AWP Lecture Notes-Final

Dr.V.
Thrimurthulu Lecture Notes Antenna&WavePropagation
LectureNotes
On
Antenna & Wave Propagation
B.TECHECEIIIYEARISEMESTER(J
NTUA-R13)
by
Dr.V.Thrimurthulu
Professor&Head
DepartmentofElectronics&C
ommunicationEngineering
ChadalawadaRamanammaE
ngineeringCollege
ChadalawadaNagar,ReniguntaRoadTirupathi
CREC Dept. of ECE Page|1
Dr.V.Thrimurthulu Lecture NotesAntenna&WavePropagation
JAWAHARLALNEHRUTECHNOLOGICALUNIVERSITYANANTAPUR
B.Tech. III-I Sem(13A04501)ANTENNAS&WAVEPROPAGATION
Course Objective:
1. Tointroducethefundamentalprinciplesofantennatheoryand varioustypesof antennas.
2. Applyingthe principlesofantennastotheanalysis,design, and measurements ofantennas.
3. To know theapplicationsofsomebasic andpracticalconfigurationssuchas dipoles,loops,
4. and broadband,aperturetype and hornantennas.
LearningOutcome:
Throughlecture,andout-of-classassignments,studentsareprovidedlearningexperiencesthatenablethemto:
a) Understandthebasicprinciplesof alltypesofantennasand
b) Analyzedifferenttypes ofantennasdesignedfor variousfrequencyranges.
c) Becomeproficientwithanalyticalskillsforunderstandingpracticalantennas.
d) Designsomepracticalantennassuchasdipole,Yagi-uda, andhornantennas.
e) Determinetheradiationpatterns(inprincipalplanes)ofantennasthroughmeasurementsetups.
f) Developtechnical& writingskillsimportantforeffectivecommunication.
g)Acquireteam-workskillsforworkingeffectivelyin groups.
UNITI:AntennaBasics&Dipoleantennas:Introduction,Basicantennaparameters-
patterns,BeamArea,RadiationIntensity,BeamEfficiency,Directivity-Gain-
Resolution,AntennaApertures,Effectiveheight,Fieldsfromoscillatingdipole,FieldZones,Shape-
Impedanceconsiderations,Polarization–
Linear,Elliptical,&Circularpolarizations,Antennatemperature,Antennaimpedance,Front–to-
backratio,Antennatheorems,Radiation–BasicMaxwell‘sequations,Retardedpotential-
HelmholtzTheorem,RadiationfromSmallElectricDipole,QuarterwaveMonopoleandHalfwaveDipole–
CurrentDistributions,FieldComponents,Radiatedpower,RadiationResistance,Beamwidth,Naturalcurrentdist
ributions,farfieldsandpatternsofThinLinearCenter-fedAntennasofdifferentlengths,Illustrativeproblems.
UNITII:VHF,UHFandMicrowaveAntennas-I:LoopAntennas-
Introduction,SmallLoop,Comparisonoffarfieldsofsmallloopandshortdipole,RadiationResistancesandDirecti
vesofsmallandlargeloops(QualitativeTreatment),ArrayswithParasiticElements-Yagi-
UdaArrays,FoldedDipoles&theircharacteristics.HelicalAntennas-
HelicalGeometry,Helixmodes,PracticalDesignconsiderationsforMonofilarHelicalAntennainAxialandNorm
alModes.HornAntennas-
Types,Fermat‘sPrinciple,OptimumHorns,DesignconsiderationsofPyramidalHorns,IllustrativeProblems.
UNITIII:VHF,UHFandMicrowaveAntennas-II:MicrostripAntennas-
Introduction,features,advantagesandlimitations,Rectangularpatchantennas-
Geometryandparameters,characteristicsofMicrostripantennas,Impactofdifferentparametersoncharacteristics,
reflectorantennas-Introduction,Flatsheetandcornerreflectors,parabolareflectors-
geometry,patterncharacteristics,FeedMethods,ReflectorTypes-RelatedFeatures,LensAntennas-Geometry
ofNon-metallicDielectricLenses,Zoning
, Tolerances,Applications,IllustrativeProblems.
UNITIV:AntennaArrays&Measurements:Pointsources-Definition,Patterns,arraysof2Isotropicsources-
Differentcases,PrincipleofPatternMultiplication,UniformLinearArrays–
BroadsideArrays,EndfireArrays,EFAwithIncreasedDirectivity,Derivationoftheircharacteristics and
comparison,BSAa

Dr.V.Thrimurthulu Lecture Notes Antenna&WavePropagation
withNon-uniformAmplitudeDistributions-GeneralconsiderationsandBionomialArrays,Illustrativeproblems.
AntennaMeasurements:Introduction,Concepts-
Reciprocity,NearandFarFields,Coordinationsystem,sourcesoferrors,PatternstobeMeasured,PatternMeasure
mentArrangement,DirectivityMeasurement, GainMeasurements(bycomparison,Absoluteand 3-
AntennaMethods).
UNITV:WavePropagation:Introduction,Definitions,Characterizationsandgeneralclassifications,different
modesofwavepropagation,Ray/Modeconcepts,Groundwavepropagation(Qualitativetreatment)-
Introduction,Plane earthreflections,Space
andsurfacewaves,wavetilt,curvedearthreflections,Spacewavepropagation-
Introduction,fieldstrengthvariationwithdistanceandheight,effectofearth‘scurvature,absorption,Superrefracti
on,M-
curvesandductpropagation,scatteringphenomena,troposphericpropagation,fadingandpathlosscalculations,Sk
ywavepropagation-
Introduction,structureofIonosphere,refractionandreflectionofskywavesbyIonosphere,Raypath,Criticalfreque
ncy,MUF,LUF,OF,VirtualheightandSkipdistance,RelationbetweenMUFandSkipdistance,Multi-
HOPpropagation,EnergylossinIonosphere,SummaryofWaveCharacteristicsindifferent
frequencyranges,Illustrativeproblems.
Text Books:
1. JohnD.KrausandRonaldJ.MarhefkaandAhmadS.Khan,―Antennasandwavepropagation,‖T
MH,NewDelhi,4thEd.,(specialIndianEdition),2010.
2. E.C.JordanandK.G.Balmain,―ElectromagneticWavesandRadiatingSystems,‖PHI,
2ndEdn, 2000.
ReferenceBooks:
1. C.A.Balanis,―AntennaTheory-AnalysisandDesign,‖JohnWiley&Sons,2ndEdn.,2001.
2. K.D.Prasad,SatyaPrakashan,―AntennasandWavePropagation,‖Tech.IndiaPublications,NewDelhi,
2001.
3. E.V.D.GlazierandH.R.L.Lamont, ―TransmissionandPropagation-TheServicesTextBookof
Radio,‖vol.5,StandardPublishersDistributors,Delhi.
4. F.E.Terman,―ElectronicandRadioEngineering,‖McGraw-Hill,4thedition,1955.
5. JohnD.Kraus,―Antennas,‖McGraw-Hill(InternationalEdition),2ndEdn.,1988.
UNIT I
Antenna Basics&
Dipole antennas

