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Water clarification using Moringa oleifera seed coagulant: Maiduguri raw

water as a case study

Article  in  Journal of Food Agriculture and Environment · January 2007

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Meri-Rastilantie 3 C, FI-00980 Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment Vol.5 (1) : 302-306. 2007 www.world-food.net
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Water clarification using Moringa oleifera seed coagulant: Maiduguri raw water as a
case study
S. Abdulsalam 1*, A. A. Gital 2, I. M. Misau 1 and M. S. Suleiman 1
1
Chemical Engineering Programme, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi P.M.B 0248, Bauchi, Nigeria. 2 Bauchi State
Water Treatment Plant, Gubi, Bauchi,Nigeria. *e-mail:asurajud@yahoo.com

Received 19 August 2006, accepted 11 November 2006.

Abstract
A study was carried out on the clarification of Maiduguri raw water (MRW) using extracted and unextracted Moringa oleifera (MO) coagulants. The
results showed that the optimum dosages for the extracted and unextracted MO coagulants were 180 and 300 mg/l respectively. The removal
efficiencies for the extracted and unextracted MO coagulants at these dosages were 82.35% and 76.47% respectively. Quality parameters, such as
colour, turbidity and pH, fell within the standards required for clarified water. The settling times for the extracted and unextracted MO coagulants
were higher than that of aluminium sulphate. It was observed that the coagulation process has no effect on the natural hardness and alkalinity. The
effect of particle size on the coagulation process indicates that the smaller the particle size of MO coagulants the better the coagulation process.

Key words: Moringa oleifera, extracted and unextracted seed coagulant, raw water, clarification, particle size.

Introduction
Water quality depends on the physical, chemical and biological
characteristics. Natural water contains impurities such as
suspended and dissolved substances which can be from organic
or inorganic sources. These impurities include: clay, minerals,
bacteria, inert solids, microbiological organisms, oxidized metals,
organic colour producing particles and other suspended
materials 1. Water for domestic use including drinking must not
contain disease substances. The quality desired for drinking water
usually needs treatment to bring it up to the desired state. Certain
processes are used to purify raw water to make it suitable for
water supply.
The process of water treatment involves four basic steps which
include: aeration of dirty water with oxygen to remove iron III,
sedimentation and coagulation, filtration with carbon slurry to
remove solid particles and odour and disinfection with chlorine.
In this research work, the coagulation process was our main focus.
Coagulation of water involves the use of coagulating agents (either
from chemical or biological sources) to bring the suspended matter
in the raw water together for the purpose of settling and for the
preparation for the filtration stage.
In Nigeria, like in other developing countries, portable water for
drinking and domestic uses constitutes a serious problem.
According to UNICEF and WHO 2, over 70% sources of Nigerian
drinking water are on high-risk categories and less than 5% had
the required chlorine content. Poorly processed water leads to
water-borne diseases. Over 80% of all illnesses in the developing
countries are water-related ones (e.g. cholera, dysentery and
diarrhoea), and about 75% of the world population are living in
the developing countries 3.
These problems can be attributed to constraints encountered
in the use of chemical coagulants, such as scarcity of foreign
currency for importation, inadequate supply of chemicals and
competing uses of aluminium sulphate in the world today. Also,
these chemicals are causative agents for illness such as
neurological diseases (e.g. pre-senile dementia or loss of memory)
due to the presence of aluminium ions in dissolved form. More so,
in the developing countries, there are no treatment facilities for
sludge produced from aluminium sulphate. This sludge is
discharged into down stream water (river) which is very hazardous
to human and public health in general because the sludge is not
bio-degradable.
Moringa oleifera (MO), commonly called the “drumstick tree”,
is well known for its multipurpose attributes, wide applicability
and ease of establishment. MO leaves, pods and flowers are
packed with nutrients important to both human and animals. MO
tree has a wide number of applications in cosmetic, water
purification, production of animal feeds, as green manure, in
medicine, oil extraction, as a vegetable crop, in pulp and paper
production and in the production of activated carbon. The use of
MO seed kernels has been reported severally in the literature for
clarification of water. MO seed kernels are biological coagulant
consisting of significant quantities of low molecular weight water-
soluble proteins, which in solution carry an overall positive charge.
The proteins are considered to act similarly to synthetic, positively-
charged polymer coagulant. When added to raw water, the
proteins bind to the predominantly negatively-charged particles
that make raw water turbid (silt, clay, bacteria, etc.). Under proper
agitation these bound particles then grow in size to form the flocs,

