin surfaces, suggested the data were correlated within ±6 per cent. The j
that the fin pitch and hydraulic diameter made curve (i.e. plot of the j factors versus Reynolds
no contribution to the correlation of Colburn’s numbers) had a mean gradient of −0.42 from the
modulus j factor. He concluded that, although the regression analysis compared with −0.5 for the classic
hydraulic diameter is relevant to heat transfer in theoretical Pohlhausen equation. Also, the values
plain fins, using the louvre-pitch-based Reynolds of the j curve were about 35 per cent below the
number (Re ) is more appropriate to describe the Pohlhausen line. Davenport explained that this was
Lp
heat transfer on louvred fin surfaces. Most of the later due to the entire heat transfer surface, not all of
research has been consistent with this finding and which was louvred. This study revealed that the heat
has used Re as a basis – which is the approach transfer behaviour over louvred fins has a general
Lp
used here. similarity with Pohlhansen solutions for flow over a
flat plate, suggesting the existence of laminar bound-
6.1.3 Air-side heat transfer coefficient ary layers on the louvres, which is consistent with
Publication of the heat transfer performance of the the discussions in the previous sections.
corrugated louvred fin geometry, which is the basic Since the Davenport study, questions have arisen
structure of modern radiators, has been very limited, as to whether his correlation is still valid, as the
perhaps for commercial reasons. Apart from the core structures he tested were noticeably different
corrugated geometry, there are some other types from the ones used nowadays in terms of material
of heat exchanger geometry available including: a and fin geometry. A recent study conducted by Webb
flat tube and louvred plate fin [19], a corrugated et al. [24] revealed that the correlations are still appli-
louvred fin with a rectangular channel [22], a cable to current automotive radiator cores. Further-
corrugated louvred fin with a splitter plate and more, a large number of recent researchers have still
rectangular channel [23], and a corrugated louvred employed Davenport’s experimental data as a base
fin with a splitter plate and triangular channel [22]. source to validate their findings, including references
However, these geometries are not normally used in [24] to [27].
automotive applications; thus discussion on them is Another study conducted by Aoki et al. [28],
outside the scope of this paper. who measured the local heat transfer for individual
One of the important studies on extended louvres, also suggested laminar heat transfer being
heat transfer surface was conducted by Kays and present on the louvres. A correlation between the
London [5]. However, those louvre designs are very Nussult number and the Reynolds number based on
different from the multilouvred surfaces, which are the louvre pitch was presented in one equation for
widely used nowadays for automotive radiator cores, different louvre pitches
and the data are of little relevance when applied Nu =0.87Re1/2 Pr1/3 (21)
to modern heat exchangers. Davenport [21], after Lp Lp
testing with louvred fin cores with systematically Based on the work of Aoki et al., Webb [29]
varied louvre geometry, presented correlations of recommended that the theoretical Pohlhausen
heat transfer and flow friction characteristics. This solution for laminar flow over a flat plate with con-
is the only set of experimental data published for stant heat flux (see reference [30]) can be used to
D13604 © IMechE 2005 Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
1458 E Y Ng, P W Johnson, and S Watkins
predict the heat transfer coefficient on louvres, i.e. is relatively insensitive to water-side heat transfer.
The coolant-side heat transfer coefficient can be
Nu =0.906Re1/2 Pr1/3 (22)
av Lp evaluated by applying appropriate well-established
Based on the above findings, Sahnoun and heat transfer equations for flow inside tubes. The
Webb [25] and Dillen and Webb [26] developed coolant tubes in typical radiators are a flat-oval
an analytical model and a semi-analytical model shape. Therefore, the hydraulic diameter (D ) is used
respectively, to predict the heat transfer coefficient h
to substitute for the characteristic physical diameter.
of the corrugated louvred fin geometry. Both of Invalid use of the hydraulic diameter has been found
the models were based on dividing the louvred only when calculating tubes with sections having
fin surface into four regions: the louvred areas, the very sharp corners (e.g. triangular), which gives
plain leading and trailing areas, the plain middle unacceptably large errors.