1. FundamentalConcept
1.1 Introduction:
 Anantenna(oraerial)isanelectricaldevicewhichconvertselectricpowerintoradiowaves,andv
iceversa.Itisusuallyusedwitharadiotransmitterorradioreceiver.Intransmission,aradiotransmi
ttersuppliesanoscillatingradiofrequencyelectriccurrenttotheantenna'sterminals,andtheanten
naradiatestheenergyfromthecurrentaselectromagneticwaves(radiowaves).Inreception,anant
ennainterceptssomeofthepowerofanelectromagneticwaveinordertoproduceatinyvoltageatit
sterminals,thatis applied to a receivertobe amplified.
 Antennasareessentialcomponentsofallequipmentthatusesradio.Theyareusedinsystemssuch
asradiobroadcasting,broadcasttelevision,two-way
radio,communicationsreceivers,radar,cellphones,andsatellitecommunications,aswellasothe
rdevicessuchasgaragedooropeners,wirelessmicrophones,bluetoothenableddevices,wireless
computernetworks,babymonitors, andRFIDtagson merchandise.
 Typicallyanantennaconsistsofanarrangementofmetallicconductors("elements"),electricallyco
nnected (often throughatransmission line) to the receiverortransmitter.
 Antennasactastransformersbetweenconductedwavesandelectromagneticwavespropagatingf
reelyin space.
 Theirnameis borrowedfromzoology,in whichtheLatinwordantennaeis usedtodescribethe
long, thin feelerspossessedbymanyinsects.
 Inwirelesscommunicationsystems,signalsareradiatedinspaceasanelectromagneticwavebyusin
gareceivingtransmittingantennaandafractionofthisradiatedpowerisinterceptedbyusingareceiv
ing antenna.
 Anantennaisadeviceusedforradiatingorreceiverradiowaves.Anantennacanalsobethoughtofas
atransitionalstructurebetweenfreespaceandaguidingdevice(suchastransmissionlineorwavegui
de).Usuallyantennasaremetallicstructures,butdielectricantennas arealsoused now aday.
 a rigid metallic structure is calledan"antenna" whilethe wireform is called an"aerial"
Withthisintroduction,inthisfirstlectureletusseesomecommontypesofantennasthatareinuse:
1.2 TypesofAntennas:
Wireantennas:(Fig.1,2andFig.9singleelement)
odipole,monopole,loopantenna,helix
o Usuallyusedinpersonalapplications,automobiles,buildings,ships,aircraftsandspacecr
afts.
Apertureantennas: (Fig. 3, 4)
o hornantennas,waveguide opening
o Usuallyusedinaircraftsandspacecrafts,becausetheseantennascanbeflush-
mounted.
Reflectorantennas: (Fig.5)
o parabolicreflectors,cornerreflectors
o These are highgain antennas usuallyused in radio
astronomy,microwavecommunicationand satellite tracking.
Lensantennas:
o convex-plane, co vex-convex, convex-concaveand concave-planelenses
o Theseantennas are usuallyusedforveryhighfrequencyapplications.
Microstripantennas:(Fig. 6)
o rectangular,circularetc.shapedmetallicpatch above aground plane
o Used in aircraft,spacecraft, s atellites, mis siles,cars,mobile phones etc.
Arrayantennas:(Fig. 7,and 8)
o Yagi-Udaantenna, microstrip patcharray, aperturearray, slotted waveguide array.
o Usedforveryhighgainapplicationswithaddedadvantage,suchas,controllableradiationpatt
ern.
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Fig. 3 Fig. 4

Fig. 5 Fig. 6
Fig. 7 Fig. 8
1.3 RadiationMechanism:
Whenelectricchargesundergoaccelerationordeceleration,electromagneticradiationwillbeproduced.Henceitist
hemotionofcharges,thatiscurrents,isthesourceofradiation.Hereitmaybehighlightedthat,
notallcurrentdistributionswillproduce astrongenoughradiationforcommunication.
To give a mathematicalflavor to it, asweknow
--------------1.1
And ---------------------------------------------------- 1.2
So --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1.3
Asshownintheseequations,tocreatradiation(electricfield),theremustbeatime-
varyingcurrentdI/dtor anacceleration(ordeceleration) a of a charge q.
If the chargeisnotmoving,a currentisnotcreatedandthereis noradiation.
If a charge is movingwith an uniformvelocity,
 thereis noradiationifthewireis straight,and infinitein extent
 thereisradiationif the wireis curved,bent,discontinuous,terminated,ortruncated
 If the chargeisoscillatingin a time-motion,itradiateseven ifthe
wireisstraight.Thesesituationsareshownin Fig. 9.

Fig. 9:Conditionsforradiation
So, itisthecurrentdistributionon theantennasthatproducetheradiation.Usuallythese
currentdistributionsareexcited bytransmissionlinesand waveguides (Fig. 10)
Fig. 10:Antennaradiationmechanism
Principle-
Undertimevaryingconditions,Maxwell‗sequationspredicttheradiationofEMenergyfromcurrentsour
ce(oracceleratedcharge).Thishappensat
allfrequencies,butisinsignificantaslongasthesizeofthesourceregionisnotcomparabletothewavelengt
h.Whiletransmission.linesaredesignedtominimizethisradiationloss,radiationintofreespacebecomes
mainpurposeincaseofAntennas.Forsteadystateharmonicvariation,usuallywe
focusontimechangingcurrent
Fortransientsorpulses,wefocusonacceleratedchargeTheradiationisperpendicular to the
acceleration. Theradiated power is proportional to thesquareof .
ILor QV
Where I=Timechangingcurrent in Amps/sec
L=Length of thecurrentelement in
metersQ=Charge in Coulombs
V= Time changingvelocity
Transmissionline opened out in a Taperedfashionas Antenna:

a) AsTransmittingAntenna:–
HeretheTransmissionLineisconnectedtosourceorgeneratoratoneend.Alongtheuniformpartoftheline
energyisguidedasPlaneTEMwavewithlittleloss.SpacingbetweenlineisasmallfractionofȜ.Asthelinei
sopenedoutandtheseparationb/nthetwo lines becomes comparable toȜ, it actslikean antenna and
launches a
freespacewavesincecurrentsonthetransmissionLineflowoutontheantennabutfieldsassociatedwithth
emkeepongoing.Fromthecircuitpointofviewtheantennasappeartothetr.linesAsaresistance
Rr,called Radiation resistance
b) AsReceivingAntenna–ActiveradiationbyotherAntennaorPassiveradiationfromdistant
objectsraisestheapparenttemperatureofRr.Thishasnothingtodowiththephysicaltemperatureoftheant
ennaitselfbutisrelatedtothetemperatureofdistantobjectsthatthe
antenna islooking at.Rrmaybe thoughtofasvirtualresistance thatdoesnotexistphysicallybutis a
quantitycouplingtheantennato distant regions of space viaa virtual transmission .line
Figure11:Antenna as a a) TransmissionModeb) ReceivingMode

Reciprocity-
AnantennaexhibitsidenticalimpedanceduringTransmissionorReception,samedirectionalpatternsd
uringTransmissionorReception,sameeffectiveheightwhiletransmittingorreceiving.Transmissiona
ndreceptionantennascanbeusedinterchangeably.Mediummustbelinear,passiveandisotropic(physi
calpropertiesarethesameindifferentdirections.)Antennas areusuallyoptimised forreception
ortransmission, not both.
Current andvoltagedistribution.
a) AcurrentflowinginawireofalengthrelatedtotheRFproducesanelectromagneticfield.Thisfield
radiatesfromthewireandissetfreeinspace.Theprinciplesofradiationof electromagnetic
energyarebased on two laws.
(1) A moving electric field creates a magnetic (H)field.
(2) A movingmagnetic field createsanelectric(E)field.
b) Inspace,thesetwofieldswillbein-
phaseandperpendiculartoeachotheratanygivenmoment.Althoughaconductorisusuallyconsid
eredtobepresentwhena
movingelectricormagneticfieldismentioned,thelawsgoverningthesefieldsdonotsayanything
aboutaconductor.Thus,theselawsholdtruewhetheraconductorispresentornot.
c) The currentandvoltagedistributiononahalf-waveHertzantenna isshowninFigure1-
1.InviewA,apieceofwireiscutinhalfandattachedtotheterminalsofahighfrequency(HF),altern
atingcurrent(AC)generator.Thefrequencyofthegeneratorissetsoeachhalfofthewireisone-
quarterwavelengthoftheoutput.Thesymbolforwavelengthisthe Greek letter lambda(D).
Theresult is thecommon dipole antenna.
d) Atagivenmoment,thegenerator'srightsideispositiveanditsleftsideisnegative.Alawofphysicss
tatesthatlikechargesrepeleachother.Consequently,electronswillflowawayfromthenegativete
rminalasfaraspossiblewhilethepositiveterminalwillattractelectrons. View BofFigure1-1
shows thedirection and distribution of electronflow.
Thedistributioncurveshowsthatmostcurrentflowsinthecenterandnoneflowsattheends.Thecu
rrentdistributionovertheantennaisalwaysthesame,regardlessofhowmuchorhowlittlecurrenti
sflowing.However,currentatanygivenpointontheantennawillvarydirectlywith theamount of
voltage that thegeneratordevelops.
e) One-
quartercycleaftertheelectronsbegintoflow,thegeneratordevelopsit;minimumvoltageandthec
urrentdecreasestozero.Atthatmoment,theconditionshowninviewCofFigure1-
1willexist.Althoughnocurrentisflowing,aminimumnumberofelectronsareattheleftendofthel
ineandaminimumnumberareattherightend.Thechargedistribution alongthe wire variesas
the voltage ofthe generatorvaries (view C).
f)
Figure 12.Current and voltage distributionon an antenna
1. A current flows in theantennawith an amplitude that varies with thegeneratorvoltage.

