Chap 02 Basic Laws

Chap 02 Basic Laws
Outline
• Introduction
• Ohm’s Law
• Nodes, Branches, and Loops
• Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Series Resistors and Voltage Division
• Parallel Resistors and Current Division
• Wye-Delta (Y-) Transformations
Chap 02 Basic Laws 2

Introduction
• Study fundamental laws that govern electric

circuits.
– Ohm’s law
– Kirchhoff’s current law
– Kirchhoff’s voltage law

Electrical Resistance
• Resistance is the capacity of materials to
impede the flow of current (or electric charge)
• A circuit element that displays such resistive
behavior is called a resistor.
R
A
ρ = resistivity in ohm-meters (．m)
l = length of material (m),
A = cross-sectional area (m2)
R = resistance in ohms ()
Electrical Resistance (cont.)
(a) Resistor,
(b) Circuit symbol for resistance.
R
A

Categories of Materials
• Materials can be categorized into three main

groups regarding their electrical conduction
properties.
– Insulators
– Conductors
– Semiconductors

Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854)

Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s Law: The voltage v across a resistor is

directly proportional to the current i flowing
through the resistor.
• Ohm’s law provides an algebraic relationship
between voltage and current for a resistor,
v = voltage in volts (V),
v  iR i = current in amperes (A)
R = resistance in ohms ()

Linear/Nonlinear Resistors
• The resistance R (measured in ohms) of an

element denotes its ability to resist the flow of
electric current.
• We use ideal (linear) resistors in this course
that we assume is constant in value and that do
not vary over time (time invariant).

Linear/Nonlinear Resistors (cont.)
The i-v characteristic of:
(a) A linear resistor,
(b) A nonlinear resistor.

Further Topics Related to Ohm’s
Law
• A short circuit is a circuit element with
resistance approaching zero (R→0),
v = iR= 0.
• An open circuit is a circuit element with
resistance approaching infinity (R→∞),
v
i  lim  0
R  R

Further Topics Related to Ohm’s
Law (cont.)
(a) Short circuit (R = 0),
(b) Open circuit (R = )

Examples of Fixed Resistors
Fixed resistors:
(a) wirewound type.
(b) carbon film type.

Example of Variable Resistors
Variable resistors:
(a) Composition type
(b) Slider pot.

Circuit Symbols of Variable Resistors
Circuit symbol for:
(a) A variable resistor in general,
(b) A potentiometer or a pot.

Figure 2.6
Resistors in a thick-film circuit.

Conductance
• Conductance, measured in siemens (S)/ mho

()
,
is the ability of an element to conduct electric
current,
v = voltage in volts (V)
1 i
G  i = current in amperes (A)
R v R = resistance in ohms ()

Power at the Terminals of a
Resistor
• Remember that power can be expressed as
p = power in watts (W)

p  vi v = voltage in volts (V)
i = current in amperes (A)

Resistor (cont.)
• Using Ohm’s law, power can also be
expressed in terms of the current and the
resistance as
p  vi  (iR)i  i R
2
• Power can also be expressed in terms of

voltage and resistance as
2
v
p
R

Resistor (cont.)
• Regardless of voltage polarity and current direction,
power at the terminals of a resistor is positive (p>0),
i.e. a resistor always absorbs power from the circuit.
• The consumed energy in resistor will be dissipated in
terms of heat to the environment. A heater is a typical
resistor.
• If the power supplied to the resistor is so large that
the energy consumed in the resistor cannot reach the
thermal equilibrium, the resistor will be broken;
hence each resistor has a power limit.