302 Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.5 (1), January 2007
which may be left to settle by gravity or be removed by filtration.
MO is natural, sustainable and environmental friendly biological
coagulant which is usually presumed safe for human consumption.
The sludge produced from MO coagulant is usually used for the
production of biofertilizer since it is bio-degradable. The use of
MO coagulant is less common in the developing countries such
as ours. Our overdependence on chemical coagulants, mainly
aluminium sulphate which is expensive and has various
disadvantages, has led to this research study.
MO trees are planted at every nook and corners in Nigeria. This
crop can strive under any weather condition. The usefulness of
this important material deserves to be properly harnessed and
utilised instead of overdependence on expensive, imported
chemical that pose dangers to human and public health. More so,
unlike the aluminium sulphate that under dosage and over dosage
results in diseases, MO coagulant is safe and very effective in
removing impurities. According to Doerr 4, removal of 90-99.9%
of impurities in raw water can be achieved using MO seed
coagulant.
The objectives of this research were to determine the optimum
dosage of MO coagulants, for both extracted and unextracted, on
Maiduguri raw water; the effect of particle size on coagulation
process and the quality control parameters, such as colour,
turbidity, alkalinity, pH, settling time, flocs weight and flocs quality.
Materials and Methods
Matured seed pods of MO were harvested from tree at Yelwa LG.A
of Bauchi State. The seeds were removed from the harvested pods
and shelled. The shelled seeds were ground in mortar and pestle,
sieved and classified as presented in Table 1. Sub-sample of 50 g
of each sample (1-5) was processed and tagged unextracted. Each
of the processed samples was divided into two parts; the first
portion left as unextracted and the second one used for oil
extraction. Oil was extracted from the samples using solvent
extraction process 5, and the samples were tagged extracted. 1%
solution of Sample 1 was prepared for both extracted and
unextracted as the stock solution. The solutions were thoroughly
agitated and filtered using muslin cloth in order to remove
insoluble materials.
Table 1. Identification of samples in order
of particle sizes.
Sample identity Sieve opening (mm)
1 0.42
2 0.60
3 0.85
4 1.18
5 1.70
Optimum dosage determination: Six 1000 ml beakers were filled
with raw water obtained from Maiduguri water treatment plant
and placed into the jar test apparatus. The apparatus was switched
on and the water agitated simultaneously, first a rapid mix at
400 rpm for two hours during which the required coagulant dosage
was quickly added (i.e. 180-280 mg/l at an interval of 20 mg/l) into
the beakers using pipette for the unextracted samples, then
followed by a slow mixing for 15 minutes at 15 rpm. The samples
were then allowed to settle. The above procedure was repeated at
300, 320 and 340 mg/l. Also, the above procedure was carried out
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.5 (1), January 2007
for the extracted samples at dosage range of 100-260 mg/l at an
interval of 20 mg/l. More so, at the optimum dosages for the
extracted and unextracted, the above procedure was repeated for
Samples 2 to 5.
Determination of water quality parameters: After the jar test,
the paddles were stopped and removed from the beakers and the
water allowed to settle. For each of the coagulated samples, 25 ml
was removed from each of the beakers using a graduated pipette
for the quality parameter tests. The following parameters were
determined before and after the coagulation process: colour,
turbidity, pH, alkalinity and hardness. Also, the flocs weight and
flocs quality and settling time were determined for the coagulated
water.
