Overview of the Digestive System

Anatomy of the Digestive System

The human gastrointestinal tract refers to the stomach and intestine, and
sometimes to all the structures from the mouth to the anus.

The human gastrointestinal tract refers to the stomach and intestine, and
sometimes to all the structures from the mouth to the anus.

Upper Gastrointestinal Tract

The upper gastrointestinal tract consists of the esophagus, stomach, and

duodenum. The exact demarcation between upper and lower can vary. Upon
gross dissection, the duodenum may appear to be a unified organ, but it is
often divided into two parts based upon function, arterial supply, or
embryology.

The upper gastrointestinal tract includes the:

•Esophagus, the fibromuscular tube that food passes through—aided by

peristaltic contractions—the pharynx to the stomach.

•Stomach, which secretes protein -digesting enzymes called proteases and

strong acids to aid in food digestion, before sending the partially digested food
to the small intestines.

•Duodenum, the first section of the small intestine that may be the principal
site for iron absorption.

Lower Gastrointestinal Tract

The lower gastrointestinal tract includes most of the small intestine and all of
the large intestine. According to some sources, it also includes the anus.

The small intestine has three parts:

This drawing shows the position of the small intestine in the gastrointestinal
tract. The small intestine is shown surrounded by the colon, on the left, the
rectum and anus underneath, the cecum and appendix on its right, and the
stomach above it.

Small intestine: This image shows the position of the small intestine in the
gastrointestinal tract.

•Duodenum: Here the digestive juices from the pancreas ( digestive enzymes )
and the gallbladder ( bile ) mix together. The digestive enzymes break down
proteins and bile and emulsify fats into micelles. The duodenum contains
Brunner’s glands that produce bicarbonate, and pancreatic juice that contains
bicarbonate to neutralize hydrochloric acid in the stomach.

•Jejunum: This is the midsection of the intestine, connecting the duodenum to

the ileum. It contains the plicae circulares and villi to increase the surface area
of that part of the GI tract.

•Ileum: This has villi, where all soluble molecules are absorbed into the blood (
through the capillaries and lacteals).

The large intestine has four parts:

1.Cecum, the vermiform appendix that is attached to the cecum.

2.Colon, which includes the ascending colon, transverse colon, descending

colon, and sigmoid flexure. The main function of the colon is to absorb water,
but it also contains bacteria that produce beneficial vitamins like vitamin K.

3.Rectum.

4.Anus.

The ligament of Treitz is sometimes used to divide the upper and lower GI
tracts.

Processes and Functions of the Digestive System

Digestion is necessary for absorbing nutrients from food and occurs through
two processes: mechanical and chemical digestion.
The Digestive System

The proper functioning of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is imperative for our
well being and life -long health. A non-functioning or poorly-functioning GI
tract can be the source of many chronic health problems that can interfere with
your quality of life.

Here is a look at the importance of two main functions of the digestive system:
digestion and absorption.

Digestion

The gastrointestinal tract is responsible for the breakdown and absorption of

the various foods and liquids needed to sustain life. Many different organs have
essential roles in the digestion of food, from the mechanical breakdown of food
by the teeth to the creation of bile (an emulsifier) by the liver.

Bile production plays a important role in digestion: it is stored and

concentrated in the gallbladder during fasting stages, and discharged to the
small intestine. Pancreatic juices are excreted into the digestive system to
break down complex molecules such as proteins and fats.

Absorption

Absorption occurs in the small intestines, where nutrients directly enter the
bloodstream.

Each component of the digestive system plays a special role in these

complimentary processes. The structure of each component highlights the
function of that particular organ, providing a seamless anatomy to keep our
body fueled and healthy.

Components of the Digestive System

The digestive system is comprised of the alimentary canal, or the digestive

tract, and other accessory organs that play a part in digestion—such as the
liver, the gallbladder, and the pancreas. The alimentary canal and the GI tract
are terms that are sometimes used interchangeably.
The alimentary canal is the long tube that runs from the mouth (where the
food enters) to the anus (where indigestible waste leaves). The organs in the
alimentary canal include the mouth (the site of mastication), the esophagus,
the stomach, the small and large intestines, the rectum, and the anus. From
mouth to anus, the average adult digestive tract is about thirty feet (30′) long.

Processes of Digestion

Food is the body’s source of fuel. The nutrients in food give the body’s cells the
energy they need to operate. Before food can be used it has to be mechanically
broken down into tiny pieces, then chemically broken down so nutrients can be
absorbed.

In humans, proteins need to be broken down into amino acids, starches into
sugars, and fats into fatty acids and glycerol. This mechanical and chemical
breakdown encompasses the process of digestion.

To recap these twin processes:

1.Mechanical digestion: Larger pieces of food get broken down into smaller
pieces while being prepared for chemical digestion; this process starts in the
mouth and continues into the stomach.

2.Chemical digestion: Several different enzymes break down macromolecules

into smaller molecules that can be absorbed. The process starts in the mouth
and continues into the intestines.

Moistening and Breakdown of Food

Digestion begins in the mouth. A brain reflex triggers the flow of saliva when
we see or even think about food. Enzymes in saliva then begin the chemical
breakdown of food; teeth aid in the mechanical breakdown of larger food
particles.

Saliva moistens the food, while the teeth masticate the food and make it easier
to swallow. To accomplish this moistening goal, the salivary glands produce an
estimated three liters of saliva per day.
Amylase, the digestive enzyme found in saliva, starts to break down starch into
simple sugars before the food even leaves the mouth. The nervous pathway
involved in salivary excretion requires stimulation of receptors in the mouth,
sensory impulses to the brain stem, and parasympathetic impulses to salivary
glands. Once food is moistened and rolled and ready to swallow, it is known as
a bolus.