Example 2.2
• In the circuit shown in the right figure, calculate the
current i, the conductance G, and the power p.
Ohm's Law  i  v  30  6 mA
R 5  103
1 1
G   0.2 mS
R 5  103
p  vi  30(6 103 )  180 mW

or
p  i 2 R  (6 103 ) 2  5 103  180 mW
or
p  v 2G  (30) 2 0.2 103  180 mW
Nodes, Branches and Loops
• A network: An interconnection of elements of

devices.
• A circuit: A network provides one or more
closed paths.
• A branch represents a single element such as
a voltage source or a resistor.
• A node is the point of connection between two
or more branches.
• A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
A Three-node Circuit
3 Nodes, 5 branches and 3 independent loops.

A Three-node Circuit (cont.)
The three-node circuit of Fig. 2.10 is redrawn.

Fundamental Theorem of Network
Topology
• Independent Loop: A loop contains at least one
branch which is not a part of any other
independent loop.
• Fundamental Theorem of Network Topology:
A network with b branches, n nodes and l
independent loop satisfy the following equation.
b=l+n-1

Series and Parallel Connections
• Two or more elements are in series if they

exclusively share a single node and
consequently carry the same current.
• Two or more elements are in parallel if they
are connected to the same two nodes and
consequently have the same voltage across
them.

An Example of Series and Parallel
Connections
• Series connection: 10-V voltage source and 5-Ω resistor.
• Parallel connection: 2-A current source and 6- Ω resistor.

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
(1824-1887)

Kirchhoff’s Current Law
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL): The

algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a
closed boundary) in a circuit equals zero.
N
i
n 1
n 0
N = number of branches connected to the node

in = nth current entering (or leaving) the node

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (cont.)
• Remember that a node is a point where two or

more circuit elements meet.
• To use KCL, an algebraic sign corresponding
to a reference direction must be assigned to
every current at the node, e.g. a positive sign
for currents leaving a node requires a negative
sign for currents entering a node.

Proof of Kirchhoff’s Current Law
• Assume a set of currents ik(t), k=1,2,…N flow into a
node. Their algebraic sum is
iT(t)=i1(t)+i2(t)+…+iN(t)
• Integrating both sides of the above equation gives
qT(t)=q1(t)+q2(t)+…+qN(t)
• By the Law of conservation of electric charge
 The algebraic sum of electric charges at the node
must not change; that is, the node store no net charge.
Hence
qT(t) = 0 → iT(t) = 0.
Currents at a Node Illustrating KCL
i1  ( i2 )  i3  i4  ( i5 )  0
i1  i3  i4  i2  i5

Applying KCL to a Closed Boundary

A Simple Application of KCL
Combine current sources in parallel
(a) The original circuit.
(b) The equivalent circuit.
I T  I 2  I1  I 3
 I T  I1  I 2  I 3

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL): The

algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed
path (or loop) in a circuit equals zero.
N
v
m 1
m 0
N = the number of voltages in the loop

vm = mth voltage

What is a Closed Path or Loop?
• A closed path or loop is a path that starts at an
arbitrary selected node, and that traces a closed
path in a circuit through selected basic circuit
elements and return to the original node
without passing through any intermediate node
more than once.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (cont.)
• To use Kirchhoff’s voltage law, an algebraic

sign corresponding to a reference polarity must
be assigned to every voltage in the path,
e.g. a positive sign for a voltage rise requires a
negative sign for a voltage drop.

A Single-Loop Circuit
Illustrating KVL
v1  v2  v3  v4  v5  0
v2  v3  v5  v1  v4
Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises
A Simple Application of KVL
Combine voltage sources in series.
(a) The original circuit.
(b) The equivalent circuit.
Vab  V1  V2  V3  0
Vab  V1  V2  V3

Analysis of Resistor Circuits
• By Combining Ohm’s law, KCL, and KVL, we

can analyze any resistor circuits, that is, a
circuit with resistors and active sources.