Colour: Raw water, 25 ml, was poured into a rectangular sample
cell, and it was placed into the cell compartment of an HACH OR/
2000 spectrophotometer. The apparatus was switched on and the
colour programme number 120 and wavelength 455 nm were
entered. The read button was then pressed and the result was
displayed in PECO unit. This procedure was repeated for all the
coagulated samples.
Turbidity was determined using the HACH OR/2000
spectrophotometer, but in this case the programme number and
wavelength were 750 and 450 nm respectively.
The pH of each sample was determined using a digital Mettler
Toledo pH meter. The electrode was first immersed in a buffer
solution for calibration and then immersed in each of the
coagulated samples, and the pH value was displayed.
Alkalinity was determined using the total alkalinity tablets. These
tablets were dissolved in each sample until there was a colour
change from yellow to bright red. The total alkalinity (mg/l) =
(number of tablets dissolved * 40) – 20.
Hardness: In this case, calcium hardness tablets were used.
These tablets were dissolved in each of the coagulated samples
until there was a colour change from pink to violet. The hardness
was expressed as calcium hardness in mg/l of CaCO3.
Flocs weight: The flocs formed were allowed to settle and the
upper part decanted. The settled flocs were then filtered using a
filter paper. The flocs and filter paper were dried and weighed on
an electronic weighing balance. The weight of flocs = (weight of
flocs and filter paper)- (weight of filter paper).
Flocs quality: After agitation process, the samples were observed
and noted how quickly the flocs settled; hazy settled water
indicates poor coagulation. Properly coagulated water contains
particles that are well-formed and the water between the particles
was clear. Water quality was described as poor, fair, good and
excellent.
Results and Discussion
Water quality parameters: The quality parameters for raw water
used for the analysis are shown in Table 2. The colour of
coagulated samples decreased with increasing MO dosage on
MRW for both the unextracted and extracted samples (Fig.1). The
unextracted sample had the best colour at the minimum value of
27PECO which corresponds to 300 mg/l while the extracted one
had a minimum value at 3lPECO, corresponding to 180 mg/l. The
colour range for both the unextracted and extracted samples were
between 27-69PECO and 31-92PECO respectively. These values
show that only samples at dosage level of 240-320 mg/l met the
303
standard range of 0-50PECO 6 for the unextracted. On the other Table 2. Maiduguri raw water (MRW) quality parameters.
hand, samples with dosage range between 160 and 240 mg/l met ________________________________________________
Parameter Value
the minimum requirement for the extracted samples. _____________________________________
The pH range for the unextracted and extracted MO coagulants (1) (2)
on MRW fell within the acceptable limit of 6.5-9.5 7. The variation _____________________________________________________
Colour 100PECO 83PECO
of pH with MO dosage for the extracted and unextracted samples pH 8.04 7.85
showed no definite correlation. For the unextracted MO, the pH Turbidity 17FTU 13FTU
fluctuated in a zigzag manner with increasing MO dosage, while Alkalinity mg/l 60 60
Hardness mg/l CaCO3 60 60
for the extracted one the pH slightly decreased with increasing
MO dosage (Fig. 2). (1) Raw water used for the determination of optimum dosage; (2) Raw water used for the
determination of effect of particle size.
The turbidity for both unextracted and extracted
MO coagulant first decreased with increasing MO
dosage, got to a minimum at 300 and 180 mg/l 100
respectively, and then increased with increasing 90 coagulated water (unextracted)
MO dosage (Fig. 3). The turbidity range was 80 coagulated water (extracted)
4-12FTU for the unextracted and 3-15FTU for the
Colour (PECO)