Swallowing and the Movement of Food

For swallowing to happen correctly a combination of 25 muscles must all work

together at the same time. Swallowing occurs when the muscles in your tongue
and mouth move the bolus into your pharynx.

The pharynx, which is the passageway for food and air, is about five inches (5″)
long—a remarkably small space. A small flap of skin called the epiglottis closes
over the pharynx to prevent food from entering the trachea, which would
cause choking. Instead, food is pushed into the muscular tube called the
esophagus. Waves of muscle movement, called peristalsis, move the bolus
down to the stomach.

While in the digestive tract, the food is really passing through the body rather
than being in the body. The smooth muscles of the tubular digestive organs
move the food efficiently along as it is broken down into easily absorbed ions
and molecules.

Large-scale Breakdown in the Stomach

Once the bolus reaches the stomach, gastric juices mix with the partially
digested food and continue the breakdown process. The bolus is converted into
a slimy material called chyme.

The stomach is a muscular bag that maneuvers food particles, mixing highly
acidic gastric juice and powerful digestive enzymes with the chyme to prepare
for nutrient absorption in the small intestine. Stimulatory hormones such as
gastrin and motilin help the stomach pump gastric juice and move chyme. The
complex network of hormones eventually prepares chyme for entry into the
duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine.

Absorption in the Small Intestine

During absorption, the nutrients that come from food (such as proteins, fats,
carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals) pass through the wall of the small
intestine and into the bloodstream. In this way nutrients can be distributed
throughout the rest of the body. The small intestine increases surface area for
absorption through tiny interior projections, like small fingers, called villi.

Waste Compaction in the Large Intestine

In the large intestine there is resorption of water and absorption of certain

minerals as feces are formed. Feces are the waste parts of the food that the
body passes out through the anus.

Organs of the Digestive System

The organs of the digestive system can be divided into upper and lower
digestive tracts. The upper digestive tract consists of the esophagus, stomach,
and the small intestine; the lower tract includes all of the large intestine, the
rectum, and anus.

The human body uses a variety of mental and physiological cues to initiate the
process of digestion. Throughout our gastrointestinal (GI) tract, each organ
serves a specific purpose to bring our food from the plate to a digestible
substance from which nutrients can be extracted.

The Digestive Tube

This diagram shows the relationship between the various organs of the
digestive system. It shows how the oral cavity connects to the esophagus and
descends into the stomach and then the small intestine. It then connects to the
large intestine, then the rectum, and, finally, the anus.

The organs of the gastrointestinal tract: This diagram shows the relationship
between the various organs of the digestive system. It shows how the oral
cavity connects to the esophagus and descends into the stomach and then the
small intestine. It then connects to the large intestine, then the rectum, and,
finally, the anus.

Our digestive system is like a long tube, with different segments doing different
jobs. The major organs within our digestive system can be split into two major
segments of this tube: the upper gastrointestinal tract, and the lower
gastrointestinal tract.

The Upper Gastrointestinal Tract

The upper gastrointestinal, or GI, tract is made up of three main parts:

1.The esophagus.

2.The stomach.

3.The small intestine.

The Lower Gastrointestinal Tract

The lower GI tract contains the remainder of the system:

1.The large intestine.

2.The rectum.

3.The anus.

The exact dividing line between upper and lower tracts can vary, depending on
which medical specialist is examining the GI tract.

Food Breakdown and Absorption: The Upper GI Tract

When we take a bite of food, the food material gets chewed up and processed
in the mouth, where saliva begins the process of chemical and mechanical
breakdown. The chewing process is also known as mastication.

When we mix up food with saliva, the resulting mushy wad is called a bolus.
The bolus gets swallowed, and begins its journey through the upper
gastrointestinal tract.
The Esophagus

The upper GI tract begins with the esophagus, the long muscular tube that
carries food to the stomach. The throat cavity in which our esophagus
originates is known as the pharynx. As we swallow, the bolus moves down our
esophagus, from the pharynx to the stomach, through waves of muscle
movement known as peristalsis. Next the bolus reaches the stomach itself.

The Stomach

The stomach is a muscular, hollow bag that is an important part of the upper GI
tract. Many organisms have a variety of stomach types, with many segments or
even multiple stomachs. As humans, we have only one stomach.

Here our bolus gets mixed with digestive acids, furthering breakdown of the
bolus, and turning the bolus material into a slimy mess called chyme. The
chyme moves on into the small intestine, where nutrients are absorbed.

The Small Intestine

The small intestine is an impressive digestive tube, spanning an average of 20

feet in length. The twists and turns of the small intestine, along with tiny
interior projections known as villi, help to increase the surface area for nutrient
absorption.

This snaking tube is made up of three parts, in order from the stomach:

1.The duodenum.

2.The jejunum.

3.The ileum.

As the chyme makes its way through each segment of the small intestine,
pancreatic juices from the pancreas start to break down proteins. Soapy bile
from the liver, stored in the gallbladder, gets squirted into the small intestine
to help emulsify—or break apart—fats.

Now thoroughly digested, with its nutrients absorbed along the path of the
small intestine, what remains of our food gets passed into the lower GI tract.
Waste Compaction and Removal: The Lower Gastrointestinal Tract

The Large Intestine (Colon)

Following nutrient absorption, the food waste reaches the large intestine, or
colon. The large intestine is responsible for compacting waste material,
removing water, and producing feces —our solid-waste product.

Accessory organs like the cecum and appendix, which are remnants of our
evolutionary past, serve as special pockets at the beginning of the large
intestine. The compacted and dried-out waste passes to the rectum, and out of
the body through the anus. Healthy gut bacteria in the large intestine also help
to metabolize our waste as it finishes its journey.