Example 2.5
Q: Find v1 and v2
Ohm’s Law: v1  2i, v2  3i

KVL: 20  v1  v2  0
20  2i  3i  0  i  4 A
v1  8 V, v2  12 V.
Example 2.6
Q: Determine vo and i
KVL: 12  4i  2v0  4  6i  0

Ohm’s Law: v0  6i
16  10i  12i  0  i  8 A
v0  48 V .
Example 2.7
Q: Determine io and vo
KCL: 3  0.5i0  i0  i0  6 A
Ohm’s Law: v0  4i0  24 V
Example 2.8
Q: Find currents and voltages in the following circuit.

Example 2.8 (cont.)
Ohm's Law: v1  8i1 , v2  3i2 , v3  6i3
KCL at node a: i1  i2  i3  0 (1)
KVL to Loop 1: 30  v1  v2  0
30  8i1  3i2  0
 (30  3i2 )
i1     (2)
8
KVL to Loop 2: v2  v3  0  v3  v2
i2
6i3  3i2  i3  (3)
2
30  3i2 i
 i2  2  0
Combine (1)~(3) 8 2
 i2  2 A
i1  3 A, i3  1 A, v1  24 V, v2  6 V, v3  6V
Resistors in Series
• Remember that two elements are connected in

series when they connect at a single node.
• Series-connected circuit elements carry the
same current. Prove by applying KCL to each
node in the circuit.
• Focus on reducing complex circuits into
simpler, equivalent circuits.

A Single-loop Circuit with Two
Resistors in Series
Ohm's Law: v1  iR1 , v2  iR2 v  v1  v2  i ( R1  R2 )

KVL at the loop: v  v1  v2  0  v
i
R1  R2

Equivalent Circuit of the Previous
Circuit
Rewrite v  i ( R1  R2 )
as v  iReq
• Hence, R1 and R2 can be

replaced by an equivalent
resistor Req; that is
Req  R1  R2

Equivalent Resistance of
Resistors in Series
• The equivalent resistance Req of any number of

resistors connected in series is the sum of the
individual resistances, Ri’s. Note Req > Ri
N
Req  R1  R2   RN   Rn
n 1

The Voltage-Divider Circuit
• Voltage-divider circuits are used to develop more
than one voltage level from a single voltage supply.
• Principle of voltage division: The source voltage v is
divided among the resistors in series in direct
proportion to their resistances.
• Voltage division formula for resistors in series:
Given a set of resistors R1, R2,…, RN, in series, with
the source voltage v, the nth resistors (Rn) will have a
voltage drop of
Rn
vn  v
R1  R2   RN
The Voltage-Divider Circuit (cont.)
• The series connected resistors can realize the voltage-
divider circuits which develop more than one voltage
level from a single voltage supply.
• For example:
R1 R2
v1  v, v2  v
R1  R2 R1  R2

Resistors in Parallel
• Remember that two elements are connected in

parallel when they connect at a single node
pair.
• Parallel-connected circuit elements have the
same voltage across their terminals.
• Focus on reducing complex circuits into
simpler, equivalent circuits.

Two Resistors in Parallel
Ohm's Law: v  i1R1  i2 R2 v v 1 1 

 i   v  
KCL at node a: i  i1  i2 R1 R2  R1 R2 
Equivalent Circuit of the Previous
Circuit
1 1 
Rewrite i  v   
 R1 R2 
v
as i
Req
• Hence, R1 and R2 can be
replaced by an equivalent
resistor Req; that is
1 1 1 R R
   Req  1 2
Req R1 R2 R1  R2

Equivalent Resistance of
• The inverse of the equivalent resistance 1/Req
is the sum of inverses of all N resistors in
parallel. Note Req < Ri
N
1 1 1 1 1
    
Req R1 R2 RN n 1 Rn
If R1  R2   RN  R
R
Req 
N
Equivalent Conductance of
• Since the conductance is equal to the inverse of
resistance, we have
• The equivalent conductance of resistors connected in
parallel is the sum of each conductance.
Geq  G1  G2  G3   GN
where Geq = 1/Req, G1 = 1/R1, G2 = 1/R2,…GN = 1/RN.