area, and the end region areas. In their models, the There has been a large amount of fundamental
heat transfer coefficient in the unlouvred regions work in understanding flow characteristics and heat
is predicted using a fully developed laminar flow transfer in tubes; therefore only several represent-
solution, while using the Pohlhansen solution for ative equations are considered here. Starting with
laminar flow over a flat plate [equation (22)] to pre- the Reynolds experiments in 1883, it has been
dict louvred areas. A summation of the heat transfer demonstrated that laminar flow becomes unstable as
coefficients calculated from different regions was the velocity of flow increases in a given tube. The
used to determine the heat transfer coefficient of the transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at a
entire louvred fin. value of Reynolds number near 2300. The transition
Instead of dividing the louvred fin surface into to turbulent flow generally takes place in the range
four regions, an earlier work of Beard and Smith [6] of Reynolds numbers from about 2300 to 10 000, and
developed a simple method that approximated the a fully turbulent flow mostly occurs at a Reynolds
effects of louvres by calculating the heat transfer number above 10 000. It has also been found that the
coefficient from a mean of two coefficients obtained transition of the flow is greatly affected by the tube
from louvred fin regions and unlouvred fin regions. inlet configuration and surface roughness.
Since the proposed benefit of using louvred fins was
to give a series of leading edges to the airflow creating 6.2.1 Heat transfer in laminar flow
laminar boundaries, the heat transfer characteristics
In the laminar flow regime, the heat transfer flux is
of each louvre could be similar to flow over a flat
strongly dependent on the thermal boundary con-
plate. For that reason, their model was developed
dition along the whole length of the tube, while less
using the theoretical Pohlhausen equation for flow
dependent in the turbulent flow regime for fluids
over a flat plate to predict the heat transfer coefficient
with Pr1. The thermal boundary condition refers to
on louvres.
the set of specifications describing temperature con-
This simple method was shown to be valid as the
ditions and/or the heat transfer rate at the inside wall
calculated results were found to give satisfactorily
of the tube. According to Shah and London [31], the
close agreement with a series of wind-tunnel test
thermal boundary condition of automotive radiators
results with a maximum error of approximately 10
can be classified as the constant wall temperature
per cent.
peripherally as well as axially, since one fluid has a
6.1.4 Summary of preferred air-side heat transfer very much higher capacity rate than the other.
equations Knudsen and Katz [32] reported an equation
proposed by Hansen in 1943 as representing the
Essentially, there have been only four models avail- Graetz solution for constant surface temperature,
able in the existing literature to predict the heat fully developed laminar flow, and parabolic velocity
transfer coefficient for radiators (corrugated louvred distribution. The well-known Hansen equation, which
fin surfaces). Among them, it appears that the has been widely used for the mean Nusselt number
Davenport correlation [equation (20)] is relatively easy over the entire length of the tube, was used in this
to use without compromising accuracy. Therefore, this study to predict the coolant-side heat transfer
correlation was chosen in this study to determine the coefficient in the laminar flow regime
air-side heat transfer coefficient (h ).
A B
a D
0.0668 h,c Re Pr
6.2 Coolant side Y Dh,c c
Nu =3.66+ l (23)
CA B D
It is emphasized that the dominant thermal resist- c D 2/3
1+0.04 h,c Re Pr
ance is air-side convection and that the modelling Y D h,c c
l
Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D13604 © IMechE 2005
Heat transfer performance of radiators 1459
All properties appearing in the equation are required 104<Re <5×106 and 0.5<Pr<2000. Thus this
D
to be evaluated at the average value of the mean equation h,cwas chosen for this study in the case of
temperature. The Hansen equation is valid for the turbulent flow.