2. Asinewavedistributionofchargeexistsontheantenna.Thechargesreversepolarityeveryhalf
cycle.
3. Thesinewavevariationinchargemagnitudelagsthesinewavevariationincurrentbyone-quarter
cycle.
1.4AntennaParameters:
Figure13:Schematicdiagramofbasicparameters
DualCharacteristics of an Antenna
Thedualityofanantennaspecifiesacircuitdeviceononebandandaspacedeviceontheotherhand.Figure1
3showstheschematicdiagramofbasicantennaparameters,illustratingdualcharacteristics ofanantenna.
Mostpracticaltransmittingantennasaredividedintotwobasicclassifications,HERTZANTENNAS(ha
lf-wave)andMARCONI(quarter-
wave)ANTENNAS.Hertzantennasaregenerallyinstalledsomedistanceabovethegroundandarepositi
onedtoradiateeitherverticallyorhorizontally.Marconiantennasoperatewithoneendgroundedandarem
ountedperpendiculartotheearthorasurfaceactingasaground.TheHertzantenna,alsoreferredtoasadipol
e,isthebasisforsomeofthemorecomplexantennasystemsusedtoday.Hertzantennasaregenerallyusedf
oroperatingfrequenciesof2MHzandabove,whileMarconiantennasareusedforoperatingfrequenciesb
elow2MHz.Allantennas,regardlessoftheirshapeorsize,havefourbasiccharacteristics:reciprocity,dire
ctivity,gain, and polarization.
IsotropicRadiator:Anantennadoesnotradiateuniformlyinalldirections.Forthesakeofareference,we
considerahypotheticalantennacalledanisotropicradiatorhavingequalradiationin all directions.
DirectionalAntenna:Adirectionalantennaisonewhichcanradiateorreceiveelectromagneticwaves
moreeffectivelyin some directionsthan in others.
RadiationPattern:
Therelativedistributionofradiatedpowerasafunctionofdirectioninspace(i.e.,asfunctionofand)iscalle
dtheradiationpatternoftheantenna.Insteadof3Dsurface,itiscommonpracticetoshowplanarcrosssectio
nradiationpattern.E-planeandH-planepatternsgivetwomostimportantviews.TheE-
planepatternisaviewobtainedfromasectioncontainingmaximumvalueoftheradiatedfieldandelectricfi
eldliesintheplane
ofthesection.SimilarlywhensuchasectionistakensuchthattheplaneofthesectioncontainsHfieldandthe
directionofmaximumradiation.Atypical radiation patterplot is shown in figure14.
Themainlobecontainsthedirectionofmaximumradiation.Howeverinsomeantennas,morethanonemaj
orlobemayexist.Lobeotherthanmajorlobearecalledminorlobes.Minorlobescan be furtherrepresent
radiation in the considereddirectionand requiretobeminimized.

HPBWorhalfpowerbeamwidthreferstotheangularwidthbetweenthepointsatwhichtheradiated power
perunit area is onehalf ofthe maximum.
Figure14: Radiation Pattern

SimilarlyFNBW(Firstnullbeamwidth)referstotheangularwidthbetweenthefirsttwonullsas shown in
Figure 14.Bythe term beam width weusuallyrefer to 3 dBbeam width or HPBW.
RECIPROCITYistheabilitytousethesameantennaforbothtransmittingandreceiving.Theelectricalch
aracteristicsofanantennaapplyequally,regardlessofwhetheryouusetheantennafortransmittingorrecei
ving.Themoreefficientanantennaisfortransmittingacertainfrequency,themoreefficientitwillbeasarec
eivingantennaforthesamefrequency.Thisisillustratedbyfigure2-
1,viewA.Whentheantennaisusedfortransmitting,maximumradiationoccursatrightanglestoitsaxis.W
henthesameantennaisusedforreceiving(viewB),itsbestreception is alongthe same path; that is,
atrightangles to theaxis of the antenna.
Figure13. ReciprocityofAntenna

Polarizationofanelectromagneticwavereferstotheorientationoftheelectricfieldcomponentofthewav
e.Foralinearlypolarizedwave,theorientationstaysthesameasthewavemovesthroughspace.Ifwechoos
eouraxissystemsuchthattheelectricfieldisvertical,we
saythatthewaveisverticallypolarized.Ifourtransmittingantennaisverticallyoriented,theelectromagne
ticwaveradiatedisverticallypolarizedsince,aswesawbefore,theelectricfieldisin the direction ofthe
current in the antenna.
Theconventionistorefertopolarizationwithreferencetothesurfaceoftheearth.Preciseorientationisless
problematicthanonemightthink,sincewavesbounceofthegroundandotherobjectssodonotmaintainth
eiroriginalorientationanyway.Inspace,horizontalandverticallosetheirmeaning,soalignmentoflinearl
ypolarizedsendingandreceivingantennasismoredifficulttoachieve.Thesedifficultiesaresomewhatcir
cumventedbycircularpolarizationofwaves.Withcircularpolarization,thetipoftheelectricfieldvectortr
acesoutacirclewhenviewed in the direction of propagation.
Figure 15.Polarisation
Polarizationcategories
Verticalandhorizontalarethesimplestformsofpolarizationandtheybothfallintoacategoryknownaslin
earpolarization.Howeveritisalsopossibletousecircularpolarization.Thishasanumberofbenefitsforar
eassuchassatelliteapplicationswhereithelpsovercometheeffectsofpropagationanomalies,groundrefl
ectionsandtheeffectsofthespinthatoccuronmanysatellites.Circularpolarizationisalittlemoredifficultt
ovisualizethanlinearpolarization.Howeveritcanbeimaginedbyvisualizingasignalpropagatingfroma
nantennathatisrotating.Thetipoftheelectricfieldvectorwillthenbeseentotraceoutahelixorcorkscrewa
sittravelsawayfromtheantenna.Circularpolarizationcanbeseentobeeitherrightorlefthandeddependen
t upon thedirection of rotation as seen from the transmitter.
Anotherformofpolarizationisknownasellipticalpolarization.Itoccurswhenthereisamixoflinearandcir
cularpolarization.Thiscanbevisualizedasbeforebythetipoftheelectricfieldvector tracingout an
ellipticallyshaped corkscrew.
Howeveritispossibleforlinearlypolarizedantennastoreceivecircularlypolarizedsignalsandviceversa.
Thestrengthwillbeequalwhetherthelinearlypolarizedantennaismountedvertically,horizontallyorina
nyotherplanebutdirectedtowardsthearrivingsignal.Therewillbesomedegradationbecausethesignalle
velwillbe3dBlessthanifacircularlypolarized

antennaofthesamesensewasused.Thesamesituationexistswhenacircularlypolarizedantennareceives
a linearlypolarizedsignal.
Figure: (a)Linearpolarization(b) Circularpolarization (c)Elliptical polarization
DIRECTIVITY
TheDIRECTIVITYofanantennaorarrayisameasureoftheantenna‘sabilitytofocustheenergyinoneor
morespecificdirections.Youcandetermineanantenna‘sdirectivity
bylookingatitsradiationpattern.Inanarraypropagatingagivenamountofenergy,moreradiationtakespl
aceincertaindirectionsthaninothers.Theelementsinthearraycanbearrangedsotheychangethepatterna
nddistributetheenergymoreevenlyinalldirections.Theoppositeisalsopossible.Theelementscanbearra
ngedsotheradiatedenergyisfocusedinonedirection.Theelementscanbe consideredas agroup
ofantennasfedfrom acommonsource.
Itisdefinedastheratioof maximumradiationintensityof subjectortestantenna