Equivalent Conductance of
Resistors in Series
• The inverse of equivalent conductance of resistors
connected in parallel is the sum of the inverses of each
resistor’s conductance.
1 1 1 1 1
   
Geq G1 G2 G3 GN
where Geq = 1/Req, G1 = 1/R1, G2 = 1/R2,…GN = 1/RN.

The Current Divider Circuit
• Principle of current division: The source current i is
shared among the resistors in parallel in inverse
proportion to their resistances.
• Current division formula for resistors in parallel:
Given a set of resistors R1, R2,…, RN, in parallel, with
the source current i, the nth resistors (Rn) will have
current
1
Rn Gn
in  i i
1

1
 
1 G1  G2   GN
R1 R2 RN

The Current-Divider Circuit (cont.)
• The series connected resistors can realize the current-
divider circuits which develop more than one current
level from a single current source.
• For example:
R2 G1
i1  i i
R1  R2 G1  G2
R1 G2
i2  i i
R1  R2 G1  G2

Two Extremely Cases
(a) A shorted circuit

‒ Req=0
− The entire current flows
through the short circuit.
(b) An open circuit
‒ Req=R1
‒ The entire current flows
through the least resistance.

Example 2.9
Q: Find Req of the below circuit.
63
6 3   2
63
1  5  6
Example 2.9 (cont.)
In Fig. (a),
2  2  4,
46
4 6   2.4
46
In Fig. (b),
Req  4  2.4  8  14.4.

Example 2.10
Q: Find Rab of the below circuit.
3 6 12  4
3 6   2; 12 4   3
3 6 12  4
1  5  6.
Example 2.10 (cont.)
In Fig. (a)
3 6
1  3 6  1   3
3 9
In Fig. (b)
23
2 3   1.2
23
Rab  10  1.2  11.2

Example 2.11
Q: Find the equivalent conductance Geq of circuit (a).
Method 1:
In Fig. (a)
8 S  12 S  20 S
In Fig. (b)
20  5
4S
20  5
Geq  6  4  10 S

Method 2:
1 1 1 1  1 1 1  1 1
Req        
6  5 8 12  6  5 20  6 4
1 1

6 4 1
  
1 1 10

6 4
1
Geq   10 S.
Req

Example 2.12
Q: Find i0 and v0, and calculate the power dissipated in
3-Ω resistor of circuit (a).
63
In Fig. (a): 6 3   2
63
12
i 2A
42
2
In Fig. (b): v0  (12 V)  4 V
24
4
v0  3i0  4  i0  A
3
6 2 4
i0  i  (2 A)  A
63 3 3
4
p0  v0i0  4    5.333 W.
 3
Example 2.13
Q: Find (a) v0, (b) the power supplied by the current source,
(c) the power absorbed by each resistor.
(a) 6  12  18k
18000
i1  (30 mA)  20 mA
9000  18000
9000
i2  (30mA)  10 mA
9000  18000
v0  9000i1  18000i2  180 V.
(b) p0  v0i0  180(30) mW  5.4 W.

(c) 12-k resistor

p12  i122 R12  i22 R12  (10  10 3 ) 2 (12000)  1.2 W
6-k resistor
p6  i62 R6  i22 R6  (10  103 ) 2 (6000)  0.6 W
9-k resistor
v92 v02 (180)2
p9     3.6 W or
R9 R9 9000
p9  v9i9  v0i1  180(20) mW  3.6 W
The power supplied 5.4 W  1.2 W  0.6 W  3.6 W.

The Bridge Network
How do we combine resistors R1 through R6 when
they are neither series nor parallel?

Delta (∆)-to-Wye (Y) Equivalent Circuits
• Some circuits of interconnected resistors

cannot be reduced to an equivalent resistance
using the simple series of parallel equivalent
circuits introduced earlier.
• Delta (∆) and pi () circuits are electrically
equivalent.
• Wye (Y) and tee (T) circuits are electrically
equivalent.