constant surface temperature condition over the Gnielinski [37] modified the Petukhov equation in
entire tube length. Considering a sufficiently long order to derive a new equation that is applicable in
tube, it is noted that the Nusselt number approaches the transition flow region (2300<Re<104). It was
a value of 3.66, which is the analytical solution for noted that in the transition region the Gnielinski
laminar, fully developed conditions with a constant equation satisfactorily reproduced the decrease in the
surface temperature [30], i.e. Nu =3.66. heat transfer coefficient with decreasing Reynolds
c
number. Thus, the following equation was employed
6.2.2 Heat transfer in turbulent and transition flow in this study
Due to the complicated nature of turbulent flow, ( f /8)(Re −1000)Pr
Nu = D
c 1+12.7 √ fh,c/8(Pr2/3−1)
which is transient and possesses highly irregular (27)
fluctuations, and the fact that heat is generally
transferred by convection as well as conduction, This equation is valid for 0.5<Pr<2000 and
empirical correlations of turbulent heat transfer data 2300<Re <104, and was compared with approxi-
D
for flow in tubes are often preferred for simplicity. mately 800h,c experimental data points, with nearly
The correlations have been obtained based on 90 per cent of the data falling within ±20 per cent.
several dimensionless groups, including the Reynolds
number, Nusselt number, Prandtl number, and
Stanton number. 6.2.3 Summary of preferred coolant-side heat
There were three famous correlations proposed transfer equations
in the 1930s, which were the Dittus and Boelter Flow regime Equation used
equation [33], the Colburn equation [34], and the Laminar (2300>Re ) Hansen equation
Sieder and Tate equation [35]. Incropera and DeWitt Dh
Transition Gnielinski equation
[36] reported that the use of the above equations, (10 000Re 2300)
D
although they may be easily applied, may lead to Turbulent (Re h>10 000) Petukhov equation
errors as large as 25 per cent. For this reason, these Dh
correlations were not chosen for this study. To examine the consistency of these three heat
Prandtl in 1944 was the first to present an equation transfer equations selected to be used in the analytical
for heat transfer in tubes that was related to the model, the heat transfer coefficient was calculated in
pressure drop. The equation was in the form of different flow regimes ranging from Reynolds number
of 400 to 13 500, as shown in Fig. 5. Discontinuities
Nu f /8
= (24) were found at the transitions between the regimes
Re Pr 1+8.7 √ f /8(Pr−1)
(i.e. at Reynolds numbers of 2300 and 10 000); never-
where f is the friction factor in the tube. Knowledge theless, these discontinuities of the coolant-side
of the friction factor in the tube is required before heat transfer coefficient are relatively unimportant,
applying this equation, and value of the friction since the dominant thermal resistance is air-side
factor can be directly obtained from the Moody convection.
diagram. Alternatively, the friction factor can be
calculated from the following equation for isothermal
flows in smooth tubes [37] 7 EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION OF THE
f =[0.79 ln(Re )−1.64]−2 (25) ANALYTICAL MODEL
Dh,c
Since then, the Prandtl equation has been further A set of experimental data obtained using the RMIT
improved. From the basic form, a correlation recom- University cooling test facility was used to validate
mended by Petukhov [38] offered better accuracy for the analytical model.
turbulent tube flow. The equation is expressed as
( f /8)Re Pr 7.1 Test procedure
Nu = Dh,c (26)
c 1.07+12.7 √ f /8(Pr2/3−1)
The detailed test procedure and equipment can be
This equation predicted experimental data with found in reference [39], and only a brief description
an accuracy of 5–6 per cent over the range of is provided here. Nine sections of corrugated louvred
D13604 © IMechE 2005 Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
1460 E Y Ng, P W Johnson, and S Watkins
fin radiator cores with various fin pitch, tube spacing, To measure the heat dissipation rate of each
and fin width (listed in Table 1) were tested indi- radiator, hot water was supplied by an external
vidually in a small open-circuit, closed-test-section heat bench and thermocouples were set at various
wind tunnel with a cross-section of 0.3 m (width)× locations, including the radiator inlet and outlet,
0.35 m (high). Air flowed perpendicularly to, and upstream and downstream of the radiator core. In
uniformly through, a section of radiator that was addition, the water flowrate was monitored and
located in the middle of the 0.8 m long test section. recorded via a magnetic flowmeter. The supplied
Airflow velocity of 9.35 m/s was set for each of the water was set at 1 l/s and approximately 75 °C. Data
radiators. were taken at the equilibrium state.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Unit
Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D13604 © IMechE 2005
Heat transfer performance of radiators 1461
D13604 © IMechE 2005 Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
1462 E Y Ng, P W Johnson, and S Watkins
Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D13604 © IMechE 2005
Heat transfer performance of radiators 1463
any radiator performance analysis, in order to pro- has been used to evaluate a radiator’s effectiveness
vide accurate calculations of SD as well as radiator in non-climatic type wind tunnels [14], and reflect
performance. changes in cooling airflow [4].