totheradiationintensityofan isotropic antenna.
(or)
Directivityis definedas the ratioof maximumradiationintensityto the averageradiationintensity.
Directivity(D) in termsoftotalpowerradiated is,
D = 4π x Maximum radiationintensity/Totalpower radiated
Gain:
Gainisaparameterwhichmeasuresthedegree ofdirectivityof theantenna'sradiationpattern.Ahigh-
gainantennawillpreferentiallyradiateinaparticulardirection.Specifically,theantennagain,orpowerga
inofanantennaisdefinedastheratiooftheintensity(powerperunitsurface)radiatedbytheantennainthedi
rectionofitsmaximumoutput,atanarbitrarydistance,dividedbythe intensityradiatedat
thesamedistancebyahypotheticalisotropicantenna.
As we mentioned earlier,some antennas arehighlydirectional.That is, theypropagate

moreenergyin certaindirectionsthan in others.The ratio between theamount ofenergypropagated
inthesedirectionsand theenergythat would be propagated iftheantennawerenot directional isknown
as antenna GAIN.Thegain of anantennaisconstant.whethertheantennais used fortransmittingor
receiving.
Directivityfunction D, describesthevariationoftheradiationintensity.Thedirectivity

function D,isdefinedby
D, =
Powerradiatedperunitsolidangle
----------- (1)
Averagepowerradiatedperunitsolidangle

dPr
r
IfPistheradiatedpower,the givestheamountofpowerradiatedperunitsolidangle.Had
d
thispowerbeamuniformlyradiatedinalldirectionsthenaveragepowerradiatedperunitsolid
angle is Pr .
4

dPr dPr
D, d 4 d .............................(2)
Pr Pr
4
Themaximum of directivityfunction is called thedirectivity.
Indefiningdirectivityfunctiontotalradiatedpoweristakenasthereference.Anotherparametercalledthe
gainofanantennaisdefinedinthesimilarmannerwhichtakesintoaccountthetotalinputpowerratherthant
hetotalradiatedpowerisusedasthereference.Theamountofpowergivenas input to the antenna isnot
fullyradiated.
Pr  Pin …………………………………… (3)
where istheradiation efficiencyoftheantenna.
Thegain of theantennaisdefinedas
Radiatedpowerperunitsolidangle
G,4 inputpower
------------- (4)
G,  D , --------(5)
Themaximum gain function is termedas gain ofthe antenna.
AnotherparameterwhichincorporatesthegainiseffectiveisotropicradiatedpowerorEIRPwhichisdefin
edastheproductoftheinputpowerandmaximumgainorsimplythegain.Anantennawithagainof100andi
nputpowerof1Wisequallyeffectiveasanantennahavingagain of 50 and input power 2 W.
Radiationresistance:
Theradiationresistanceofanantennaisdefinedastheequivalentresistancethatwoulddissipatethesamea
mountpowerasisradiatedbytheantenna.Fortheelementarycurrentelementwehave discussed so
far.Fromequation (3.26) wefind that radiated power density
I   dl k2sin 2 
2
2
Pav  0 0
a --------(1)
322r 2 r
Radiatedpower

I 
2 dlk 2 2
 2
 I 
2 dlk 2 2 2
2

Pr 
 sin  r sindd  d sin  d
0 0 2
2
 0 0 3 ----(2)
322 r 2 0 0 322 0 0
P I  0 kdl0 
2 2
................................... (3)
12
 
Further, dPP .r2sinddar P .a r r 2 d
r av av
dPr  I 0  kdl

0  sin 
2 2 2
  ……………… (4)
d 322
From(3)and(4)
D,1.5sin2
 

Directivity DD, max whichoccurs at  .

2
IfRris the radiationresistance of the elementarydipole antenna, then
1 2
I R P
r r
2
SubstitutingPrfrom(3)we get
2
0 dl . -----------(5)

2
Rr  
6  0
Substituting0฀120 
 
4803dl 
2
Rr
  ------- (6)
6 0
2
R 802 dl ………………….. (7)
 
r

 0
ForsuchanelementarydipoleantennatheprincipalEandHplanepatternareshowninFig16(a)and(b).
Fig ure16(b)Principal H planepattern

Figure16(a)Principal Eplanepattern
Thebandwidth (3 dBbeam width) can be found tobe900in theEplane.

EffectiveArea ofan Antenna:
Anantennaoperatingasareceivingantennaextractspowerfromanincidentelectromagneticwave.Thein
cidentwaveonareceivingantennamaybeassumedtobeauniformplanewavebeinginterceptedbytheante
nna.ThisisillustratedinFig3.5.Theincidentelectricfieldsetsupcurrentsintheantennaanddeliverspower
toanyloadconnectedtotheantenna.Theinducedcurrentalsore-
radiatesfieldsknownasscatteredfield.The
totalelectricfieldoutsidetheantennawillbesumoftheincidentandscatteredfieldsandforperfectlycondu
cingantennathetotaltangential electric field component must vanish on the antennasurface.
Fig17: Plane wave intercepted byan antenna
LetPincrepresentsthepowerdensityoftheincidentwaveatthelocationofthereceiving
antennaandPLrepresentsthemaximumaveragepowerdeliveredtotheloadundermatchedconditionswit
hthereceivingantennaproperlyorientedwithrespecttothepolarizationoftheincidentwave.
We canwrite,
PL AemPinc ................................ (9)
2
where Pinc  E andthetermAemiscalledthemaximumeffectiveapertureoftheantenna.Aem
20
is related to the directivityoftheantennaDas,
4
--------- (10)
D 2 Aem

Iftheantennaislossythensomeamountofthepowerinterceptedbytheantennawillbedissipated in the
antenna.
Fromeqn. (2)we find that
G D
Therefore, from (5),
4 4
 
G  A  A ....................................................(11)
 2 em  2 e 2
Ae Aemiscalledtheeffectiveapertureofthe antenna ( inm).

SoeffectiveareaorapertureAeofanantennaisdefinedasthatequivalentareawhichwheninterceptedbythe
incidentpowerdensityPingivesthesameamountofreceivedpowerPRwhichis availableat
theantennaoutput terminals.
A
If the antennahas a physical apertureAthenaperture efficiency  e
a
A
 Effectivelength/height of the antenna:
Whenareceivingantennainterceptsincidentelectromagneticwaves,avoltageisinducedacrosstheanten
naterminals.Theeffectivelengthhe ofareceivingantenna
isdefinedastheratiooftheopencircuitterminalvoltagetotheincidentelectricfieldstrengthinthedirection
ofantennaspolarization.
V
h  ocm………………………………..(12)
e
E
whereVoc= opencircuitvoltage
E= electricfieldstrength
Effective length he is also referred toaseffectiveheight.
Radian andSteradian:
Radianisplaneanglewithit‗svertexathecentreofacircleofradiusrandissubtendedbyanarcwhoselengt
hisequaltor.Circumferenceofthecircleis2πrThereforetotalangleofthecircle is 2πradians.
Steradianissolidanglewithit‗svertexatthecentreofasphereofradiusr,whichis
subtendedbyasphericalsurfaceareaequaltotheareaofasquarewithsidelengthrAreaofthe
2
sphere is 4πr . Thereforethe total solid angle ofthe sphereis 4πsteradians
 BeamArea
Inpolartwo-dimensionalcoordinatesanincrementalareadAonthesurfaceofsphereistheproduct of the
lengthr dθin theθ directionandrsin θ dΦ in theΦ directionas shown in figure
Figure18: radian andsteradian

Thus
dA= (rdθ)(r sinθ dΦ) = r2dΩ
Where,
dΩ=solid angleexpressed in steradians.
Theareaofthestripofwidthrdθextendingaroundthesphereataconstantangleθisgivenby
(2πr sin θ)(r dθ).Integratingthis for θvaluesfrom 0 to π yields thearea ofthe sphere.Thus,
Area ofsphere =2πr2

= 2πr2[-
cosθ]0π= 4πr2
Where,
4π=Solid angle subtended byasphere
The beamareaor beam solidangleor ΩA ofanantenna is given bythe integralof
thenormalizedpowerpatternover asphere
Beamarea,ΩA= Ω (sr)
Where,
dΩ=sinθ dθ dΦ
 RadiationIntensity
ThepowerradiatedfromanantennaperunitsolidangleiscalledtheradiationintensityU(wattspersteradia
norpersquaredegree).Thenormalizedpowerpatternoftheprevioussectioncanalsobeexpressedinterms
ofthisparameterastheratiooftheradiationintensityU(θ,Φ),asafunction of angle, to itsmaximum
value. Thus,
Pn(θ,Φ) = U(θ,Φ)/U(θ,Φ)max= S(θ,Φ)/S(θ,Φ)max
WhereasthePoyntingvectorSdependsonthedistancefromtheantenna(varyinginverselyasthesquareof
thedistance),theradiationintensityUisindependentofthedistance,assuminginboth cases that we
areinthe farfield of the antenna
 BeamEfficiency
The beamareaQA(or beamsolidangle)consistsofthemainbeamarea(orsolidangle)ΩMplusthe minor-
lobearea (or solid angle)Ω m. Thus,
ΩA=ΩM+Ωm
Theratioofthemainbeamareatothe(total)beamareaiscalledthe(main)beamefficiencyεM.
Thus,
Beam Efficiency=εM =ΩM/ ΩA (dimensionless)
Theratio of theminor-lobe area(Ωm)to the(total) beam area is called the strayfactor. Thus,
εm =Ω m/ ΩA=strayfactor.
 Bandwidth
Notethatthesystemisdesignedforspecificfrequency;i.e.atanyotherfrequencyitwillnotbeone-
halfwavelength.Thebandwidthofanantennaistherangeoffrequenciesoverwhichtheantennagivesreasonableper
formance.Onedefinitionofreasonableperformanceisthatthestandingwaveratiois2:1 orlessatthebounds of
therange offrequenciesoverwhich theantennaisto beused.

 AntennaEquivalentCircuit:
Toageneratorfeedingatransmittingantenna,theantennaappearsasalead.Inthesamemanner,thereceive
rcircuitryconnectedtoareceivingantenna'soutputterminalwillappearasloadimpedance.Bothtransmitt
ingandreceivingantennascanberepresented byequivalentcircuitsasshown byfigure18(a) and
figure18(b).
Fig18(a): Equivalent circuit of aTxantenna
Vg= opencircuitvoltageofthe generator

Zg= antennaimpedance
Z0= Characteristicsimpedance of the transmission line connecting generator to theantenna.
Pinc= Incident power to the antennaterminalPrefl=
Powerreflected from the
antennaterminal.Pin=Inputpower to theantenna
XA= Antenna reactance
Rl=Lossresistance of theantennaRr=
Radiationresistance
Z A RlRrjX ARAjX A antennaimpedance.
Fig18(b):Equivalent circuit of receiving antenna

he= effective length
E= incidentfieldstrength
Voc=h0 E opencircuitvoltage
Zload=Inputimpedanceofthe receiver.
Re,RrandXAasdefinedearlier.

AntennasRadiationPatterns


UNIT II
VHF, UHF
and
Microwave
Antennas–I
 Typesof Antennas
Short Dipole
AntennaDipole Antenna
Half-Wave
DipoleBroadband
DipolesMonopole
AntennaFoldedDipole
AntennaSmall
LoopAntennaMicrostrip
Antennas
RectangularMicrostrip
(Patch)AntennasPlanarInverted-FAntennas
(PIFA)
ReflectorAntennas
CornerReflector
Parabolic
Reflector(DishAntenna)TravellingWaveAntennas
Helical
AntennasYagi-
UdaAntennasSpiral
Antennas
ApertureAntennas
Slot Antenna
Cavity-Backed Slot
AntennaInverted-FAntenna
Slotted Waveguide
AntennaHornAntenna
VivaldiAntenna
Telescopes
OtherAntennas
NFCAntennas
 shortdipoleantenna
Theshortdipoleantennaisthesimplestofallantennas.Itissimply anopen-circuitedwire,fedat its
centeras shown inFigure1.
Figure1. Short dipoleantennaof lengthL.

The words"short"or"small"
inantennaengineeringalwaysimply"relativetoawavelength".Sotheabsolutesize of
theabovedipoleantennadoesnotmatter,onlythesizeofthewirerelativetothewavelengthofthefrequenc
yofoperation.Typically,adipoleisshortifitslengthislessthanatenth ofa wavelength:
Iftheshortdipoleantennaisorientedalongthez-axiswiththecenterofthedipoleatz=0,thenthe current
distribution on a thin, short dipoleis givenby:
ThecurrentdistributionisplottedinFigure2.Notethatthisistheamplitudeofthecurrentdistribution; itis
oscillatingin timesinusoidallyatfrequencyf.
Figure 2. Current distribution alongashort dipoleantenna.
Thefieldsradiatedfrom theshort dipole antennain thefarfieldaregivenby:
Theaboveequations canbe broken downand understood somewhatintuitively.First, notethat inthe
far-field,onlythe and fieldsare nonzero.Further,thesefields areorthogonal and in-

phase.Further, the fieldsareperpendicularto thedirection ofpropagation,which is always in the
direction(awayfromtheantenna).Also,theratiooftheE-fieldtotheH-fieldisgivenby(theintrinsic
impedanceof free space).
This indicatesthat in the far-fieldregion thefields arepropagatinglikeaplane-wave.Second,

the fields dieoffas 1/r, whichindicates the powerfalls of as
Third,thefieldsareproportionaltoL,indicatedalongerdipolewillradiatemorepower.Thisistrueaslonga
sincreasingthelengthdoesnotcausetheshortdipoleassumptiontobecomeinvalid.Also,thefieldsarepro
portionaltothecurrentamplitude ,whichshouldmakesense(more current,more power).
Theexponentialterm:

describesthephase-
variationofthewaveversusdistance.Theparameterkisknownasthewavenumber.Notealsothatthefields
areoscillatingintimeatafrequencyfinadditiontotheabove spatial variation.
Finally,thespatialvariationofthefieldsasafunctionofdirectionfromtheantennaaregivenby
.Foraverticalantennaorientedalongthez-axis,theradiationwillbemaximuminthex-yplane.
Theoretically,there is no radiation alongthe z-axis far from theantenna.
Directivity, Impedance andother Propertiesof theShortDipoleAntenna

Thedirectivity ofthecenter-fedshortdipoleantennadependsonlyonthe
componentofthefields.Itcanbecalculatedtobe1.5(1.76dB),whichisverylowforrealizable(physicalorn
on-
theoretical)antennas.Sincethefieldsoftheshortdipoleantennaareonlyafunctionofthepolarangle,they
havenoazimuthalvariationandhencethisantennaischaracterizedasomnidirectional. The Half-
PowerBeamwidth is 90 degrees.
Thepolarizationofthisantenna islinear.Whenevaluatedinthex-yplane,thisantenna
wouldbedescribedasverticallypolarized,becausetheE-fieldwouldbeverticallyoriented(alongthez-
axis).
Wenowturntotheinputimpedanceoftheshortdipole,whichdependsontheradiusaofthedipole.Recallth
attheimpedanceZismadeupofthreecomponents,theradiationresistance,thelossresistance,andthereact
ive(imaginary)componentwhichrepresentsstoredenergyinthefields:
Theradiationresistancecan becalculated to be:
Theresistance representingloss dueto thefinite-conductivityof theantennais givenby:
Intheaboveequation representstheconductivityofthedipole(usuallyveryhigh,ifmadeofmetal).
Thefrequencyfcome into the aboveequation becauseof theskin effect. Thereactance
orimaginarypart ofthe impedanceof adipoleis roughlyequal to:
Asanexample,assumethattheradiusis0.001 andthelengthis0.05
.Supposefurtherthatthisantenna
istooperateatf=3MHz,andthatthemetaliscopper,sothattheconductivityis59,600,000 S/m.
Theradiationresistanceiscalculatedtobe0.49Ohms.Thelossresistanceisfoundtobe4.83mOhms
(milli-Ohms), whichis approximatley negligiblewhencomparedto the radiation

resistance.However,thereactanceis1695Ohms,sothattheinputresistanceisZ=0.49+j1695.Hence,this
antennawouldbeverydifficulttohaveproperimpedancematching.Evenifthereactancecouldbeproperl
ycancelledout,verylittlepowerwouldbedeliveredfroma50Ohmsource to a 0.49Ohm load.
Forshortdipoleantennasthataresmallerfractionsofawavelength,theradiationresistancebecomes
smallerthan theloss resistance,andconsequentlythis antennacanbeveryinefficient.
Thebandwidthforshortdipolesisdifficulttodefine.Theinputimpedancevarieswildlywithfrequencybe
causeofthereactancecomponentof theinput impedance. Hence, these antennasaretypicallyusedin
narrowbandapplications.
In the next section,we'll look at general dipoleantennas.
 Dipole Antenna
Thedipoleantennawithaverythinradiusisconsidered.Thedipoleantennaissimilartothe
shortdipoleexceptitisnotrequiredtobesmallcomparedtothewavelength(atthefrequencythe antennais
operatingat).
ForadipoleantennaoflengthLorientedalongthez-axisandcenteredatz=0,thecurrentflowsin the z-
direction with amplitude which closelyfollows the followingfunction:
Notethatthiscurrentisalsooscillatingintimesinusoidallyatfrequencyf.Thecurrentdistributionsfortheq
uarter-wavelength(left)andfull-
wavelength(right)dipoleantennasaregiveninFigure1.Notethatthepeakvalueofthecurrent
isnotreachedalongthedipoleunless the length isgreaterthanhalfa wavelength.
Figure1. Current distributions on finite-length dipole antennas.

Beforeexaminingthefieldsradiatedbyadipoleantenna,considertheinputimpedanceofadipoleasafunct
ionofitslength,plottedinFigure2below.Notethattheinputimpedanceisspecified asZ=R +jX, whereR
is the resistance and X is the reactance.
 RadiationPatternsforDipoleAntennas
Thefar-fields from adipole antenna of lengthL aregivenby:

Thenormalizedradiationpatternsfor dipoleantennas of variouslengths are shown in Figure3.
Figure3. Normalized radiation patterns fordipoleantennas of specified length.

Thefull-wavelength dipoleantennais moredirectional thantheshorterquarter-
wavelengthdipoleantenna.Thisisatypicalresultinantennatheory:ittakesalargerantennaingeneraltoinc
reasedirectivity.However,theresultsarenotalwaysobvious.The1.5-
wavelengthdipolepatternisalsoplottedinFigure3.Notethatthispatternismaximumatapproximately+4
5and-45 degrees.
The dipoleantenna issymmetricwhenviewedazimuthally;asaresulttheradiationpatternisnota
functionof the azimuthalangle
.Hence,thedipoleantennaisanexampleofanomnidirectionalantenna.Further,theE-
fieldonlyhasonevectorcomponentandconsequentlythefieldsarelinearlypolarized.Whenviewedinthe
x-yplane(foradipoleorientedalongthez-axis),theE-fieldisinthe-
ydirection,andconsequentlythedipoleantennaisverticallypolarized.
The3Dpatternforthe1-wavelengthdipoleantennaisshowninFigure4.Thispatternissimilarto the
patternfor the quarter- and half-wavedipoleantenna.

Figure4. Normalized 3d radiation pattern for the1-wavelength dipoleantenna.

The3Dradiationpatternforthe1.5-wavelengthdipoleantennaissignificantlydifferent,andisshown in
Figure5.
Figure5. Normalized 3d radiationpattern for the1.5-wavelength dipoleantenna.

.
 HalfwaveDipole
Thehalf-
wavedipoleantennaisjustaspecialcaseofthedipoleantenna,butitsimportantenoughthatitwillhaveitso
wnsection.Notethatthe"half-wave"termmeansthatthelengthofthis dipole antennais equal to a half-
wavelengthat thefrequencyof operation.
Tomakeitcrystalclear,iftheantennaistoradiateat600MHz,whatsizeshouldthehalf-wavelength dipole
be?
Onewavelengthat600MHzis =c/f=0.5meters.Hence,thehalf-wavelengthdipoleantenna'slength is
0.25meters.
Thehalf-wavedipoleantennaisasyoumayexpect,asimplehalf-wavelengthwirefedatthecenteras
shown in Figure 1:
Figure1. Electric Current on a half-wave dipole antenna.

Theinputimpedanceofthehalf-
wavelengthdipoleantennaisgivenbyZin=73+j42.5Ohms.Thefieldsfrom thehalf-
wavedipoleantennaare givenby:
Thedirectivityof ahalf-wavedipoleantennais 1.64 (2.15dB). The HPBWis 78 degrees.

Inviewingtheimpedanceasafunctionofthedipolelengthinthesectionondipoleantennas,itcanbenotedt
hatbyreducingthelengthslightlytheantennacanbecomeresonant.Ifthedipole'slengthisreducedto0.48
,theinputimpedanceoftheantennabecomesZin=70Ohms,withnoreactivecomponent.Thisisadesirabl
eproperty,andhenceisoftendoneinpractice.Theradiationpattern remainsvirtuallythe same.
Figure2.Input impedance as a function ofthe length (L) of adipole antenna.

Notethatforverysmalldipoleantennas,theinputimpedanceiscapacitive,whichmeanstheimpedanceisd
ominatedbyanegativereactancevalue(andarelativelysmallrealimpedanceorresistance).Asthedipoleg
etslarger,theinputresistanceincreases,alongwiththereactance.Atslightlylessthan0.5
theantennahaszeroimaginarycomponenttotheimpedance(reactanceX=0),and the antennaissaid to
be resonant.
Ifthedipoleantenna'slengthbecomesclosetoonewavelength,theinputimpedancebecomesinfinite.Thi
swildchangeininputimpedancecanbeunderstoodbystudyinghighfrequencytransmissionlinetheory.A
sasimplerexplanation,considertheonewavelengthdipoleshownin
Figure1.IfavoltageisappliedtotheterminalsontherightantennainFigure1,thecurrentdistributionwillb
easshown.Sincethecurrentattheterminalsiszero,theinputimpedance(givenbyZ=V/I)willnecessarily
beinfinite.Consequently,infiniteimpedanceoccurswheneverthe dipole antennais an integer
multipleof awavelength.
In the next section,we'llconsider theradiation pattern of dipole antennas.
 Bandwidth
Theabovelengthisvalidifthedipoleisverythin.Inpractice,dipolesareoftenmadewithfatterorthickerma
terial,whichtendstoincreasethebandwidthoftheantenna.Whenthisisthecase,theresonantlengthreduc
esslightlydependingonthethicknessofthedipole,butwilloftenbeclose to 0.47 .
 Broad-Dipole
Astandardruleofthumbinantennadesignis:anantennacanbemademorebroadbandbyincreasingthevol
umeitoccupies.Hence,adipoleantennacanbemademorebroadbandbyincreasingthe radiusAofthe
dipole.
Asanexample,methodofmomentsimulationswillbeperformedondipolesoflength1.5meters.Atthislen
gth,thedipoleisahalf-wavelengthlong at100MHz.Threecasesareconsidered:
 A=0.001 m = (1/3000th)ofa wavelength at 100MHz

 A=0.015 m = (1/100th) of awavelength at 100 MHz
 A=0.05 m = (1/30th) ofawavelength at 100 MHz
TheresultingS11foreachofthesethreecasesisplottedversusfrequencyinFigure1(assumingmatched to
a 50 Ohm load).
 MonoPole
Amonopoleantennaisonehalfofadipoleantenna,almostalwaysmountedabovesomesortofgroundpla
ne.ThecaseofamonopoleantennaoflengthLmountedaboveaninfinitegroundplaneis shown in
Figure1(a).
Figure1. MonopoleaboveaPEC (a),and the equivalentsource in freespace (b).
Usingimagetheory,thefieldsabovethegroundplanecanbefoundbyusingtheequivalentsource(antenna
)infreespaceasshowninFigure1(b).Thisissimplyadipoleantennaoftwicethelength.Thefieldsaboveth
egroundplaneinFigure1(a)areidenticaltothefieldsinFigure