Two Forms of the Same Network –
Y and T
Two forms of the same network: (a) Y, (b) T.

Two Forms of the Same Network –
 and 
Two forms of the same network:
(a) , (b) .

Delta (∆)-to-Wye (Y) Equivalent
Circuits (cont.)
• For each pair of terminals in ∆- and Y-connected
circuits, the equivalent resistance can be got
using series and parallel simplifications:
R12(Y) R12(∆)
By R12 (Y)  R12 ( )

R12 ( Y)  R1  R3 ,
 Rb ( Ra  Rc )
R12 ( )  Rb ( Ra  Rc ) R12  R1  R3  (a)
Ra  Rb  Rc
Circuits (cont.)
Rb ( Ra  Rc )
R12  R1  R3  (a)
Ra  Rb  Rc
Rc ( Rb  Ra )
R13  R1  R2  (b)
Ra  Rb  Rc
Ra ( Rb  Rc )
R34  R2  R3  (c)
Ra  Rb  Rc
Ra Rb  Rb Rc  Rc Ra
(a)+(b)+ (c)  R1  R2  R3 
Ra  R b  Rc

Circuits (cont.)
• Y-connected resistors in terms of ∆-connected
resistors required for the ∆-to-Y equivalent
circuit:
Rb Rc
R1  (1)
Ra  Rb  Rc
Rc Ra
R2  (2)
Ra  Rb  Rc
Ra Rb
R3  (3)
Ra  Rb  Rc
Circuits (cont.)
• Each resistor in the Y network is the product
of the resistors in the two adjacent  branches,
divided by the sum of the three  resistors.
Rb Rc
R1 
Ra  Rb  Rc
Superposition of Y and  Networks
Superposition of Y and  networks as an aid in transforming one to
the other.

Wye (Y)-to-Delta (∆) Equivalent
Circuits
• ∆-connected resistors in terms of Y-connected
resistors required for the Y-to-∆ equivalent
circuit: Rb Rc
R1 
Ra  Rb  Rc
• By equations (1)~(3), we have RR
R2  c a
Ra  Rb  Rc
Ra Rb Rc ( Ra  Rb  Rc ) R3 
Ra Rb
R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1  Ra  Rb  Rc
( Ra  Rb  Rc ) 2
Ra Rb Rc
 (A)
Ra  Rb  Rc
Circuits (cont.)
Rb Rc
R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1 R1 
Ra  Rb  Rc
(A)/(1) Ra 
R1 R2 
Rc Ra
Ra  Rb  Rc
R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
(A)/(2) Rb  R3 
Ra Rb
R2 Ra  Rb  Rc
R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
(A)/(3)
Rc 
R3
• Each resistor in the  network is the sum of all
possible products of Y resistors taken two at a
time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.
Circuits (cont.)
R1R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Rc 
R3
R1R2  R2 R3  R3 R1 R1R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Rb  Ra 
R2 R1

A Special Case
R1  R2  R3  RY , Ra  Rb  Rc  R

R
RY  or R  3RY
3
Rb Rc R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
R1  Ra 
Ra  Rb  Rc R1
Rc Ra R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
R2  Rb 
Ra  Rb  Rc R2
Ra Rb R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
R3  Rc 
Ra  Rb  Rc R3
An Example of ∆ to Y
Rb Rc 10  25
R1   5
Ra  Rb  Rc 15  10  25
Rc Ra 25 15
R2    7.5 
Ra  Rb  Rc 50
Ra Rb 15 10
R3   3
Ra  Rb  Rc 50
Example 2.15
Q: Obtain the equivalent Rab and use it to find the current i.
1. Define: the problem is

clearly defined.
2. Present:
a) remove voltage source
b) a resistive circuit
c) Y-∆ or ∆ -Y
3. Alternative: many
different approaches
can be used