70
extracted one. These turbidity ranges fell within
60
0-25FTU required by standard 6.
50
The alkalinity and hardness were not affected
40
by the coagulation process; the values remained
unchanged from that of raw water for both the 30

unextracted and extracted MO coagulant (i.e. 60 20

and 60 mg/l CaCO3) (Table 3). These values fell 10 0

within the acceptable limit of 20-200 mg/l for 0
alkalinity 8 and 0-60 mg/l for total hardness 9. Also, (1)100 (2)120 (3)140 (4)160 (5)180 (6)200 (7)220 (8)240 (9)260 (10)280 (11)300 (12)320 (13)340

the observation for the alkalinity was in line with MO Dosage (mg/l)
the observation of Liew et al. . 10
Figure 1. Variation in colour with MO dosage for Maiduguri coagulated water.
Samples with MO dosages of 180 and
200 mg/l had excellent flocs quality for the
extracted, while samples with MO dosages 9.5

between 260-340 mg/l had good flocs quality for coagulated water (unextracted)
9 coagulated water (extracted)
the unextracted MO coagulant on MRW
(Table 3).
8.5
The flocs weight of the unextracted MO
coagulant on MRW fluctuated with increasing
pH

8
MO dosage and got to a maximum value of 0.09 g
at 320 mg/l and the least value of 0.02 g at
7.55
220 mg/l (Fig. 4). On the other hand, the flocs
weight for the extracted MO coagulant on MRW
increased with increasing MO dosage, got to a 7
(1)100 (2)120 (3)140 (4)160 (5)180 (6)200 (7)220 (8)240 (9)260 (10)280 (11)300 (12)320 (13)340
maximum value of 0.1 g at 180 mg/l and then
MO Dosage (mg/l)
decreased with further increase in MO dosage.
The settling time for the unextracted MO
Figure 2. Variation of pH with MO dosage for Maiduguri coagulated water.
coagulant on MRW decreased with increasing
MO dosage, had its minimum value of 80 minutes
16
at 300 mg/l and later increased with further coagulated water (unextracted)
increase in MO dosage (Fig. 5). On the other hand, 14 coagulated water (extracted)
the settling time for the extracted MO coagulant
Turbidity (FTU)

12
on MRW followed a similar pattern as that of
10
unextracted MO coagulant but had its minimum
value of 50 minutes at 180 mg/l. In general, the 8

settling times for the extracted MO coagulants 6

on MRW were lower than those of the unextracted
4
ones. This can be attributed to the presence of
oil in the unextracted MO coagulant. Also, the 2
best settling times obtained for the unextracted 0
and extracted MO coagulants were higher (1)100 (2)120 (3)140 (4)160 (5)180 (6)200 (7)220 (8)240 (9)260 (10)280 (11)300 (12)320 (13)340

compared to the 12-13 minutes for the alum MO Dosage (mg/l)

coagulant 11.
Figure 3. Variation of turbidity with MO dosage for Maiduguri coagulated water.

304 Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.5 (1), January 2007
Table 3. Some quality parameters at various MO Table 4. Effects of particle size on coagulation of Maiduguri raw water
dosages for the unextracted and extracted using unextracted MO seed coagulant at optimum dosage
MO coagulants on coagulation of Maiduguri (300 mg/l).
raw water.
Water quality parameter
MO Alkalinity Hardness (mg/l Sieve
Flocs quality
dosage (mg/l) CaCO3)
opening Flocs Settling
(mg/l) 1 2 1 2 1 2 (mm) Colour Turbidity Alkalinity Hardness weight Flocs
pH time
100 ND 60 ND 60 ND poor (PECO) (FTU) (mg/l) (mg/l CaCO3) quality
(g) (min)
120 ND 60 ND 60 ND fair
0.42 27 7.54 4 60 60 0.075 good 95
140 ND 60 ND 60 ND fair
160 ND 60 ND 60 ND good 0.60 25 7.71 5 60 60 0.080 good 93
180 60 60 60 60 poor excellent 0.85 31 7.79 7 60 60 0.050 good 101
200 60 60 60 60 poor excellent 1.18 45 7.81 8 60 60 0.018 good 123
220 60 60 60 60 fair good 1.70 47 7.82 8 60 60 0.009 good 131
240 60 60 60 60 fair good
260 60 60 60 60 good fair
280 60 ND 60 ND good ND
300 60 ND 60 ND good ND
320 60 ND 60 ND good ND parabolic trend with minimum of 8.08 at 0.85 mm particle size. The
340 60 ND 60 ND good ND
(1) Unextracted; (2) Extracted; ND Not determined.
alkalinity and hardness also remained unchanged from their
respective raw water values.
Although, Sample 2 gave the best flocs weight, Sample 1
Optimal MO dosages on MRW: From the quality parameters (0.42 mm) gave an excellent flocs quality and performance. This is
discussed above, MO dosage of 300 and 180 mg/l were chosen as because Sample 1 also gave the best colour, turbidity and settling
the optimum dosages for unextracted and extracted MO time on MRW. Therefore, it can be generalized that the smaller the
coagulants on MRW respectively. The choice of these dosages particle size the better the clarification process.
as optimum was due to their best colour, turbidity and settling
time. The optimal MO dosage for the unextracted was far above
limit of 70-250 mg/l obtainable in the literature 12
while that of extracted one fell within this limit.
0.12
It can be seen that the extracted MO coagulant unextracted extracted
had a lower dosage than that of unextracted one. 0.1
Therefore, it can be said that the extracted one
Flocs Weight (g)

required less amount of MO coagulant than the 0.08

unextracted one. This can be attributed to the
0.06
oil in the unextracted that hindered its effective
use. These optimum dosages of MO coagulants 0.04
were higher than the optimum dosage of an
average of 70 mg/l for the alum coagulant on 0.02

MRW . 10
0
(1)100 (2)120 (3)140 (4)160 (5)180 (6)200 (7)220 (8)240 (9)260 (10)280 (11)300 (12)320 (13)340
Effects of particle size on coagulation of MRW MO Dosage (mg/l)
at optimum MO dosage: When the particle size
of the unextracted MO coagulant on MRW Figure 4. Variation of flocs weight with MO dosage for Maiduguri coagulated water.
increased, the turbidity and settling time also
increased (Table 4). Sample 1 had the best
turbidity of 4FTU and Sample 2 had the best 160
unextracted extracted
colour, flocs weight and settling time of 25PECO, 140
0.08 g and 93 min respectively. As a result, Sample 120
2 (0.60 mm) gave the best performance.
Setting Time (min)

100
Also, the pH for the unextracted MO on MRW
increased with increasing particle size and these 80
values were within the range of 6.5-9.5 7 required 60
by standard. The alkalinity and hardness
40
remained unchanged. On the other hand, the
results obtained for the extracted MO coagulant 20

on MRW (Table 5) show increase in colour, 0

(1)100 (2)120 (3)140 (4)160 (5)180 (6)200 (7)220 (8)240 (9)260 (10)280 (11)300 (12)320 (13)340
turbidity and settling time with increasing
particle size, and the pH shows a somewhat MO Dosage (mg/l)

Figure 5. Variation of settling time with MO dosage for Maiduguri coagulated water.

Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.5 (1), January 2007 305
 Table 5. Effects of particle size on coagulation of Maiduguri raw water using
extracted MO seed coagulant at optimum dosage (180 mg/l).

Water quality parameter

Sieve
opening Flocs Settling
(mm) Colour Turbidity Alkalinity Hardness Flocs time
pH weight
(PECO) (FTU) (mg/l) (mg/l CaCO3) quality (min)
(g)
0.42 31 8.86 3 60 60 0.100 excellent 50
0.60 39 8.19 7 60 60 0.110 good 55
0.85 54 8.08 10 60 60 0.080 good 85
1.18 79 8.14 13 60 60 0.060 fair 113
1.70 84 8.22 14 60 60 0.060 fair 135

Conclusions and Recommendations References

From this investigation, the optimum MO dosages for the extracted
and unextracted MO coagulants are 180 and 300 mg/l respectively.
The removals of impurities for the extracted and unextracted MO
coagulants on the MRW were 82.35% and 76.47% respectively.
These removal efficiencies were based on the turbidity. It was
also observed that the effectiveness of MO coagulants decreases
with increasing particle size.
As a result of the merits of MO coagulants highlighted in this
study, it can save as a replacement for aluminium sulphate
because it is cost-effective, environmental friendly and can be
sourced locally. Also, since MO is harvested twice a year and if
processed has a shelf life of 6-12 months 3, continuous supply of
the crop is guaranteed. On the other hand, high settling time and
maximum volume of raw water for effective coagulation are the
major set backs of these coagulants 13.
From this study, the following can be concluded: 1) MO
coagulants are effective in coagulation of MRW. 2) The optimum
dosages for MO coagulants (extracted and unextracted) are
180 and 300 mg/l respectively. 3) The removal efficiencies for the
extracted and unextracted MO coagulants on MRW were
82.35% and 76.47% respectively. 4) The amount of unextracted
MO coagulant required for coagulation of MRW is higher than
that of extracted one. 5) The settling times for the extracted and
unextracted MO coagulants are higher than that of aluminium
sulphate. 6) MO coagulants can be used as a replacement for
aluminium sulphate. 7) MO coagulants studied had no effect on
hardness and alkalinity of MRW.
The problem of portable water is not peculiar to Nigeria but to
the developing countries as a whole and the effects of aluminium
sulphate on human and public health is a global one. Therefore,
we wish to recommend to the federal, state and local governments
and stakeholders in the water industry to consider the shift from
the use of a harmful and expensive material (chemical coagulants)
to a harmless and less expensive one (biological coagulants) for
the clarification of raw water for domestic and industrial uses.
1
Nnolim, I. J. 2004. Production of Aluminium Sulphate from Kaolin for
Coagulation of Water. Unpublished B.Eng. Research Project, A.T.B.U.
Bauchi, Nigeria.
2
Anonymous 2006.UNICEF and WHO report on sources of Nigerian
water. The Magazine of the International Water Association, 30th May.
3
Muyibi, S. A. 2006. Satiating the thirst of millions of Nigerians through
application of Moringa oleifera technology in water supply. 17th Public
Lecture of Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, 2nd August.
4
Doerr, B. 2005. An Echo technical note, available online at http://
www.echotech.org/mambo/index.php?option=com_docman
&task=doc-view&gid=106&Item=68, accessed on 10th August, 2006.
5
Kromdar, D. T. 2005. Solvent Extraction of Oil from Moringa oleifera
Seed Using n-Hexane. Unpublished B.Eng. Research Project, A.T.B.U.
Bauchi, Nigeria.
6
Oni, O. O. 1997. Water Quality Testing and Control. National Water
Resources Institute, Kaduna, Nigeria, pp. 45.
7
http://www.worldhealthorganization.com. Accessed on18th May, 2005.
8
http://bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/data/COBWQ/info/Alk.html. Accessed on
26th July, 2006.
9
http:// bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/data/COBWQ/info/Hard.html. Accessed
on 26th July, 2006.
10
Liew, A. G., Noor, M.J.M.M., Muyibi, S.M., Fugara, A.M.S.,
Muhammed, T.A. and Iyuke, S.E. 2006. Surface water clarification
using Moringa oleifera seeds. International Journal of Environmental
Studies 63(2):211-219.
11
Anonymous 2006. Daily quality control record. Maiduguri Water
Treatment Plant, 25th May.
12
Sutherland, J.P., Folkard, G.K., Mtawali, M.A. and Grant, W.D. 1994.
Moringa oleifera as a natural coagulant. Presented at the 20th WEDC
Conference Colombo, Sri Lanka, pp.297-299.
13
http://www.iboro.ac.uk/orgs/well/resources/tech. Accessed 5th October,
2005.

Acknowledgement
We wish to acknowledge the staff and management of Maiduguri
Water Treatment Plant for allowing us full access to their laboratory,
equipment and assistance in the experimental work.

306 Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.5 (1), January 2007

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