1(b),whichareknownandpresentedinthedipoleantennasection.Themonopoleantennafieldsbelow
theground planeinFigure1(a)arezero.
Theradiationpatternofmonopoleantennasaboveagroundplanearealsoknownfromthedipoleresult.Th
eonlychangethatneedstobenotedisthattheimpedanceofamonopoleantennaisonehalfofthatofafulldip
oleantenna.Foraquarter-wavemonopole(L=0.25* ),theimpedanceishalfofthatofahalf-
wavedipole,soZin=36.5+j21.25Ohms.Thiscanbeunderstoodsinceonlyhalfthevoltageisrequiredtodr
iveamonopoleantennatothesamecurrentasadipole(thinkofadipoleashaving+V/2and-
V/2appliedtoitsends,whereasamonopoleantennaonlyneedstoapply+V/2betweenthemonopoleanten
naandthegroundtodrive thesame current).SinceZin =V/I, the impedance of themonopoleantennais
halved.
Thedirectivityofamonopoleantennaisdirectlyrelatedtothatofadipoleantenna.Ifthedirectivityofadipo
leoflength2LhasadirectivityofD1[decibels],thenthedirectivityofamonopoleantennaoflengthLwillha
veadirectivityofD1+3[decibels].Thatis,thedirectivity(inlinearunits)ofamonopoleantennaistwicethe
directivityofadipoleantennaoftwicethelength.Thereasonforthisissimplybecausenoradiationoccursb
elowthegroundplane;hence,the antennais effectivelytwiceas"directive".
Monopoleantennasarehalfthesizeoftheirdipolecounterparts,andhenceareattractivewhenasmallerant
ennaisneeded.Antennasonoldercellphonesweretypicallymonopoleantennas,with an infiniteground
plane approximatedbytheshell (casing) ofthe phone.
 Effects of a FiniteSize GroundPlane on the Monopole Antenna
Inpractice,monopoleantennasareusedonfinite-
sizedgroundplanes.Thisaffectsthepropertiesofthemonopoleantennas,particularlytheradiationpatter
n.Theimpedanceofamonopoleantennaisminimallyaffectedbyafinite-
sizedgroundplaneforgroundplanesofatleastafewwavelengthsinsizearoundthemonopole.However,th
eradiationpatternforthemonopoleantennais
stronglyaffectedbyafinitesizedgroundplane.Theresultingradiationpatternradiatesina"skewed"direct
ion,awayfromthehorizontalplane.Anexampleoftheradiationpatternforaquarter-
wavelengthmonopoleantenna(orientedinthe+z-direction)onagroundplanewith adiameter of 3
wavelengths is shown in the following Figure:
Notethattheresultingradiationpatternfor this monopoleantenna isstill

omnidirectional.However,thedirectionofpeak-radiationhaschangedfromthex-
yplanetoanangleelevated
fromthatplane.Ingeneral,thelargethegroundplaneis,thelowerthisdirectionofmaximumradiation;asth
egroundplaneapproachesinfinitesize,theradiationpatternapproachesamaximumin thex-yplane.
 foldeddipole
Afoldeddipoleisadipoleantennawiththeendsfoldedbackaroundandconnectedtoeachother,
formingaloop as shown in Figure1.
Figure1. AFolded Dipole Antenna of lengthL.

Typically, thewidthd ofthe folded dipole antennais muchsmallerthan thelengthL.
Becausethefoldeddipoleformsaclosedloop,onemightexpecttheinputimpedancetodependontheinputi
mpedanceofashort-
circuitedtransmissionlineoflengthL.However,youcanimaginethefoldeddipoleantennaastwoparallel
short-
circuitedtransmissionlinesoflengthL/2(separatedatthemidpointbythefeedinFigure1).Itturnsoutthei
mpedanceofthefoldeddipole antennawill beafunction ofthe impedanceof atransmission
lineoflengthL/2.
Also,becausethefoldeddipoleis"folded"backonitself,thecurrentscanreinforceeachotherinsteadofcan
cellingeachotherout,sotheinputimpedancewillalsodependontheimpedanceofadipoleantennaof
lengthL.
LettingZdrepresenttheimpedanceofadipoleantennaoflengthLandZtrepresenttheimpedance
ofatransmission line impedance of lengthL/2, which is givenby:
Theinput impedanceZAof the folded dipole isgivenby:
Folded Dipole Impedance

Thefoldeddipoleantennaisresonantandradiateswellatoddintegermultiplesofahalf-wavelength(0.5
,1.5
,...),whentheantennaisfedinthecenterasshowninFigure1.Theinputimpedanceofthefoldeddipoleishig
herthanthatforaregulardipole,aswillbeshowninthe next section.
Thefoldeddipoleantennacanbemaderesonantatevenmultiplesofahalf-wavelength(1.0 ,2.0
,...)byoffsettingthefeedofthefoldeddipoleinFigure1(closertothetoporbottomedgeofthe
foldeddipole).
 Half-WavelengthFolded Dipole
Theantenna impedance fora half-wavelength folded dipoleantenna canbefound from
theaboveequationforZA;theresultisZA=4*Zd.Atresonance,theimpedanceofahalf-
wavedipoleantennaisapproximately70Ohms,sothattheinputimpedanceforahalf-
wavefoldeddipoleantennais roughly280 Ohms.
Becausethecharacteristicimpedanceoftwin-
leadtransmissionlinesareroughly300Ohms,thefoldeddipoleisoftenusedwhenconnectingtothistypeo
fline,foroptimalpowertransfer.Hence,thehalf-
wavelengthfoldeddipoleantennaisoftenusedwhenlargerantennaimpedances(>100 Ohms)
areneeded.
Theradiation patternof half-wavelength folded dipoles have thesameformasthatofhalf-
wavelengthdipoles.
 smallloopantenna
ThesmallloopantennaisaclosedloopasshowninFigure1.Theseantennashavelowradiationresistancea
ndhighreactance,sothattheirimpedanceisdifficulttomatchtoatransmitter.Asaresult,theseantennasare
mostoftenusedasreceiveantennas,whereimpedancemismatchlosscan be tolerated.
The radiusisa,andisassumedtobemuchsmallerthanawavelength(a<< ).Theloopliesinthe x-
yplane.
Figure1. Small loop antenna.

Sincetheloopiselectricallysmall,thecurrentwithintheloopcanbeapproximatedasbeingconstant
alongtheloop, so thatI= .
Thefieldsfrom a small circularloop aregivenby:

Thevariationofthepatternwithdirectionisgivenby
,sothattheradiationpatternofasmallloopantennahasthesamepowerpatternasthatofashortdipole.Howe
ver,thefieldsofasmalldipolehavetheE-andH-fieldsswitchedrelativetothatofashortdipole;theE-
fieldishorizontallypolarized in thex-yplane.
Thesmall loop is often referred toas thedualof thedipole antenna, becauseifasmall dipole
hadmagneticcurrentflowing(asopposedtoelectriccurrentasinaregulardipole),thefieldswouldresembl
e that ofasmall loop.
Whiletheshortdipolehasacapacitiveimpedance(imaginary
partofimpedanceisnegative),theimpedanceofasmallloopisinductive(positiveimaginarypart).Therad
iationresistance(andohmiclossresistance)canbeincreased byaddingmore
turnstotheloop.IfthereareNturnsofasmallloopantenna,eachwithasurfaceareaS(wedon'trequiretheloo
ptobecircularatthispoint), theradiationresistance for small loops canbe approximated(in Ohms) by:
Forasmallloop,thereactivecomponentoftheimpedancecanbedeterminedbyfindingtheinductanceofth
eloop,whichdependsonitsshape(thenX=2*pi*f*L).Foracircularloopwithradiusa and wire radiusp,
the reactive component of the impedance isgivenby:
Smallloopsoftenhavealowradiationresistanceandahighlyinductivecomponenttotheirreactance.Hen
ce,theyaremostoftenusedasreceiveantennas.Exaplesoftheiruseincludeinpagers,andasfieldstrengthp
robes used in wirelessmeasurements.
HalfWaveDipole Antenna:
Typicallyadipoleantennaisformedbytwoquarterwavelengthconductorsorelementsplacedback-to-
backforatotallengthofL=λ/2.AstaŶdiŶgǁaǀeoŶaŶeleŵeŶtofleŶgthapproǆiŵatelǇλ/4Ǉieldsthegreatestvolta
gedifferential,asoneendoftheelementisatanodewhiletheotherisatanantinodeofthe
wave.Thelargerthedifferentialvoltage,thegreater thecurrentbetweentheelements.
Letusconsiderlinearantennasoffinitelengthandhavingnegligiblediameter.Forsuchantennas, when
fedat thecenter,areasonablygoodapproximation ofthe current isgivenby,

Fig3.7: Current distribution on a centerfed dipoleantenna

  l  l
0   2
I sin k  z'   0z'
    2
Iz' 
  l  l
I sin  k   z'    z'0
 0
 
  2  2
Thisdistributionassumesthatthecurrentvanishesatthetwoendpointsi.e.,z'l/2 .The
plots of current distribution are shown in thefigure3.7 fordifferent'l'.
Thisdistributionassumesthatthecurrentvanishesatthetwoendpointsi.e.plots of z'l/2 .The

current distribution are shown in thefigure3.7 fordifferent's'.
For a halfwave dipole,i.e.,l/2,thecurrentdistributionexpressedas