4. Attempt.
• The circuit contains 2 Y
networks and 3 ∆ networks.
• Transforming just one can
simplify the analysis.
• We transform a Y to a ∆.
R1  10 , R2  20 , R3  5 
R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1 350
Ra    35 
R1 10
R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1 350
Rb    17.5 
R2 20
R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1 350
Rc    70 
R3 5
• With the Y converted to , combining the three pairs
of resistors in parallel, 70  30
70 30   21 
70  30
12.5 17.5
12.5 17.5   7.292 
12.5  17.5
15  35
15 35   10.5 
15  35

17.792  21
Rab  (7.292  10.5) 21   9.632 
17.792  21
Then
vs 120
i   12.458 A.
Rab 9.632

5. Evaluate (Solve it by ∆-Y transformation).
Let Rc  10 , Ra  5 , Rn  12.5 
Rc Rn 10 12.5
Rad    4.545 
Ra  Rc  Rn 5  10  12.5
Ra Rn 5 12.5
Rcd    2.273 
27.5 27.5
Ra Rc 5 10
Rnd    1.8182 
27.5 27.5

• Looking at the resistance between d and b,
(2.273  15)(1.8182  20) 376.9

Rdb    9.642 .
2.273  15  1.8182  20 39.09
(9.642  4.545)30 425.6
Rab    9.631 
9.642  4.545  30 44.19
vs 120
i   12.46 A.
Rab 9.631
6. Satisfactory?

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Chap 02 Basic Laws

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Chap 02 Basic Laws

Chap 02 Basic Laws 2

• Study fundamental laws that govern electric

Chap 02 Basic Laws 3

Chap 02 Basic Laws 5

• Materials can be categorized into three main

Chap 02 Basic Laws 6

Chap 02 Basic Laws 7

• Ohm’s Law: The voltage v across a resistor is

Chap 02 Basic Laws 8

• The resistance R (measured in ohms) of an

Chap 02 Basic Laws 9

Chap 02 Basic Laws 10

Chap 02 Basic Laws 11

Chap 02 Basic Laws 12

Chap 02 Basic Laws 13

Chap 02 Basic Laws 14

Chap 02 Basic Laws 15

Chap 02 Basic Laws 16

• Conductance, measured in siemens (S)/ mho

Chap 02 Basic Laws 17

p = power in watts (W)

Chap 02 Basic Laws 18

• Power can also be expressed in terms of

Chap 02 Basic Laws 19

Chap 02 Basic Laws 20

p  vi  30(6 103 )  180 mW

• A network: An interconnection of elements of

Chap 02 Basic Laws 23

Chap 02 Basic Laws 24

Chap 02 Basic Laws 25

• Two or more elements are in series if they

Chap 02 Basic Laws 26

Chap 02 Basic Laws 27

Chap 02 Basic Laws 28

• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL): The

N = number of branches connected to the node

Chap 02 Basic Laws 29

• Remember that a node is a point where two or

Chap 02 Basic Laws 30

Chap 02 Basic Laws 32

Chap 02 Basic Laws 33

Chap 02 Basic Laws 34

• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL): The

N = the number of voltages in the loop

Chap 02 Basic Laws 35

Chap 02 Basic Laws 36

• To use Kirchhoff’s voltage law, an algebraic

Chap 02 Basic Laws 37

Chap 02 Basic Laws 39

• By Combining Ohm’s law, KCL, and KVL, we

Chap 02 Basic Laws 40

Ohm’s Law: v1  2i, v2  3i

KVL: 12  4i  2v0  4  6i  0

Chap 02 Basic Laws 44

• Remember that two elements are connected in

Chap 02 Basic Laws 46

Ohm's Law: v1  iR1 , v2  iR2 v  v1  v2  i ( R1  R2 )

Chap 02 Basic Laws 47

• Hence, R1 and R2 can be

Chap 02 Basic Laws 48

• The equivalent resistance Req of any number of

Chap 02 Basic Laws 49

Chap 02 Basic Laws 51