This analytical study reveals that:
8.2 Study of the SD parameter
1. Coolant flowrates (Fig. 8). When testing at low
This analytical model has been also used in studying coolant flowrates, SD is fairly sensitive to changes
the effect of sensitivity of coolant flowrates, ambient in coolant flow and small fluctuations in coolant
temperature drift, and coolant inlet temperature drift flowrate may cause a considerable variation in SD.
on specific dissipation (SD) [see equation (28)]. This 2. Ambient temperature drift (Fig. 9). A drift of about
parameter has been proven to be insensitive to 4 per cent in SD would occur when the ambient
changes in ambient and coolant temperatures, and temperature changed from 10 to 40 °C.
Fig. 8 Effect of coolant flowrates on SD. Analytical predictions versus wind-tunnel test data.
(Reprinted from Ng [4])
Fig. 9 Calculated heat rejection rates and SD values at ambient temperatures between 10 and
45 °C in three uniform flow cases. (Reprinted from Ng [4])
D13604 © IMechE 2005 Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
1464 E Y Ng, P W Johnson, and S Watkins
Fig. 10 Calculated heat rejection rates and SD values at coolant inlet temperatures between 30
and 120 °C in three uniform flow cases. (Reprinted from Ng [4])
9 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
A generalized analytical model was developed based
on applying relevant heat exchanger theory to pre- 1 Olson, M. E. Aerodynamic effects of front end
dict the heat dissipation rates and to study the effects design on automobile engine cooling systems. SAE
of airflow maldistribution on the performance of a technical paper 760188, 1976.
radiator. The model employed the e-NTU method in 2 Chiou, J. P. The effect of the flow nonuniformity on
the sizing of the engine radiator, SAE technical paper
combination with the Davenport correlation for the
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study of a very compact heat exchanger used for
passenger compartment heating in automobiles. APPENDIX 1
ASME Symp. Ser. HTD, 1992, 201, 15–24.
24 Webb, R. L., Chang, Y.-J., and Wang, C.-C. Heat
Notation
transfer and friction correlations for the louvre fin
geometry. Proc. Veh. Thermal Managmt System, A surface area for heat transfer
1995, 2, 533–541. A total heat transfer area on the air side
25 Sahnoun, A. and Webb, R. L. Prediction of heat a
A total heat transfer area on the coolant
transfer and friction for the louvre fin geometry. c
J. Heat Transfer, 1992, 114, 893–900. side
26 Dillen, E. R. and Webb, R. L. Rationally based heat A fin heat transfer area
f
transfer and friction correlations for the louvre fin A fin frontal heat transfer area
fr,f
geometry, SAE technical paper 940504, 1994. A radiator core frontal area
fr,r
D13604 © IMechE 2005 Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
1466 E Y Ng, P W Johnson, and S Watkins
Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D13604 © IMechE 2005
Heat transfer performance of radiators 1467
8. All dimensions are uniform throughout the 11. The thermal conductivity of the radiator material
radiator and the heat transfer surface area is is constant.
consistent and distributed uniformly. 12. The thermal resistance (fouling) induced by fluid
9. There are no heat sources and sinks in the impurities, rust formation, or other reactions
radiator walls or fluids. between the fluids and the material is assumed
10. Pure water is used as the coolant. to be small.
D13604 © IMechE 2005 Proc. IMechE Vol. 219 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering