A

Seminar Report

On

Cruise Missile Technology

submitted

in partial fulfillment

for the award of the Degree of

Bachelor of Technology

in Department of Mechanical Engineering

Submitted To Submitted By
Mr. Ankur Dutt Sharma Hanuman Tharoda
(Head Of Department) Roll No.14EAOME032

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Arya Institute of Engineering Technology &Management

Rajasthan Technical University

2014- 2018
 Acknowledgement

I would like to first of all express my thanks to Dr. Arvind Agarwal, president of Arya Group of Colleges,
for providing us such a great infrastructure and environment for overall development.

I express sincere thanks to Dr. I.C. Sharma, the principal of AIETM, for his kind cooperation and
extensible support towards the completion of our project.

Words are inadequate in offering my thanks to Mr. Ankur Dutt Sharma, Head of ME Department, for
consistent encouragement and support for shaping our project in presentable form.

I also express my deepest thanks to Mr. Vikash kumawat (Project coordinator), for their support.

Name:-

Hanuman Tharoda
 PROJECT APPROVAL

The Project entitled “Footstep Power Generation” Hanuman Tharoda student of 4th year (7th Semester)
B.Tech in Mechanical Engineering is approved as a partial fulfilment for the award of degree of bachelor of
technology of Arya Institute of Engineering Technology And Management, Jaipur.

External Examiner
 Candidate’s Declaration

I hereby declare that the work, which is being presented in the Project entitled “Intelligent Braking System”
in partial fulfilment for the award of degree of “Bachelor of Technology” in Mechanical Engineering, Arya
Institute of Engineering Technology and Management, Affiliated to Rajasthan Technical University is a
record of my own work carried out under the guidance of Mr. Vikash Kumawat, Project coordinator,
Department of Mechanical Engineering.

(Signature of Candidate)

Ram Prakash
 INDEX

Abstract………………………………………………………………………….1

Introduction……………………………………………………………………..1

Objective………………………………………………………………………....2

General Considrations………………………………………………………….2

Working Principle……………………………………………………………....3

Advantage……………………………………………………………………….4

Applications……………………………………………………………………..5

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………6
1. ABSTRACT
Unmanned Combat Air Vehicles, or UCAV, are increasingly an important capability available to
military commanders and, as they become more capable, they will be able to replace cruise missiles
in many of their traditional roles. This article looks at some of the possible tends for both UCAVs
and cruise missiles in order to predict if cruise missiles will be able to survive the competition. A
cruise missile is basically a small, pilotless airplane. Cruise missiles have an 8.5-foot (2.615-meter)
wingspan, are powered by turbofan engines and can fly 500 to 1,000 miles (805 to 1,610 km)
depend on the configuration. A cruise missile's job in life is to deliver a 1,000-pound (450-kg) high-
explosive bomb to a exact location -- the target. The missile is destroyed when the bomb explodes.
Cruise missiles come in a number of varying and can be launched from submarines, destroyers or
aircraft.

2. INTRODUCTION
A cruise missile is basically a small, pilotless airplane. Cruise missiles have an 8.5-foot (2.61-meter)
wingspan, are powered by turbofan engines and can fly 500 to 1,000 miles (805 to 1,610 km)
depending on the configuration. A cruise missile's job in life is to deliver a 1,000-pound (450-kg)
high-explosive bomb to a precise location -- the target. The missile is destroyed when the bomb
explodes. Cruise missiles come in a number of variations and can be launched from submarines,
destroyers or aircraft.

Figure:- Tomahawk cruise missile

3. DEFINITION
An unmanned self-propelled guided vehicle that sustains flight through aerodynamic lift for most of
its flight path and whose primary mission is to place an ordnance or special payload on a target.
This definition can include unmanned air vehicles (UAVs) and unmanned control-guided
helicopters or aircraft.
4. HISTORY
The idea of an "aerial torpedo" was shown in the British 1909 film The Airship Destroyer, where
flying torpedoes controlled wirelessly are used to bring down airships bombing London. In 1916,
Lawrence Sperry built and patented an "aerial torpedo", a small biplane carrying a TNT charge, a
Sperry autopilot and a barometric altitude control. Inspired by these experiments, the United States
Army developed a similar flying bomb called the Kettering Bug. Germany had also flown trials
with remote-controlled aerial gliders (Torpedogleiter) built by Siemens-Schuckert beginning in
1916 In the period between the World Wars the United Kingdom developed the Larynx (Long
Range Gun with Lynx Engine), which underwent a few flight tests in the 1920s. In the Soviet
Union, Sergei Korolev headed the GIRD-06 cruise missile project from 1932 to 1939, which used a
rocket-powered boost-glide bomb design. The 06/III (RP-216) and 06/IV (RP-212) contained
gyroscopic guidance systems. The vehicle was designed to boost to 28 km altitude and glide a
distance of 280 km, but test flights in 1934 and 1936 only reached an altitude of 500 meters. In
1944, Germany deployed the first operational cruise missiles in World War II. The V-1, often called
a flying bomb, contained a gyroscope guidance system and was propelled by a simple pulsejet
engine, the sound of which gave it the nickname of "buzz bomb" or "doodlebug". Accuracy was
sufficient only for use against very large targets (the general area of a city), while the range of 250
km was significantly lower than that of a bomber carrying the same payload. The main advantages
were speed (while not sufficient to outperform contemporary interceptors) and expendability. The
production cost of a V-1 was only a small fraction of that of a V-2 supersonic ballistic missile,
carrying a similar-sized warhead. Unlike the V-2, however, the initial deployments of the V-1
required stationary launch ramps which were susceptible to bombardment. Nazi Germany, in 1943,
also developed the Mistel composite aircraft program, which can be seen as a rudimentary air-
launched cruise missile, where a piloted fighter-type aircraft was mounted atop an unpiloted
bomber-sized aircraft that was packed with explosives to be released while approaching the target.

Figure:- Taurus KEPD 350 cruise missile

Bomber launched variants of the V-1 saw limited operational service near the end of the war, with
the pioneering V-1's design reverse engineered by the Americans as the Republic-Ford JB-2 cruise
missile. Immediately after the war the United States Air Force had 21 different guided missile
projects, including would-be cruise missiles. All but four were cancelled by 1948, — the Air
Materiel Command BANSHEE, the SM-62 Snarky, the SM-64 Navaho, and the MGM-1 Matador.
The BANSHEE design was similar to Operation Aphrodite; like Aphrodite, it failed, and was
cancelled in April 1949. During the Cold War period both the United States and the Soviet Union
experimented further with the concept, deploying early cruise missiles from land, submarines and
aircraft. The main outcome of the United States Navy submarine missile project was the SSM-N-8
Regulus missile, based upon the V-1. The United States Air Force's first operational surface-to-
surface missile was the winged, mobile, nuclear-capable MGM-1 Matador, also similar in concept
to the V-1. Deployment overseas began in 1954, first to West Germany and later to the Republic of
China (Taiwan) and South Korea. On November 7, 1956, U.S. Air Force deployed Matador units in
West Germany, whose missiles were capable of striking targets in the Warsaw Pact, from their fixed
day-to-day sites to unannounced dispersed launch locations. This alert was in response to the crisis
posed by the Soviet attack on Hungary which suppressed the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.
Between 1957 and 1961 the United States followed an ambitious and well-funded program to
develop a nuclear-powered cruise missile, Supersonic Low Altitude Missile (SLAM). It was
designed to fly below the enemy's radar at speeds above Mach 3 and carry a number of hydrogen
bombs that it would drop along its path over enemy territory. Although the concept was proven
sound and the 500 megawatt engine finished a successful test run in 1961, no airworthy device was
ever completed. The project was finally abandoned in favour of ICBM development. While ballistic
missiles were the preferred weapons for land targets, heavy nuclear and conventional weapon tipped
cruise missiles were seen by the USSR as a primary weapon to destroy United States naval carrier
battle groups. Large submarines (for example, Echo and Oscar classes) were developed to carry
these weapons and shadow United States battle groups at sea, and large bombers (for example,
Backfire, Bear, and Blackjack models) were equipped with the weapons in their air-launched cruise
missile (ALCM) configuration.

5. GENERAL DESIGN
Cruise missiles generally consist of a guidance system, payload, and aircraft propulsion system,
housed in an airframe with small wings and empennage for flight control. Payloads usually consist
of a conventional warhead or a nuclear warhead. Cruise missiles tend to be propelled by a jet
engine, turbofan engines being preferred due to their greater efficiency at low altitude and subsonic
General design speed.

5.1 AIRFRAME
The airframe of an aircraft is its mechanical structure. It is typically considered to include fuselage,
wings and undercarriage and exclude the propulsion system. Airframe design is a field of aerospace
engineering that combines aerodynamics, materials technology and manufacturing methods to
achieve balances of performance, reliability and cost
 Airframe diagram for an Agusta Westland AW101 helicopter

5.1.1 MODERN ERA AIRFRAME

Airbus and Boeing are the dominant assemblers of large jet airliners while ATR, Bombardier and
Embraer lead the regional airliner market; many manufacturers produce airframe components. The
vertical stabilizer of the Airbus A310-300, first flown in 1985, was the first carbon-fiber primary
structure used in a commercial aircraft; composites are increasingly used since in Airbus airliners:
the horizontal stabilizer of the A320 in 1987 and A330/A340 in 1994, and the center wing-box and
aft fuselage of the A380 in 2005. The Cirrus SR20, type certificated in 1998, was the first widely
produced general aviation aircraft manufactured with all-composite construction, followed by
several other light aircraft in the 2000s. The Boeing 787, first flown in 2009, was the first
commercial aircraft with 50% of its structure weight made of carbon-fiber composites, along 20%
Aluminium and 15% titanium: the material allows for a lower-drag, higher wing aspect ratio and
higher cabin pressurization; the competing Airbus A350, flown in 2013, is 53% carbon-fiber by
structure weight. It has a one-piece carbon fiber fuselage, said to replace "1,200 sheets of aluminium
and 40,000 rivets." The 2013 Bombardier Series have a dry-fiber resin transfer infusion wing with a
lightweight aluminium-lithium alloy fuselage for damage resistance and reparability, a combination
which could be used for future narrow-body aircraft. In February 2017, Airbus installed a 3D
printing machine for titanium aircraft structural parts using electron beam additive manufacturing
from Sciaky, Inc..

5.1.2 SAFETY IN AIRFRAME

Airframe production has become an exacting process. Manufacturers operate under strict quality
control and government regulations. Departures from established standards become objects of major
concern. A landmark in aeronautical design, the world's first jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet,
first flew in 1949. Early models suffered from catastrophic airframe metal fatigue, causing a series
of widely publicised accidents. The Royal Aircraft Establishment investigation at Farnborough
Airport founded the science of aircraft crash reconstruction. After 3000 pressurisation cycles in a
specially constructed pressure chamber, airframe failure was found to be due to stress concentration,
a consequence of the square shaped windows. The windows had been engineered to be glued and
riveted, but had been punch riveted only. Unlike drill riveting, the imperfect nature of the hole
created by punch riveting may cause the start of fatigue cracks around the rivet. The Lockheed L-
188 Electra turboprop, first flown in 1957 became a costly lesson in controlling oscillation and
planning around metal fatigue. Its 1959 crash of Braniff Flight 542 showed the difficulties that the
airframe industry and its airline customers can experience when adopting new technology. The
incident bears comparison with the Airbus A300 crash on takeoff of the American Airlines Flight
587 in 2001, after its vertical stabilizer broke away from the fuselage, called attention to operation,
maintenance and design issues involving composite materials that are used in many recent
airframes. The A300 had experienced other structural problems but none of this magnitude.

5.2 EMPENNAGE
The empennage also known as the tail or tail assembly is a structure at the rear of an aircraft that
provides stability during flight, in a way similar to the feathers on an arrow. The term derives from
the French language word empenner which means "to feather an arrow". Most aircraft feature an
empennage incorporating vertical and horizontal stabilizing surfaces which stabilize the flight
dynamics of yaw and pitch, as well as housing control surfaces. In spite of effective control
surfaces, many early aircraft that lacked a stabilizing empennage were virtually unflyable. Even so-
called "tailless aircraft" usually have a tail fin (usually a vertical stabilizer). Heavier-than-air aircraft
without any kind of empennage (such as the Northrop B-2) are rare.

The empennage of a Boeing 747-200

5.2.1 STRUCTURE
Structurally, the empennage consists of the entire tail assembly, including the tailfin, the tail plane
and the part of the fuselage to which these are attached. On an airliner this would be all the flying
and control surfaces behind the rear pressure bulkhead. The front (usually fixed) section of the tail
plane is called the tail plane or horizontal stabiliser and is used to provide pitch stability. The rear
section is called the elevator, and is usually hinged to the horizontal stabiliser. The elevator is a
movable aerofoil that controls changes in pitch, the up-and-down motion of the aircraft's nose.
Some aircraft employ an all-moving stabiliser and elevators in one unit, known as a stabilator or
"full-flying stabiliser". The vertical tail structure (or fin) has a fixed front section called the vertical
stabiliser, used to restrict side-to-side motion of the aircraft (yawing). The rear section of the
vertical fin is the rudder, a movable aerofoil that is used to turn the aircraft's nose to one side or the
other. When used in combination with the ailerons, the result is a banking turn, often referred to as a
"coordinated turn". Some aircraft are fitted with a tail assembly that is hinged to pivot in two axes
forward of the fin and stabiliser, in an arrangement referred to as a movable tail. The entire
empennage is rotated vertically to actuate the horizontal stabiliser, and sideways to actuate the fin.
The aircraft's cockpit voice recorder, flight data recorder and Emergency locator transmitter (ELT)
are often located in the empennage, because the aft of the aircraft provides better protection for
these in most aircraft crashes

5.2.2 TRIM
In some aircraft trim devices are provided to eliminate the need for the pilot to maintain constant
pressure on the elevator or rudder controls.
The trim device may be:
 a trim tab on the rear of the elevators or rudder which act to change the aerodynamic load on
the surface. Usually controlled by a cockpit wheel or crank.
 an adjustable stabiliser into which the stabiliser may be hinged at its spar and adjustably
jacked a few degrees in incidence either up or down. Usually controlled by a cockpit crank.
 a bungee trim system which uses a spring to provide an adjustable preload in the controls.
Usually controlled by a cockpit lever.
 an anti-servo tab used to trim some elevators and stabilators as well as increased control
force feel. Usually controlled by a cockpit wheel or crank.
 a servo tab used to move the main control surface, as well as act as a trim tab. Usually
controlled by a cockpit wheel or crank.
 Multi-engined aircraft often have trim tabs on the rudder to reduce the pilot effort required to
keep the aircraft straight in situations of asymmetrical thrust, such as single engine
operations.

5.2.3 TAIL CONFIGURATIONS

Aircraft empennage designs may be classified broadly according to the fin and tailplane
configurations. The overall shapes of individual tail surfaces (tailplane planforms, fin profiles) are
similar to wing planforms.

a) TAIL PLANES
The tailplane comprises the tail-mounted fixed horizontal stabiliser and movable elevator. Besides
its planform,
it is characterised by:
 Number of tailplanes - from 0 (tailless or canard) to 3 (Roe triplane)
 Location of tailplane - mounted high, mid or low on the fuselage, fin or tail booms.
 Fixed stabiliser and movable elevator surfaces, or a single combined stabilator or flying tail.

Some locations have been given special names:

i. CRUCIFORM TAIL - The horizontal stabilisers are placed midway up the vertical
stabiliser, giving the appearance of a cross when viewed from the front. Cruciform tails are
often used to keep the horizontal stabilisers out of the engine wake, while avoiding many of
the disadvantages of a T-tail. Examples include the Hawker Sea Hawk and Douglas A-4
Skyhawk.
ii. T-TAIL - The horizontal stabiliser is mounted on top of the fin, creating a "T" shape when
viewed from the front. T-tails keep the stabilisers out of the engine wake, and give better
pitch control. T-tails have a good glide ratio, and are more efficient on low speed aircraft.
However, T-tails are more likely to enter a deep stall, and are more difficult to recover from a
 spin. T-tails must be stronger, and therefore heavier than conventional tails. T-tails also have
a larger radar cross section. Examples include the Gloster Javelin, Boeing 727 and
McDonnell Douglas DC-9.

b) FINS
The fin comprises the fixed vertical stabiliser and rudder. Besides its profile,
it is characterised by:
 Number of fins - usually one or two.
 Location of fins - on the fuselage (over or under), tailplane, tail booms or wings
Twin fins may be mounted at various points:
 Twin tail A twin tail, also called an H-tail, consists of two small vertical stabilisers on either
side of the horizontal stabiliser. Examples include the Antonov An-225 Mriya, B-25
Mitchell, Avro Lancaster, and ERCO Ercoupe.
 Twin boom A twin boom has two fuselages or booms, with a vertical stabiliser on each, and
a horizontal stabiliser between them. Examples include the P-38 Lightning, de Havilland
Vampire, Sadler Vampire, and Edgley Optica.
 Wing mounted midwing as on the F7U Cutlass or on the wing tips as on the Handley Page
Manx and Rutan Long-EZ

Unusual fin configurations include:

 No fin - as on the McDonnell Douglas X-36. This configuration is sometimes incorrectly
referred to as "tailless".
 Multiple fins - examples include the Lockheed Constellation (three), Bellanca 14-13 (three),
and the Northrop Grumman E-2 Hawkeye (four).
 Ventral fin - underneath the fuselage. Often used in addition to a conventional fin as on the
(North American X-15 and Dornier Do 335).
c) V AND X TAILS
An alternative to the fin-and-tailplane approach is provided by the V-tail and X-tail designs. Here,
the tail surfaces are set at diagonal angles, with each surface contributing to both pitch and yaw. The
control surfaces, sometimes called ruddervators, act differentially to provide yaw control (in place
of the rudder) and act together to provide pitch control (in place of the elevator).

V tail: A V-tail can be lighter than a conventional tail in some situations and produce less drag, as
on the Fouga Magister trainer, Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk RPV and X-37 spacecraft. A
V-tail may also have a smaller radar signature. Other aircraft featuring a V-tail include the
Beechcraft Model 35 Bonanza, and Davis DA-2. A slight modification to the V-tail can be found on
the Waiex and Monnett Moni called a Y-tail.
Inverted V tail: The unmanned Predator uses an inverted V-tail as do the Lazair and Mini-IMP.
X TAIL: The Lockheed XFV and Convair XFY Pogo both featured "X" tails, which were
reinforced and fitted with a wheel on each surface so that the craft could sit on its tail and take off
and land vertically.

d) OUTBOARD TAIL
An outboard tail is split in two, with each half mounted on a short boom just behind and outboard of
each wing tip. It comprises outboard horizontal stabilizers (OHS) and may or may not include
additional boom-mounted vertical stabilizers (fins). In this position, the tail surfaces interact
constructively with the wingtip vortices and, with careful design, can significantly reduce drag to
improve efficiency, without adding unduly to the structural loads on the wing. The configuration
was first developed during World War II by Richard Vogt and George Haag at Blohm & Voss. The
Skoda-Kauba SL6 tested the proposed control system in 1944 and, following several design
proposals, an order was received for the Blohm & Voss P 215 just weeks before the war ended. The
outboard tail reappeared on the Scaled Composites SpaceShipOne in 2003 and SpaceShipTwo in
2010.
e) TAILLESS AIRCRAFT
A tailless aircraft (often tail-less) traditionally has all its horizontal control surfaces on its main wing
surface. It has no horizontal stabiliser - either tailplane or canard foreplane (nor does it have a
second wing in tandem arrangement). A 'tailless' type usually still has a vertical stabilising fin
(vertical stabiliser) and control surface (rudder). However, NASA adopted the 'tailless' description
for the novel X-36 research aircraft which has a canard foreplane but no vertical fin. The most
successful tailless configuration has been the tailless delta, especially for combat aircraft

5.3 JET ENGINE

 A jet engine is a reaction engine discharging a fast-moving jet that generates thrust by jet
propulsion. This broad definition includes airbreathing jet engines (turbojets, turbofans,
ramjets, and pulse jets) and non-airbreathing jet engines (such as rocket engines). In general,
jet engines are combustion engines.
 In common parlance, the term jet engine loosely refers to an internal combustion airbreathing
jet engine. These typically feature a rotating air compressor powered by a turbine, with the
leftover power providing thrust via a propelling nozzle — this process is known as the
Brayton thermodynamic cycle. Jet aircraft use such engines for long-distance travel. Early jet
aircraft used turbojet engines which were relatively inefficient for subsonic flight. Modern
subsonic jet aircraft usually use more complex high-bypass turbofan engines. These engines
offer high speed and greater fuel efficiency than piston and propeller aeroengines over long
distances.
 The thrust of a typical jetliner engine went from 5,000 lbf (22,000 N) (de Havilland Ghost
turbojet ) in the 1950s to 115,000 lbf (510,000 N) (General Electric GE90 turbofan) in the
1990s, and their reliability went from 40 in-flight shutdowns per 100,000 engine flight hours
to less than one in the late 1990s. This, combined with greatly decreased fuel consumption,
permitted routine transatlantic flight by twin-engined airliners by the turn of the century,
where before a similar journey would have required multiple fuel stops.

Pratt & Whitney F100 turbofan engine for the F-15 Eagle

5.3.1 USES
 Jet engines power jet aircraft, cruise missiles and unmanned aerial vehicles. In the form of
rocket engines they power fireworks, model rocketry, spaceflight, and military missiles.
  Jet engines have propelled high speed cars, particularly drag racers, with the all-time record
held by a rocket car. A turbofan powered car, ThrustSSC, currently holds the land speed
record.
 Jet engine designs are frequently modified for non-aircraft applications, as industrial gas
turbines or marine powerplants. These are used in electrical power generation, for powering
water, natural gas, or oil pumps, and providing propulsion for ships and locomotives.
Industrial gas turbines can create up to 50,000 shaft horsepower. Many of these engines are
derived from older military turbojets such as the Pratt & Whitney J57 and J75 models. There
is also a derivative of the P&W JT8D low-bypass turbofan that creates up to 35,000 HP.
 Jet engines are also sometimes developed into, or share certain components such as engine
cores, with turboshaft and turboprop engines, which are forms of gas turbine engines that are
typically used to power helicopters and some propeller-driven aircraft.

5.3.2 TYPES
There are a large number of different types of jet engines, all of which achieve forward thrust from
the principle of jet propulsion.

I. AIRBREATHING
Commonly aircraft are propelled by airbreathing jet engines. Most airbreathing jet engines that are
in use are turbofan jet engines, which give good efficiency at speeds just below the speed of sound.

II. Turbine powered

Gas turbines are rotary engines that extract energy from a flow of combustion gas. They have an
upstream compressor coupled to a downstream turbine with a combustion chamber in-between. In
aircraft engines, those three core components are often called the "gas generator." There are many
different variations of gas turbines, but they all use a gas generator system of some type.

III. TURBOJET
A turbojet engine is a gas turbine engine that works by compressing air with an inlet and a
compressor (axial, centrifugal, or both), mixing fuel with the compressed air, burning the mixture in
the combustor, and then passing the hot, high pressure air through a turbine and a nozzle. The
compressor is powered by the turbine, which extracts energy from the expanding gas passing
through it. The engine converts internal energy in the fuel to kinetic energy in the exhaust,
producing thrust. All the air ingested by the inlet is passed through the compressor, combustor, and
turbine, unlike the turbofan engine described below.

5.4 TURBOFAN
The turbofan or fanjet is a type of airbreathing jet engine that is widely used in aircraft propulsion.
The word "turbofan" is a portmanteau of "turbine" and "fan": the turbo portion refers to a gas
turbine engine which achieves mechanical energy from combustion, and the fan, a ducted fan that
uses the mechanical energy from the gas turbine to accelerate air rearwards. Thus, whereas all the
air taken in by a turbojet passes through the turbine (through the combustion chamber), in a turbofan
some of that air bypasses the turbine. A turbofan thus can be thought of as a turbojet being used to
drive a ducted fan, with both of those contributing to the thrust. The ratio of the mass-flow of air
bypassing the engine core compared to the mass-flow of air passing through the core is referred to
as the bypass ratio. The engine produces thrust through a combination of these two portions
working together; engines that use more jet thrust relative to fan thrust are known as low-bypass
turbofans, conversely those that have considerably more fan thrust than jet thrust are known as
high-bypass. Most commercial aviation jet engines in use today are of the high-bypass type, and
most modern military fighter engines are low-bypass. Afterburners are not used on high-bypass
turbofan engines but may be used on either low-bypass turbofan or turbojet engines. Most of the air
flow through a high-bypass turbofan is low-velocity bypass flow: even when combined with the
much higher velocity engine exhaust, the average exhaust velocity is considerably lower than in a
pure turbojet.

Schematic diagram of a high-bypass turbofan engine

Turbojet engine noise is predominately jet noise from the high exhaust velocity, therefore turbofan
engines are significantly quieter than a pure-jet of the same thrust with jet noise no longer the
predominant source. Other noise sources are the fan, compressor and turbine. Jet noise is reduced by
using chevrons - saw tooth patterns on the exhaust nozzles - on the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 and
General Electric GEnx engines, which are used on the Boeing 787. Since the efficiency of
propulsion is a function of the relative airspeed of the exhaust to the surrounding air, propellers are
most efficient for low speed, pure jets for high speeds, and ducted fans in the middle. Turbofans are
thus the most efficient engines in the range of speeds from about 500 to 1,000 km/h (310 to 620
mph), the speed at which most commercial aircraft operate. Turbofans retain an efficiency edge
over pure jets at low supersonic speeds up to roughly Mach 1.6 (1,960.1 km/h; 1,217.9 mph).
Modern turbofans have either a large single-stage fan or a smaller fan with several stages. An early
configuration combined a low-pressure turbine and fan in a single rear-mounted unit.

5.4.1 EARLY TURBOFANS

Early turbojet engines were not very fuel-efficient as their overall pressure ratio and turbine inlet
temperature were severely limited by the technology available at the time. In 1939–1941 Soviet
designer Arkhip Lyulka elaborated the design for the world's first turbofan engine, and acquired a
patent for this new invention on April 22, 1941. Although several prototypes were built and ready
for testing, Lyulka was forced to abandon his research and evacuate to the Urals following the Nazi
invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. So the first turbofan to run was apparently the German
Daimler-Benz DB 670 (designated as the 109-007 by the RLM) with a first run date of 27 May
1943. Turbo machinery testing, using an electric motor, had started on 1 April 1943. The engine
was abandoned later while the war went on and problems could not be solved.
 Engine Alliance GP7000 turbofan

The British wartime Metrovick F.2 axial flow jet was given a fan, as the Metrovick F.3 in 1943, to
create the first British turbofan. Improved materials, and the introduction of twin compressors such
as in the Bristol Olympus and Pratt & Whitney JT3C engines, increased the overall pressure ratio
and thus the thermodynamic efficiency of engines, but they also led to a poor propulsive efficiency,
as pure turbojets have a high specific thrust/high velocity exhaust better suited to supersonic flight.
The original low-bypass turbofan engines were designed to improve propulsive efficiency by
reducing the exhaust velocity to a value closer to that of the aircraft. The Rolls-Royce Conway, the
world's first production turbofan, had a bypass ratio of 0.3, similar to the modern General Electric
F404 fighter engine. Civilian turbofan engines of the 1960s, such as the Pratt & Whitney JT8D and
the Rolls-Royce Spey had bypass ratios closer to 1, and were similar to their military equivalents.
The first General Electric turbofan was the aft-fan CJ805-23 based on the CJ805-3 turbojet. It was
followed by the aft-fan General Electric CF700 engine with a 2.0 bypass ratio. This was derived
from the General Electric J85/CJ610 turbojet (2,850 lbf or 12,650 N) to power the larger Rockwell
Sabreliner 75/80 model aircraft, as well as the Assault Falcon 20 with about a 50% increase in thrust
(4,200 lbf or 18,700 N). The CF700 was the first small turbofan in the world to be certified by the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). There were at one time over 400 CF700 aircraft in
operation around the world, with an experience base of over 10 million service hours. The CF700
turbofan engine was also used to train Moon-bound astronauts in Project Apollo as the power plant
for the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle.

5.4.2 LOW-BYPASS TURBOFAN

A high-specific-thrust/low-bypass-ratio turbofan normally has a multi-stage fan, developing a
relatively high pressure ratio and, thus, yielding a high (mixed or cold) exhaust velocity. The core
airflow needs to be large enough to give sufficient core power to drive the fan. A smaller core
flow/higher bypass ratio cycle can be achieved by raising the (HP) turbine rotor inlet temperature.
To illustrate one aspect of how a turbofan differs from a turbojet, they may be compared, as in a re-
engining assessment, at the same airflow (to keep a common intake for example) and the same net
thrust (i.e. same specific thrust). A bypass flow can be added only if the turbine inlet temperature is
not too high to compensate for the smaller core flow. Future improvements in turbine
cooling/material technology can allow higher turbine inlet temperature, which is necessary because
of increased cooling air temperature, resulting from an overall pressure ratio increase. The resulting
turbofan, with reasonable efficiencies and duct loss for the added components, would probably
operate at a higher nozzle pressure ratio than the turbojet, but with a lower exhaust temperature to
retain net thrust. Since the temperature rise across the whole engine (intake to nozzle) would be
lower, the (dry power) fuel flow would also be reduced, resulting in a better specific fuel
consumption (SFC). Some low-bypass ratio military turbofans (e.g. F404) have variable inlet guide
vanes to direct air onto the first fan rotor stage. This improves the fan surge margin

5.4.3 AFTERBURNING TURBOFAN

Since the 1970s, most jet fighter engines have been low/medium bypass turbofans with a mixed
exhaust, afterburner and variable area final nozzle. An afterburner is a combustor located
downstream of the turbine blades and directly upstream of the nozzle, which burns fuel from
afterburner-specific fuel injectors. When lit, prodigious amounts of fuel are burnt in the afterburner,
raising the temperature of exhaust gases by a significant degree, resulting in a higher exhaust
velocity/engine specific thrust. The variable geometry nozzle must open to a larger throat area to
accommodate the extra volume flow when the afterburner is lit. Afterburning is often designed to
give a significant thrust boost for take off, transonic acceleration and combat maneuvers, but is very
fuel intensive. Consequently, afterburning can be used only for short portions of a mission. Unlike
the main combustor, where the downstream turbine blades must not be damaged by high
temperatures, an afterburner can operate at the ideal maximum (stoichiometric) temperature (i.e.,
about 2100K/3780Ra/3320F/1826C). At a fixed total applied fuel:air ratio, the total fuel flow for a
given fan airflow will be the same, regardless of the dry specific thrust of the engine. However, a
high specific thrust turbofan will, by definition, have a higher nozzle pressure ratio, resulting in a
higher afterburning net thrust and, therefore, a lower afterburning specific fuel consumption (SFC).
However, high specific thrust engines have a high dry SFC. The situation is reversed for a medium
specific thrust afterburning turbofan: i.e., poor afterburning SFC/good dry SFC. The former engine
is suitable for a combat aircraft which must remain in afterburning combat for a fairly long period,
but has to fight only fairly close to the airfield (e.g. cross border skirmishes) The latter engine is
better for an aircraft that has to fly some distance, or loiter for a long time, before going into
combat. However, the pilot can afford to stay in afterburning only for a short period, before aircraft
fuel reserves become dangerously low. The first production afterburning turbofan engine was the
Pratt & Whitney TF30, which initially powered the F-111 Aardvark and F-14 Tomcat. Current low-
bypass military turbofans include the Pratt & Whitney F119, the Eurojet EJ200, the General Electric
F110, the Klimov RD-33, and the Saturn AL-31, all of which feature a mixed exhaust, afterburner
and variable area propelling nozzle.

5.4.4 HIGH-BYPASS TURBOFAN

To boost fuel economy and reduce noise, almost all of today's jet airliners and most military
transport aircraft (e.g., the C-17) are powered by low-specific-thrust/high-bypass-ratio turbofans.
These engines evolved from the high-specific-thrust/low-bypass-ratio turbofans used in such aircraft
in the 1960s. (Modern combat aircraft tend to use low-bypass ratio turbofans, and some military
transport aircraft use turboprops). Low specific thrust is achieved by replacing the multi-stage fan
with a single-stage unit. Unlike some military engines, modern civil turbofans lack stationary inlet
guide vanes in front of the fan rotor. The fan is scaled to achieve the desired net thrust. The core (or
gas generator) of the engine must generate enough power to drive the fan at its design flow and
pressure ratio. Improvements in turbine cooling/material technology allow a higher (HP) turbine
rotor inlet temperature, which allows a smaller (and lighter) core and (potentially) improving the
core thermal efficiency. Reducing the core mass flow tends to increase the load on the LP turbine,
so this unit may require additional stages to reduce the average stage loading and to maintain LP
turbine efficiency. Reducing core flow also increases bypass ratio. Bypass ratios greater than 5:1 are
increasingly common; the Pratt & Whitney PW1000G, which entered commercial service in 2016,
attains 12.5:1.
Further improvements in core thermal efficiency can be achieved by raising the overall pressure
ratio of the core. Improved blade aerodynamics reduces the number of extra compressor stages
required. With multiple compressors (i.e., LPC, IPC, and HPC) dramatic increases in overall
pressure ratio have become possible. Variable geometry (i.e., stators) enable high-pressure-ratio
compressors to work surge-free at all throttle settings. The first (experimental) high-bypass turbofan
engine was built and run on February 13, 1964 by AVCO-Lycoming.[13][14] Shortly after, the
General Electric TF39 became the first production model, designed to power the Lockheed C-5
Galaxy military transport aircraft.[9] The civil General Electric CF6 engine used a derived design.
Other high-bypass turbofans are the Pratt & Whitney JT9D, the three-shaft Rolls-Royce RB211 and
the CFM International CFM56; also the smaller TF34. More recent large high-bypass turbofans
include the Pratt & Whitney PW4000, the three-shaft Rolls-Royce Trent, the General Electric
GE90/GEnx and the GP7000, produced jointly by GE and P&W.The lower the specific thrust of a
turbofan, the lower the mean jet outlet velocity, which in turn translates into a high thrust lapse rate
( i.e. decreasing thrust with increasing flight speed). See technical discussion below, item 2.
Consequently, an engine sized to propel an aircraft at high subsonic flight speed (e.g., Mach 0.83)
generate a relatively high thrust at low flight speed, thus enhancing runway performance. Low
specific thrust engines tend to have a high bypass ratio, but this is also a function of the temperature
of the turbine system.The turbofans on twin engined airliners are further more powerful to cope
with losing one engine during take-off, which reduces the aircraft's net thrust by half. Modern twin
engined airliners normally climb very steeply immediately after take-off. If one engine is lost, the
climb-out is much shallower, but sufficient to clear obstacles in the flightpath. The Soviet Union's
engine technology was less advanced than the West's and its first wide-body aircraft, the Ilyushin Il-
86, was powered by low-bypass engines. The Yakovlev Yak-42, a medium-range, rear-engined
aircraft seating up to 120 passengers introduced in 1980 was the first Soviet aircraft to use high-
bypass engines.

6. Guidance systems
A guidance system is a virtual or physical device, or a group of devices implementing a guidance
process used for controlling the movement of a ship, aircraft, missile, rocket, satellite, or any other
moving object. Guidance is the process of calculating the changes in position, velocity, attitude,
and/or rotation rates of a moving object required to follow a certain trajectory and/or attitude profile
based on information about the object's state of motion. A guidance system is usually part of a
Guidance, navigation and control system, whereas navigation refers to the systems necessary to
calculate the current position and orientation based on sensor data like those from compasses, GPS
receivers, Loran-C, star trackers, inertial measurement units, altimeters, etc. The output of the
navigation system, the navigation solution, is an input for the guidance system, among others like
the environmental conditions (wind, water, temperature, etc.) and the vehicle's characteristics (i.e.
mass, control system availability, control systems correlation to vector change, etc.). In general, the
guidance system computes the instructions for the control system, which comprises the object's
actuators (e.g., thrusters, reaction wheels, body flaps, etc.), which are able to manipulate the flight
path and orientation of the object without direct or continuous human control. One of the earliest
examples of a true guidance system is that used in the German V-1 during World War II. The
navigation system consisted of a simple gyroscope, an airspeed sensor, and an altimeter. The
guidance instructions were target altitude, target velocity, cruise time, engine cut off time. A
guidance system has three major sub-sections: Inputs, Processing, and Outputs. The input section
includes sensors, course data, radio and satellite links, and other information sources. The
processing section, composed of one or more CPUs, integrates this data and determines what
actions, if any, are necessary to maintain or achieve a proper heading. This is then fed to the outputs
which can directly affect the system's course. The outputs may control speed by interacting with
devices such as turbines, and fuel pumps, or they may more directly alter course by actuating
ailerons, rudders, or other devices
6.1 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
An inertial navigation system (INS) is a navigation aid that uses a computer, motion sensors
(accelerometers), rotation sensors (gyroscopes) and occasionally magnetic sensors (magnetometers),
to continuously calculate by dead reckoning the position, the orientation and the velocity (direction
and speed of movement) of a moving object without the need for external references.[1] It is used
on vehicles such as ships, aircraft, submarines, guided missiles and spacecraft. Other terms used to
refer to inertial navigation systems or closely related devices include inertial guidance system,
inertial instrument, inertial measurement unit (IMU) and many other variations. Older INS systems
generally used an inertial platform as their mounting point to the vehicle and the terms are
sometimes considered synonymous.

6.1.1 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS IN DETAIL

INSs contain Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) which have angular and linear accelerometers (for
changes in position); some IMUs include a gyroscopic element (for maintaining an absolute angular
reference). Angular accelerometers measure how the vehicle is rotating in space. Generally, there is
at least one sensor for each of the three axes: pitch (nose up and down), yaw (nose left and right)
and roll (clockwise or counter-clockwise from the cockpit). Linear accelerometers measure non-
gravitational accelerations[9] of the vehicle. Since it can move in three axes (up & down, left &
right, forward & back), there is a linear accelerometer for each axis. A computer continually
calculates the vehicle's current position. First, for each of the six degrees of freedom (x,y,z and θx,
θy and θz), it integrates over time the sensed acceleration, together with an estimate of gravity, to
calculate the current velocity. Then it integrates the velocity to calculate the current position.
Inertial guidance is difficult without computers. The desire to use inertial guidance in the
Minuteman missile and Project Apollo drove early attempts to miniaturize computers. Inertial
guidance systems are now usually combined with satellite navigation systems through a digital
filtering system. The inertial system provides short term data, while the satellite system corrects
accumulated errors of the inertial system. An inertial guidance system that will operate near the
surface of the earth must incorporate Schuler tuning so that its platform will continue pointing
towards the center of the earth as a vehicle moves from place to place.

6.2 TERCOM
Terrain Contour Matching, or TERCOM, is a navigation system used primarily by cruise missiles. It
uses a pre-recorded contour map of the terrain that is compared with measurements made during
flight by an on-board radar altimeter. A TERCOM system considerably increases the accuracy of a
missile compared with inertial navigation systems(INS). The increased accuracy allows a
TERCOM-equipped missile to fly closer to obstacles and generally lower altitudes, making it harder
to detect by ground radar.

6.2.1 OPTICAL CONTOUR MATCHING

The Goodyear Aircraft Corporation ATRAN (Automatic Terrain Recognition And Navigation)
system for the MGM-13 Mace was the earliest known TERCOM system. In August 1952, Air
Materiel Command initiated the mating of the Goodyear ATRAN with the MGM-1 Matador. This
mating resulted in a production contract in June 1954. ATRAN was difficult to jam and was not
range-limited by line-of sight, but its range was restricted by the availability of radar maps. In time,
it became possible to construct radar maps from topographic maps.Preparation of the maps required
the route to be flown by an aircraft. A radar on the aircraft was set to a fixed angle and made
horizontal scans of the land in front. The timing of the return signal indicated the range to the
landform and produced an amplitude modulated (AM) signal. This was sent to a light source and
recorded on 35 mm film, advancing the film and taking a picture at indicated times. The film could
then be processed and copied for use in multiple missiles. In the missile, a similar radar produced
the same signal. A second system scanned the frames of film against a photocell and produced a
similar AM signal. By comparing the points along the scan where the brightness changed rapidly,
which could be picked out easily by simple electronics, the system could compare the left-right path
of the missile compared with that of the pathfinding aircraft. Errors between the two signals drove
corrections in the autopilot needed to bring the missile back onto its programmed flight path.

6.2.2 ALTITUDE MATCHING

TERCOM navigation "maps" consist of a series of strips of land that the missile is expected to fly
over, encoded as a series of altitudes. Since a radar altimeter measures distances, height over the
ground, and not an absolute altitude, the maps generally encode a series of changes in altitude, not
the absolute altitude itself. Additionally, the strips of land on either side of the expected path are
also stored. A series of such maps are produced, typically from data from radar mapping satellites.
When flying over water, contour maps are replaced by magnetic field maps.The missile's radar
altimeter feeds measurements into a smaller buffer, which periodically "gates" the measurements
over a period of time and averages them out to produce a single measurement. The series of such
numbers held in the buffer produce a strip of measurements similar to those held in the maps. The
two are compared with overlay the buffer's strip on the known map, and the positioning of the strip
within the map produces a location and direction. The guidance system can then use this
information to correct the flight path of the missile. During the flight to the target the accuracy of
the system has to be enough only to avoid terrain features. This allows the maps to be relatively low
resolution in these areas. Only the portion of the map for the terminal approach has to be higher
resolution, and would normally be encoded at the highest resolutions available to the satellite
mapping system.

6.2.3 TAINS
Due to the limited amount of memory available in mass storage devices of the 1960s and 70s, and
their slow access times, the amount of terrain data that could be stored in a missile-sized package
was far too small to encompass the entire flight. Instead, small patches of terrain information were
stored and periodically used to update a conventional inertial platform. These systems, combining
TERCOM and inertial navigation, are sometimes known as TAINS, for TERCOM-Aided Inertial
Navigation System.

6.2.4 ADVANTAGES
TERCOM systems have the advantage of offering accuracy that is not based on the length of the
flight; an inertial system slowly drifts after a "fix", and its accuracy is lower for longer distances.
TERCOM systems receive constant fixes during the flight, and thus do not have any drift. Their
absolute accuracy, however, is based on the accuracy of the radar mapping information, which is
typically in the range of meters, and the ability of the processor to compare the altimeter data to the
map quickly enough as the resolution increases. This generally limits first generation TERCOM
systems to targets on the order of hundreds of meters, limiting them to the use of nuclear warheads.
Use of conventional warheads requires further accuracy, which in turn demands additional terminal
guidance systems.

6.2.5 DISADVANTAGES
One disadvantage of early TERCOM systems was that, due to the limitations of storage and
computing systems of the time, the entire route had to be pre-planned, including its launch point. If
the missile was launched from an unexpected location or flew too far off-course, it would never fly
over the features included in the maps, and become lost. The INS system can help in this regard,
allowing it to fly to the general area of the first patch, but gross errors simply cannot be corrected.
This made early TERCOM based systems much less flexible than more modern systems like GPS,
which can be set to attack any location from any location, and do not require any sort of pre-
recorded information which means they can be targeted immediately prior to launch. The
availability of compact fast computers and high-capacity storage, combined with the availability of
global digital elevation maps, has mitigated this problem, as TERCOM data is no longer limited to
small patches, and the availability of side-looking radar allows much larger areas of landscape
contour data to be acquired for comparison with the stored contour data.

6.3 SATELLITE NAVIGATION

A satellite navigation or satnav system is a system that uses satellites to provide autonomous geo-
spatial positioning. It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude,
latitude, and altitude/elevation) to high precision (within a few metres) using time signals
transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites. The system can be used for providing
position, navigation or for tracking the position of something fitted with a receiver (satellite
tracking). The signals also allow the electronic receiver to calculate the current local time to high
precision, which allows time synchronisation. Satnav systems operate independently of any
telephonic or internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the
positioning information generated. A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be
termed a global navigation satellite system (GNSS). As of December 2016, only the United States'
Global Positioning System (GPS), Russia's GLONASS and the European Union's Galileo are global
operational GNSSs. The European Union's Galileo GNSS is scheduled to be fully operational by
2020.[1] China is in the process of expanding its regional BeiDou Navigation Satellite System into
the global BeiDou-2 GNSS by 2020. India, France and Japan are in the process of developing
regional navigation and augmentation systems as well. Global coverage for each system is generally
achieved by a satellite constellation of 18–30 medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites spread between
several orbital planes. The actual systems vary, but use orbital inclinations of >50° and orbital
periods of roughly twelve hours (at an altitude of about 20,000 kilometres or 12,000 miles).

6.3.1 CLASSIFICATION
Satellite navigation systems that provide enhanced accuracy and integrity monitoring usable for
civil navigation are classified as follows:[3]
 GNSS-1 is the first generation system and is the combination of existing satellite navigation
systems (GPS and GLONASS), with Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) or
Ground Based Augmentation Systems (GBAS). In the United States, the satellite based
component is the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), in Europe it is the European
Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS), and in Japan it is the Multi-Functional
Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS). Ground based augmentation is provided by systems
like the Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS).
 GNSS-2 is the second generation of systems that independently provides a full civilian
satellite navigation system, exemplified by the European Galileo positioning system. These
systems will provide the accuracy and integrity monitoring necessary for civil navigation;
including aircraft. This system consists of L1 and L2 frequencies (in the L band of the radio
spectrum) for civil use and L5 for system integrity. Development is also in progress to
provide GPS with civil use L2 and L5 frequencies, making it a GNSS-2 system.
 Core Satellite navigation systems, currently GPS (United States), GLONASS (Russian
Federation), Galileo (European Union) and Compass (China).
 Global Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) such as Omnistar and StarFire.
 Regional SBAS including WAAS (US), EGNOS (EU), MSAS (Japan) and GAGAN (India).
 Regional Satellite Navigation Systems such as China's Beidou, India's NAVIC, and Japan's
proposed QZSS.
 Continental scale Ground Based Augmentation Systems (GBAS) for example the Australian
GRAS and the joint US Coast Guard, Canadian Coast Guard, US Army Corps of Engineers
and US Department of Transportation National Differential GPS (DGPS) service.
 Regional scale GBAS such as CORS networks.
  Local GBAS typified by a single GPS reference station operating Real Time Kinematic
(RTK) corrections.

6.3.2 Global navigation satellite systems

I. GPS:- The United States' Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of up to 32 medium
Earth orbit satellites in six different orbital planes, with the exact number of satellites varying
as older satellites are retired and replaced. Operational since 1978 and globally available
since 1994, GPS is currently the world's most utilized satellite navigation system.
II. GLONASS:- The formerly Soviet, and now Russian, Global'naya Navigatsionnaya
Sputnikovaya Sistema, (GLObal NAvigation Satellite System or GLONASS), is a space-
based satellite navigation system that provides a civilian radionavigation-satellite service and
is also used by the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces. GLONASS has full global coverage
with 24 satellites.
III. Galileo
a) BeiDou-2
China has indicated they plan to complete the entire second generation Beidou Navigation Satellite
System (BDS or BeiDou-2, formerly known as COMPASS), by expanding current regional (Asia-
Pacific) service into global coverage by 2020.[2] The BeiDou-2 system is proposed to consist of 30
MEO satellites and five geostationary satellites. A 16-satellite regional version (covering Asia and
Pacific area) was completed by December 2012.

6.3.3 Regional navigation satellite systems

I. BeiDou-1
Chinese regional (Asia-Pacific, 16 satellites) network to be expanded into the whole BeiDou-2
global system which consists of all 35 satellites by 2020.

II. NAVIC
The NAVIC or NAVigation with Indian Constellation is an autonomous regional satellite
navigation system developed by Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) which would be under
the total control of Indian government. The government approved the project in May 2006, with the
intention of the system completed and implemented on 28 April 2016. It will consist of a
constellation of 7 navigational satellites.[9] 3 of the satellites will be placed in the Geostationary
orbit (GEO) and the remaining 4 in the Geosynchronous orbit(GSO) to have a larger signal footprint
and lower number of satellites to map the region. It is intended to provide an all-weather absolute
position accuracy of better than 7.6 meters throughout India and within a region extending
approximately 1,500 km around it.[10] A goal of complete Indian control has been stated, with the
space segment, ground segment and user receivers all being built in India.[11] All seven satellites,
IRNSS-1A, IRNSS-1B, IRNSS-1C, IRNSS-1D, IRNSS-1E, IRNSS-1F, and IRNSS-1G, of the
proposed constellation were precisely launched on 1 July 2013, 4 April 2014, 16 October 2014, 28
March 2015, 20 January 2016, 10 March 2016 and 28 April 2016 respectively from Satish Dhawan
Space Centre.[12][13] The system is expected to be fully operational by August 2016.[14]

III. QZSS
The Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), is a proposed three-satellite regional time transfer
system and enhancement for GPS covering Japan. The first demonstration satellite was launched in
September 2010.
7. DSMAC(DIGITAL SCENE-MAPPING AREA CORRELATOR)
 A series of photographs are taken from surveillance aircraft and are put into a carousel in the
missile.
 Another camera takes pictures out of the bottom of the missile.
 A computer compares the two images and attempts to line up areas of high contrast.
 This system is very slow and its role is being taken up by TERCOM.

8. AUTOMATIC TARGET RECOGNITION

Automatic target recognition (ATR) is the ability for an algorithm or device to recognize targets or
other objects based on data obtained from sensors. Target recognition was initially done by using an
audible representation of the received signal, where a trained operator who would decipher that
sound to classify the target illuminated by the radar. While these trained operators had success,
automated methods have been developed and continue to be developed that allow for more accuracy
and speed in classification. ATR can be used to identify man made objects such as ground and air
vehicles as well as for biological targets such as animals, humans, and vegetative clutter. This can
be useful for everything from recognizing an object on a battlefield to filtering out interference
caused by large flocks of birds on Doppler weather radar. Possible military applications include a
simple identification system such as an IFF transponder, and are used in other applications such as
unmanned aerial vehicles and cruise missiles. There has been more and more interest shown in
using ATR for domestic applications as well. Research has been done into using ATR for border
security, safety systems to identify objects or people on a subway track, automated vehicles, and
many others.
8.1 Extraction of features
Studies have been done that take audio features used in speech recognition to build automated target
recognition systems that will identify targets based on these audio inspired coefficients. These
coefficients include the
 Linear predictive coding (LPC) coefficients
 Cepstral linear predictive coding (LPCC) coefficients
 Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCC).
The baseband signal is processed to obtain these coefficients, then a statistical process is used to
decide which target in the database is most similar to the coefficients obtained. The choice of which
features and which decision scheme to use depends on the system and application.The features used
to classify a target are not limited to speech inspired coefficients. A wide range of features and
detection algorithms can be used to accomplish ATR.

8.2 DETECTION ALGORITHMS

In order for detection of targets to be automated, a training database needs to be created. This is
usually done using experimental data collected when the target is known, and is then stored for use
by the ATR algorithm. An example of a detection algorithm is shown in the flowchart. This method
uses M blocks of data, extracts the desired features from each (i.e. LPC coefficients, MFCC) then
models them using a Gaussian mixture model (GMM). After a model is obtained using the data
collected, conditional probability is formed for each target contained in the training database. In this
example, there are M blocks of data. This will result in a collection of M probabilities for each
target in the database. These probabilities are used to determine what the target is using a maximum
likelihood decision. This method has been shown to be able to distinguish between vehicle types
(wheeled vs tracked vehicles for example), and even decide how many people are present up to
three people with a high probability of success.

8.3 RADAR ALTIMETER

A radar altimeter, electronic altimeter, reflection altimeter, radio altimeter (RADALT), low range
radio altimeter (LRRA) or simply RA, used on aircraft, measures altitudeabove the terrain presently
beneath an aircraft or spacecraft by timing how long it takes a beam of radio waves to reflect from
the ground and return to the plane. This type of altimeter provides the distance between the antenna
and the ground directly below it, in contrast to a barometric altimeter which provides the distance
above a defined datum, usually mean sea level.

8.4 PRINCIPLE
As the name implies, radar (radio detection and ranging) is the underpinning principle of the system.
The system transmits radio waves down to the ground and measures the time it takes them to be
reflected back up to the aircraft. The altitude above the ground is calculated from the radio waves'
travel time and the speed of light. Radar altimeters normally work in the E band, Ka band, or, for
more advanced sea-level measurement, S band. Radar altimeters also provide a reliable and accurate
method of measuring height above water, when flying long sea-tracks. These are critical for use
when operating to and from oil rigs.

9. CATEGORIZED
Cruise missiles can be categorized by size, speed (subsonic or supersonic), and range, and whether
launched from land, air, surface ship, or submarine. Often versions of the same missile are produced
for different launch platforms; sometimes air- and submarine launched versions are a little lighter
and smaller than land- and ship-launched versions. Guidance systems can vary across missiles.
Some missiles can be fitted with any of a variety of navigation systems (Inertial navigation,
TERCOM, or satellite navigation). Larger cruise missiles can carry either a conventional or a
nuclear warhead, while smaller ones carry only conventional warheads.

9.1 HYPERSONIC
A hypersonic speed cruise missile would travel at least five times the speed of sound (Mach 5).

BrahMos-II or BrahMos-2 or BrahMos Mark II (note: not to be confused with BrahMos block-2) is
a hypersonic cruise missile currently under joint development by Russia's NPO Mashinostroeyenia
and India's Defence Research and Development Organisation, which have together formed
BrahMos Aerospace Private Limited. It is the second of the BrahMos series of cruise missiles. The
BrahMos-II is expected to have a range of 450 kilometres (280 mi; 240 nmi) and a speed of Mach 7.
During the cruise stage of flight the missile will be propelled by a scramjet airbreathing jet engine.
Other details, including production cost and physical dimensions of the missile, are yet to be
published. It is expected to be ready for testing by 2020. The planned operational range of the
BrahMos-II has been restricted to 290 kilometers as Russia is a signatory to the Missile Technology
Control Regime (MTCR), which prohibits it from helping other countries develop missiles with
ranges above 300 kilometres (190 mi; 160 nmi). However, now that India is also a MTCR signatory,
it is trying to extend the range of BrahMos. Its top speed will be double that of the current
BrahMos-I, and it has been described as the fastest cruise missile in the world.[7][8] Russia is
developing a special and secret fuel formula to enable the BrahMos-II to exceed Mach 5. Design of
multiple variants of the missile was completed by October 2011, with testing starting in 2012.
Fourth-generation multi-purpose Russian Naval destroyers (Project 21956) are also likely to be
equipped with the BrahMos II. BrahMos Aerospace named the missile BrahMos-II (K) in honour of
the former President of India, APJ Abdul Kalam.

9.2 SUPERSONIC
These missiles travel faster than the speed of sound, usually using ramjet engines. The range is
typically 100–500 km, but can be greater. Guidance systems vary.

Examples The BrahMos is a medium-range ramjet supersonic cruise missile that can be launched
from submarine, ships, aircraft, or land. It is the fastest supersonic cruise missile in the world.[12] It
is a joint venture between the Russian Federation's NPO Mashinostroeyenia and Republic of India's
Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) who together have formed BrahMos
Aerospace.[13] It is based on the Russian P-800 Oniks cruise missile and other similar sea-
skimming Russian cruise missile technology. The name BrahMos is a portmanteau formed from the
names of two rivers, the Brahmaputra of India and the Moskva of Russia. Russia supplies 65% of
the BrahMos' components, including its ramjet engine and radar seeker. It is the world's fastest anti-
ship cruise missile in operation. The missile travels at speeds of Mach 2.8 to 3.0, which is being
upgraded to Mach 5.0.The land-launched and ship-launched versions are already in service, with the
air and submarine-launched versions currently in the testing phase.[19] An air-launched variant of
BrahMos appeared in 2012. A hypersonic version of the missile, BrahMos-II, is also presently under
development with a speed of Mach 7-8 to boost aerial fast strike capability. It is expected to be
ready for testing by 2020.India wanted the BrahMos to be based on a mid range cruise missile like
the P-700 Granit. Its propulsion is based on the Russian missile, and missile guidance has been
developed by BrahMos Aerospace. The missile is expected to reach a total order US$13 billion. In
2016, as India became a member of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), India and
Russia are now planning to jointly develop a new generation of Brahmos missiles with 600 km-plus
range and an ability to hit protected targets with pinpoint accuracy.

9.2.1 SPECIFICATIONS
BrahMos claims it has the capability of attacking surface targets by flying as low as 5 meters in
altitude and the maximum altitude it can fly is 14000 meters. It has a diameter of 70 cm and a
wingspan of 1.7 m.[112] It can gain a speed of Mach 2.8, and has a maximum range of 290 km.[1]
The ship-launched and land-based missiles can carry a 200 kg warhead, whereas the aircraft-
launched variant (BrahMos A) can carry a 300 kg warhead. It has a two-stage propulsion system,
with a solid-propellant rocket for initial acceleration and a liquid-fuelled ramjet responsible for
sustained supersonic cruise. Air-breathing ramjet propulsion is much more fuel-efficient than rocket
propulsion, giving the BrahMos a longer range than a pure rocket-powered missile would
achieve.The high speed of the BrahMos likely gives it better target-penetration characteristics than
lighter subsonic cruise-missiles, such as the Tomahawk. Being twice as heavy and almost four times
as fast as the Tomahawk, the BrahMos has more than 32 times the on-cruise kinetic energy of a
Tomahawk missile, although it carries only 3/5 the payload and a fraction of the range, which
suggests that the missile was designed with a different tactical role. Its 2.8 mach speed means that it
cannot be intercepted by some existing missile defence systems and its precision makes it lethal to
water targets. Although BrahMos was primarily an anti-ship missile, the BrahMos Block III can
also engage land based targets. It can be launched either in a vertical or inclined position and is
capable of covering targets over a 360-degree horizon. The BrahMos missile has an identical
configuration for land, sea, and sub-sea platforms.[15][113] The air-launched version has a smaller
booster and additional tail fins for added stability during launch. The BrahMos is currently being
configured for aerial deployment with the Su-30MKI as its carrier.[112] On 5 September 2010
BrahMos created a record for the first supersonic steep dive.[114]

9.2.2 VARIANTS
Surface-launched, Block I
 Ship-launched, anti-ship variant (operational)
 Ship-launched, land-attack variant (operational)
 Land-launched, land-attack variant (operational)
 Land-launched, anti-ship variant (In induction, tested on 10 December 2010)
Surface-launched, upgraded variants
 BrahMos Block II land-attack variant (Operational)[58]
 BrahMos Block III land-variant (being inducted)[53][54][115]
 Anti-aircraft carrier variant (tested in March 2012) – the missile gained the capability to
attack aircraft carriers using the supersonic vertical dive variant of the missile that could
travel up to 290 km.[116]
Air-launched
 Air-launched, anti-ship variant (tested)[95]
 Air-launched, land-attack variant (tested)[117][118]
Submarine-launched
 Submarine-launched, anti-ship variant – Tested successfully for the first time from a
submerged pontoon on 20 March 2013.[77][78]
 Submarine-launched, land-attack variant (under development, expected completion in 2011)

9.2.3 Production and deployment

India and Russia intend to make 2,000 BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles over the next ten years
through their joint venture company, and nearly 50% of them are expected to be exported to friendly
countries.[112][121] The Brahmos headquarters complex is located at New Delhi and consists of a
design center and aerospace knowledge center. The integration complex is located at Hyderabad and
a production center is located at Thiruvananthapuram.[122] Another assembly line is being
established at Pilani.
India
Indian Navy
By April 2013, Brahmos has been inducted in eight warships of the Indian Navy. [32] The following
ship classes of the navy are equipped with BrahMos:
 Rajput-class destroyers[124] – INS Rajput has four Brahmos missiles in 2 twin inclined
launchers.[125][126]INS Ranvir and INS Ranvijay are armed with one stern mounted 8-cell
Brahmos VLS launcher.[127][128]
 Talwar-class frigate – The three later ships, INS Teg, INS Tarkash, INS Trikand are armed
with one bow mounted 8-cell Brahmos VLS launcher.[124][129][130]
 Shivalik-class frigate – The three frigates in this class are armed with one bow mounted 8-
cell Brahmos VLS launcher.[124][126][131]
 Kolkata-class destroyer – The three destroyers in this class are armed with two bow mounted
8-cell Brahmos VLS launchers.[124][129][132][133]
 Visakhapatnam-class destroyer – The four destroyers in this class are planned to be armed
with two bow mounted 8-cell Brahmos VLS launchers.
Indian Army
The Brahmos Block I was inducted into the army on 21 June 2007.[37] The Brahmos has been
inducted in three regiments of the Indian Army.[134] The army has raised one regiment (numbered
861) of the Mark I and two missile regiments of the BrahMos Mark II, numbered 862 and 863. The
first regiment with five mobile launcher cost $83 million to set up.[135] Each of the two new
regiments would have between four and six batteries of three to four Mobile Autonomous
Launchers (72 missiles per regiment) that can be connected to a mobile command post.[58][136] All
these regiments will be part of the army's existing 40th and 41st Artillery Divisions. The operational
BrahMos regiments are:[11][137]
 861 Regiment (BrahMos Block I, deployed in north Rajasthan area)
 862 Regiment (BrahMos Block II, deployed in south Rajasthan area)
 863 Regiment (BrahMos Block II)
 864 Regiment (BrahMos Block III, ordered for Arunachal Pradesh area)
Russia[edit]
Russian Navy[edit]
According to unspecified sources the BrahMos could be fitted to the updated Gorshkov class of
frigates which will be entering the Russian Navy soon.[138][139] The defence ministry reported that
due to the size and hull specifications of the BrahMos, few if any of its new ships will be able to
accommodate it.[140]
Russian Air Force[edit]
In September 2016, it was revealed that the Russian Defense Ministry is interested in purchasing the
air-launched BrahMos to arm their Su-30SM fighters. Talks could begin in 2017.[141]
9.3 INTER CONTINENTAL SUBSONIC
The Burya ("Storm" in Russian; Russian: Буря) was a supersonic, intercontinental cruise missile,
developed by the Lavochkin design bureau under designation La-350 since 1954 until the program
cancellation in February 1960. The request for proposal issued by the Soviet government in
1954,[2] called for a cruise missile capable of delivering a nuclear payload to the United States.
Analogous developments in the United States were the SM-62 Snark and SM-64 Navaho cruise
missiles, particularly the latter, which used parallel technology and had similar performance goals.

9.3.1 DEVELOPMENT
The Burya was planned as a Mach 3 intercontinental nuclear ramjet cruise missile. The Burya was
remarkably advanced for its time, and despite setbacks and several crashes, the vehicle
demonstrated a range in excess of 6,000 km with a thermonuclear (hydrogen) bomb-sized payload
at speeds greater than Mach 3. The Burya had a two-stage design - the daring concept for an
intercontinental missile was the second stage, which was powered by a ramjet engine at its
operational speed of Mach 3. This varied from the original Trommsdorff concept of World War II in
that no mother aircraft launch preceded the rocket boosted phase. The first stage was a ballistic-
rocket-derived booster, which accelerated the Burya to altitude and the speed necessary to ignite its
ramjet engine: a ramjet does not operate below subsonic speeds, and to use a hybrid jet-ramjet to
broaden its operating speed would have been more complex.
Successful tests were achieved after official cancellation of the project, when it continued as a
technology demonstration. It was a casualty, like the USAF Navaho, of the greater simplicity and
relative invulnerability to interception of intercontinental ballistic missiles. The Burya was an early
precursor to the Zvezda and Buran projects.

9.3.2 SPECIFICATIONS
General characteristics[edit]
 Function: Nuclear cruise missile
 Launch mass: 96,000 kg
 Total length: 19.9 m
 Launch platform: Launch pad
 First flight test: 1 July 1957
 Last flight test: 16 December 1960
 Number of successful launches: 14
 Number of failed launches: 3
 Status: Canceled
Launch vehicle (stage 1)[edit]
 Function: Multi-purpose launch vehicle
 Engine: 2× Burya booster with S2.1150 engine
  Length: 18.9 m
 Diameter: 1.45 m
 Thrust: 68.61 t
 Oxidizer: Nitric acid
 Combustible: Amine
Cruise missile (stage 2)[edit]
 Engine: 1× RD-012U ramjet
 Cruise Speed : Mach 3.1-3.3
 Maximal speed in test: Mасh 3.4-3.5 (3 700 km/h)
 Range: 8000 - 8,500 km
 Maximal range in test: 6,500 km
 Flight altitude: 18–25,5 km
 Warhead: thermonuclear, 2190 kg
 Length: 18.0 m
 Diameter: 2.20 m
 Wing span: 7.75 m
 Wing area: 60 m²

9.4 LONG-RANGE SUBSONIC

The United States, Russia, United Kingdom, Israel, South Korea, Turkey, Iran, China, Pakistan and
India have developed several long-range subsonic cruise missiles. These missiles have a range of
over 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) and fly at about 800 kilometres per hour (500 mph).[17] They
typically have a launch weight of about 1,500 kilograms (3,300 lb)[citation needed] and can carry
either a conventional or a nuclear warhead. Earlier versions of these missiles used inertial
navigation; later versions use much more accurate TERCOM and DSMAC systems. Most recent
versions can use satellite navigation.
Examples: Nirbhay (Sanskrit:Dauntless/Fearless) is a long range, all-weather, subsonic cruise
missile designed and developed in India by the Defence Research and Development Organisation.
The missile can be launched from multiple platforms and is capable of carrying conventional and
nuclear warheads. It is currently under development and undergoing flight trials.

9.4.1DESIGN
Nirbhay is powered by a solid rocket booster for take off which is developed by Advanced Systems
Laboratory (ASL). Upon reaching the required velocity and height, a Turbofan engine in the missile
takes over for further propulsion. The missile is guided by an inertial navigation system developed
by Research Center Imarat (RCI) and a radio altimeter for the height determination. [12][13] The
missile has a Ring Laser Gyroscope (RLG) based guidance, control and navigation system. It also
has a MEMS based Inertial Navigation System (INS) along with the GPS system.[14] The missile has
a length of 6 metres, width of 0.52 metres, a wing span of 2.7 metres and weighs about 1500kg. It
has a range of about 1000 km and is capable of delivering 24 different types of warheads depending
on mission requirements between 200-300kg.The missile is claimed to have a loitering capability,
i.e., it can go round a target and perform several manoeuvres and then re-engage it. It is also able to
pick out a target and attack it among multiple targets. [9] With two side wings, the missile is capable
of flying at different altitudes ranging from 100 m to 4 km above the ground and can also fly at low
altitudes (like low tree level) to avoid detection by enemy radar.[10][17][11] It will eventually
supplement the role played by Brahmos missile for the Indian Armed Forced by delivering
warheads farther than the 450 km range of Brahmos

9.4.2 DEVELOPMENT AND TRIALS

The missile was developed by the Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE), Bengaluru.
ADE is a lab under DRDO.[17][19]After the design was finalized, the technology required for the
missile was developed. It was integrated by R&D Engineers, Pune, a specialized arm of
DRDO.[11] Indian private sector giant Tata has built the vehicle that is the carrier/launcher for the
Nirbhay system and is based on an "high mobility, all-terrain and all-wheel drive Tata LPTA 5252-
12 X12 vehicle", developed in partnership with DRDO.The first test flight of the missile was
planned in October 2012,[21][22] but the launch was postponed to December owing to the changes
being made to the launcher. V.K. Saraswat, Director General & Scientific Adviser of DRDO, later
said that the missile would be tested in February 2013. He said the delay was due to development of
some processes. DRDO expected the missile to be ready for induction within 12 to 18 months after
the February test.[17][19][23] There were unconfirmed media reports that the missile would be scrapped
due to multiple test failures but it was then reported that the project has been given an 18-month
extension, till June 2018, to fix all outstanding issues.[24][25][26]
I. FIRST TRIAL
The surface version of Nirbhay missile was test fired for the first time on 12 March 2013 from the
Integrated Test Range at Chandipur in Balasore district of Odisha. The missile in its maiden flight
was supposed to hit a static target situated 1000 km away in the Bay of Bengal. Missile took off
from the launch pad successfully and reached the second stage of propulsion, travelling 15 minutes
through its envisaged path at a speed of 0.7 mach. After that it veered away from its trajectory
forcing the command centre to detach the engine from the missile mid way into the flight. This was
done to avoid the risk of the missile hitting the coastal areas. The missile was purposely destroyed
in mid-flight.The test was a partial success as the missile took off, reached the second stage of
propulsion, and travelled 30% of its range and completed most of the mission objectives, before
deviating from its path. DRDO has detected the problem which was a faulty inertial navigation
system and corrected the same in subsequent tests.
II. SECOND TRIAL
A second launch of the Nirbhay missile was scheduled for February–May 2014[28] but it was further
delayed until October 2014. Slight delay in October was also due to cyclone Hudhud. On 17
October 2014, the surface version of the missile was tested once again from the Integrated Test
Range at Chandipur in Balasore district of Odisha, and this time the test was successful. The missile
test met all the parameters & completed all 15 way-points. The missile travelled for more than
1000 km that lasted for a duration of over 1 hour and 10 minutes. The missile was tracked with the
help of ground based radars and its health parameters were monitored by telemetry stations from
DRDO's ITR and LRDE (Electronics & Radar Development Establishment).[29] Indian Air force
fighter jet Jaguar chased the missile during its flight to capture the video of the flight.
III. THIRD TRIAL
The third test of the missile took place on 16 October 2015.[30] The missile was to be tested for its
low flying capability. The missile in flight was supposed to be brought down from 4800 meters to
20 meters gradually and in stages. Su-30 MKI aircraft videotaped the flight.[31] A press release by
the Ministry of Defence stated the missile was launched at 11:38 IST and all initial critical
operations such as Booster ignition, Booster separation, Wing deployment and engine start were
successfully executed and Nirbhay reached the desired Cruise Altitude.[32] Although the take off was
successful after repeated disruptions of countdown, the missile crashed into the Bay of Bengal 11
minutes into its flight after covering only 128 km of its 1000 km range.[33]
IV. FOURTH TRIAL
The fourth test of the missile took place on 21 December 2016 from Launch Complex-III of
Integrated Test Range (ITR) at Balasore in Odisha around 11:56 IST.[34][35] There has been no
official word on the test outcome, however according to news reports this test was not successful.
The booster engine in the first stage started working and lifted the missile off from its launcher. But
the missile started veering dangerously towards one side in two minutes after lift-off and veered
outside its safety corridor. Due to this, the test was aborted and the missile was remotely destroyed.
A potential reason for the failure was described as a hardware problem with one of the missile's
component.
V. FIFTH TRIAL
The fifth test of the missile took place on 7 November 2017 from Launch Complex-III of Integrated
Test Range (ITR) at Balasore in Odisha around 11:20 IST. The flight test was a success and met all
mission objectives. During the test, the missile travelled a distance of 647 km over a 50 min
duration was tracked by ground based radars and telemetry stations.[10][39][14][40]. This trial of the
missile used a turbojet engine instead of a turbofan engine

9.5 MEDIUM-RANGE SUBSONIC

These missiles are about the same size and weight and fly at similar speeds to the above category,
but the range is (officially)[citation needed]less than 1,000 km. Guidance systems vary.
Examples: The AGM-158 JASSM (Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile) is a low
observable standoff air-launched cruise missiledeveloped in the United States. It is a large, stealthy
long-range weapon of the 2,000 pounds (910 kg) class. The missile's development began in 1995,
but a number of problems during testing delayed its introduction into service until 2009. As of
2014, the JASSM has entered foreign service in Australia, Finland, and Poland. An extended range
version of the missile, the AGM-158B JASSM-ER (Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile-Extended
Range), entered service in 2014. By September 2016, Lockheed Martin had delivered 2,000 total
JASSMs comprising both variants to the USAF

JASSM-EXTENDED RANGE (JASSM-ER)

The US Air Force studied various improvements to the AGM-158, resulting in the development of
the JASSM-Extended Range (JASSM-ER), which received the designation AGM-158B in 2002.
Using a more efficient engine and larger fuel volume in an airframe with the same external
dimensions as the JASSM, the JASSM-ER is intended to have a range of over 575 miles (925 km)
as compared to the JASSM's range of about 230 miles (370 km). Other possible improvements were
studied but ultimately not pursued, including a submunition dispenser warhead, new types of
homing head, and a new engine giving ranges in excess of 620 miles (1,000 km). The JASSM-ER
has 70% hardware commonality and 95% software commonality with the original AGM-158
JASSM.The first flight test of the JASSM-ER occurred on May 18, 2006 when a missile was
launched from a U.S. Air Force B-1 bomber at the White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico. The
initial platform for the JASSM-ER is the B-1.[28] While both the original JASSM and the JASSM-
ER are several inches too long to be carried in the internal weapons bay of the F-35 Lightning II, the
F-35 will be able to carry both missiles externally, although this will compromise the aircraft's
stealth features.The JASSM-ER entered service with the USAF in April 2014. Although the B-1
was initially the only aircraft able to deploy it, it was later integrated onto the B-52, F-15E, and F-
16;[30]the B-1B can carry a full load of 24 JASSM-ERs, the B-2 16 missiles,[31][32] and the B-52
outfitted with the 1760 Internal Weapons Bay Upgrade (IWBU) is able to carry 20 JASSM-ERs,
eight internally and 12 on external pylons.[33][34][35] The Air Force approved full-rate production of
the JASSM-ER in December 2014.[36] It is hoped that fielding of the JASSM-ER will allow the
service to save money by retiring the conventional air-launch cruise missile (CALCM), a
conventional warhead-equipped version of the nuclear-tipped ALCM, having the long-range
conventional strike munition role filled by the newer missile.[37] Integration of the JASSM-ER onto
the B-52 and F-16 is expected to wrap up in 2018, with the F-15E completed after that;[38] it was
announced that the JASSM-ER achieved full operational capability on the F-15E in February
2018.[39] Lot 15 production contract, awarded in June 2017 was the first consisting entirely JASSM-
ER.On 14 May 2015, the head of the Air Force Research Laboratory nominated the JASSM-ER as
the optimal air vehicle to carry the Counter-electronics High Power Microwave Advanced Missile
Project (CHAMP) payload. CHAMP is an electronic warfare technology that fries electronic
equipment with bursts of high-power microwave energy, non-kinetically destroying them. The
JASSM-ER was chosen because it is an operational system, so CHAMP is to be miniaturized into
the operationally relevant system. In March 2016, Lockheed began analysis on an enhanced wing
design to further increase range. The enhanced wing design is scheduled to be incorporated into
production Lot 17.[42]

AGM-158C LRASM
The JASSM-ER is also the basis for Long Range Anti-Ship Missile, which is a JASSM-ER with a
new seeker.[43] The Air Force used the B-1 Lancer to complete a captive carry test of an LRASM to
ensure the bomber can carry it, as both missiles use the same airframe. The LRASM was not
originally planned to be deployed on the B-1, being intended solely as a technology
demonstrator,[44] but in February 2014 the Pentagon authorized the LRASM to be integrated onto air
platforms, including the Air Force B-1, as an operational weapon to address the needs of the Navy
and Air Force to have a modern anti-ship missile.[45] In August 2015, the Navy officially designated
the air-launched LRASM as the AGM-158C.

9.6 SHORT-RANGE SUBSONIC

These are subsonic missiles which weigh around 500 kilograms (1,102 lb) and have a range of up to
300 km (190 mi).
Examples: SOM Cruise Missile (Turkish: Satha Atılan Orta Menzilli Mühimmat) is a next-
generation high precision cruise missile, which can be launched from land, sea and air
platforms[5] developed by TÜBİTAK SAGE, Defence Research and Development Institute of
Turkey. It was first revealed during the 100th anniversary celebrations of the Turkish Air Force at
the Çiğli Air Base in İzmir, on 4 June 2011. Developed since 2006, the SOM cruise missile is
Turkey's first domestic solution for destroying both stationary and moving targets at a stand-off
distance of over 180 kilometers.[3][6] Although being developed by TÜBİTAK SAGE which still
holds authority over the design of the missile, Roketsan has been given the role of producing and
marketing the missile for export.

DESCRIPTION
The SOM stand-off cruise missile is a family of launch and leave precision strike weapons against
both land or sea targets. It uses GPS as its primary mode of guidance complemented by an
advanced Inertial Navigation System and a radar-based Terrain Referenced Navigation system,
allowing the missile to skim the terrain during its flight in order to evade local defence systems.
According to the developer, it features advanced geometry and aerodynamics over similar missile
systems, as well as lightweight composite components that minimize the radar cross-section of the
missile. A terminal stage infrared imager detects the individual target by matching its signature with
a pre-loaded database of similar targets allowing for precision strike. It can also be used to provide
image-based midcourse navigation by taking snapshots of waypoints and comparing them against
predicted position to update the navigation system. By this way, if GPS capability is denied or
degraded, the missile can follow its waypoints using infrared based terrain updates. The missile
includes a two-way datalink that makes possible to change the task in flight.Basic design of the
missile incorporates dedicated fuselage that fits in the internal bays of the Joint Strike Fighter.It is
intended to achieve high accuracy in striking military targets like command and control facilities,
SAM sites, parked aircraft and surface ships.[10]

TESTS
According to the TUBITAK-SAGE officials, the initial demonstration flights of the prototypes were
completed successfully. The missile made its first guided flight on 9 August 2011 over the Black
Sea. Covering more than 100 nautical miles using GPS/INS guidance, the missile successfully hit its
target with high accuracy. It is planned to assess the design aspects of the missile by conducting
about 30 test flights. The delivery of a first batch of missiles to the Turkish Air Force will take place
by the end of 2011, following more complicated live firing tests planned for the rest of the
year.[6][8][9]

Range
While initially the range of the missile was announced to be 100 nmi, debates arose in local press
around the missile's real range after Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan unexpectedly set
objectives for the development of a missile with a range of 2,500 km (1,300 nmi) at the plenary
session of the High Science and Technology Council on December 28, 2011.[11] Shortly after, head
of the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) Yücel Altınbaşak
informed that they set a task to develop the missile to 2,500 km (1,300 nmi) within 2 years. "The
SOM missile is currently tested for 300 km (160 nmi) range and successfully achieved 10 m (33 ft)
precision goal, demonstrating around 5 m (16 ft) accuracy in live fires. We are planning to start
500 km (270 nmi) range tests this year. Later the range will be extended to 1,500 km (810 nmi) and
finally to 2,500 km (1,300 nmi) in 2014", he said.[12][13]

Variants
TUBITAK-SAGE developed the missile in three variants with varying warheads and
guidance/communication packages:[14]
 SOM A: Basic Air Force variant that is designed to engage a military target in simple strike
mode by using the coordinates of the given target at the terminal stage.
 SOM B1: Advanced Air Force variant that engages a military target in precision strike mode
using imaging infrared matching at the terminal stage.
 SOM B2: Special Air Force variant featuring a dual-stage penetrator warhead which is
designed to engage strategic and well-protected assets in precision strike mode.
  SOM J: A joint-venture between Lockheed Martin of the United States (Teaming Partner)
designed specifically for use in the internal carriage bay of the F-35 JSF. It is more compact
with folding control surfaces and a booster (rocketry).
SOM B1, B2 and J variants feature a data-link for man-in-the-loop update of a waypoint and
terminal stage of the missile.