0 0
II0cosk0z'  z' ………………………….. (3.39)
4 4
Fig 3.8(b):Farfieldapproximation
Fig 3.8(a):Halfwavedipole
forhalfwavedipole
Fromequation(3.21)wecanwrite

 Iz'dz'e  jk0R
dAa3 0 ……………………… (3.40)
4 R
FromFig3.8(b),forthefarfieldcalculation,foram Rrz'cosforthephasevariationandRr
plitude term.
 dAa3 0I z' dz'ejk0R ejk0z'cos.....................(3.41)

4 r

Substituting Iz'I0cosk0z'from (3.39)to(3.41) weget
 jk0rr

dAa3 0I0e coskz'e jk0z'cos
dz'............................(3.42)
4 r 0
Thereforethe vector potential forthe half wavedipole can bewrittenas:

/4  
A =a3 00 I e  cosk z'e
  jk0r
jk0z'cos dz'
0
4 r  /4
 

0 I 0 e 2cos  2 cos
 jk0 rr

Aa3 ................................(7.43)
4 r k0 sin2
From(3.37b),


   0 I0 ejk0rcos/2cos
E  j sin 


 2  r k0 sin2

 jI k 0 e cos /2cos
jk0r
2k 0 r k0 sin2
0
/2cos …………………. (3.44)

jk0r 
I e
 j 0 0 r cos 
2 sin
Similarlyfrom (3.37c)
E 0........................................................................(3.45)
andfrom (3.37e) and(3.37f)
jIejk0rcos /2cos
H  0 ................................ (3.46)
2 r sin
and H 0………………………………………….(3.47)
Theradiatedpowercanbe computedas
2 
1
Pr
 2EHr sindd
2
0 0
  2
2 0 2 cos 2 cos

I0  sindd
82 0 0 sin 
 

36.565I0
2
……………………………………. (3.48)
Thereforetheradiationresistanceofthehalfwavedipoleantennais36.5652 =73.13
Further, usingEqn(3.27)the directivityfunction forthe dipole antennacanbe writtenas

cos  /2cos   2 ………………….
D,1.64  sin 
(3.49)
 
Thusdirectivityofsuchdipoleantennais1.04ascomparedto1.5foranelementarydipole.Thehalfpowerb
eamwidthintheE-planecanbefoundtobe780ascomparedto900forahorizondipole.

QuarterWaveMonopoleAntenna:
Aquarterwavemonopoleantennaishalfofadipoleantennaplacedoveragroundedplane.Thegeometryof
suchantennasisshown inFig3.9(a)andequivalenthalfwavedipoleisshown infig3.9(b).
Ifthegroundplaneisperfectlyconducting,themonopoleantennashowninFig3.9(a)willbeequivalent to
a half wavedipoleshown in Fig 3.9(b)takingimageinto account.
Theradiationpatternabovethegrounded plane(in the upperhemisphere)will besame as that
ofahalfwavedipole,however,thetotalradiatedpowerwillbehalfofthatofadipolesincethefield will be
radiated onlyin theupper hemisphere.
Anidealquarterwaveantennamountedoveraperfectlyconductinggroundplanehasradiationresistance
36.56,halfthatofadipoleantenna,radiatinginfreespace.Thedirectivity ofsuchantennas become
doubleofthat ofdipole antennas.
Fig3.9(a): Quarter wavemonopole (b) EquivalentHalf wavedipole
Quarterwavemonopoleantennasareoftenusedasvehiclemountedantennas,theevhicleprovidingrequir
edgroundplanefortheantenna.Forquarter-
waveantennasmountedaboveearth,thepoorconductivityofthesoilresultsinexcessivepowerlossfromt
heinducedamountin thesoil.
Theeffectofpoorgroundconductivityistakencareofbyinstallingagroundscreenconsistingofradialwire
sextendingoutwardfromtheantennabaseforadistanceof.....Sucharrangementis shown in Fig3.10.
radial wiresof
lengthburiedbelowgrou
nded
Fig3.10: Grounded screen forimprovingperformance of

monopoleantennasoperatingnearearthsurface..
EffectiveLength ofa Half-waveDipole

The effectivelength ofan antenna is definedas theratio ofinducedvoltage atthe terminal
ofthereceivingantennaunder opencircuitedconditiontothe incidentelectricfieldintensity.

i.e., Effectivelength,le= open circuitedvoltage/Incidentfieldstrength

le= V/E
However,theincludedvoltage‗V‘alsodependsontheeffectiveapertureas,
Ae= (V2RL) / {[(RA+RL)2+ (XA+ XL)2]P}
Where,
RL=LoadresistanceRA=
AntennaresistanceXL=L
oadreactance
XA=
AntennareactanceP=
Poynting vector.
V2= {Ae[(RA+RL)2+ (XA+ XL)2]P}/ RL
Since,
P= E2/Z,Where Z–Intrinsicimpedance
= 120π
V2= {Ae[(RA+RL)2+ (XA+ XL)2]E2}/ ZRL
State reciprocitytheorem forantennas. Prove that he self–

impedanceofanantennaintransmittingandreceivingantennaare same?
Ans:ReciprocityTheorem
Statement
Reciprocitytheorem statesthat whencurrent Iis appliedattheterminals ofantenna 1,an e.m.fE21
induces atterminals ofantenna 2and whencurrent Iappliedattheterminals ofantenna 2,an
e.m.f E12 induces atterminals ofantenna 1, then E12= E21providedI1 = I2
EqualityofAntennaImpedance
Consider,thetwoantennas separatedwithwideseparationas shown below figure 3.2.
The currentdistribution issameincase oftransmittingand receivingantenna.Let antenna no. 1

isthetransmittingantennaandantennano.2 is thereceivingantenna.The selfimpedance(Z11)
oftransmittingantenna isgivenby,
E1= Z11I1+ Z12I2
Here,
Z11= Selfimpedance ofantenna1
Z12= Mutualimpedancebetweenthetwoantennas.
Sincetheseparationismore,mutualimpedance(Z12) is neglected,
Z12= 0
E1= Z11I1+
Z12I2E1= Z11I1+
0(I2)
The receivingantennaunder opencircuit and shortcircuitconditions areZ11=E1/I1 shownbelow.
(a) ReceivingAntennaunderOpen CircuitCondition
E1= Z11I1+ Z12I2

When the receivingantenna isopencircuited,currentI1is zeroE1=
Z11(0)+ Z12I2
EOC= Z12I2
(b) ) ReceivingAntennaunderShortCircuitCondition
When the receivingantenna is shortcircuited,thevoltage (E)willbe zero.E1=
Z11I1+ Z12I2
0 = Z11ISC+Z12I2
ISC=-Z12I2/Z11
Fromabove, the termZ12I2acts asa voltagesourceandZ11asthe
selfimpedance.Hence,impedance oftheantenna is samewhetheritis usedfortransmission
orreception
State theMaximumpowertransfertheoremand bringout theirimportancein

antennameasurements?
Ans:MaximumPowerTransferTheorem:Statement
Maximumpowertransfertheoremstatesthat,anantennacan radiatedmaximumpower, whenthe
terminalresistance,RLofthe antennais sameas that offinite source resistance, RS.
Thistheoremappliestothemaximumpower,but not
formaximumefficiency.Iftheantennaterminalresistanceismadelargethantheresistanceofthesource,thenth
eefficiencyismore,sincemostofthepowerisgeneratedattheterminals,buttheoverallpowerislowered.Ifthein
ternalsourceresistance ismadelarger thantheterminalresistancethenmost ofthe power endsup
beingdissipated inthe source.
Thus,themainuseofmaximumpowertransfertheoremforantennasisimpedancematchingi.e.,maximumpo
wertransfertoandfromanantennaoccurswhenthesourceorreceiverimpedanceissameas that
ofantenna.But,whenanantenna isnotcorrectlymatchedinternalreflections willoccur.
LoopAntennas
LOOPANTENNASAllantennasdiscussedsofarhaveusedradiatingelementsthatwerelinearconductors.Itis
alsopossibletomakeantennasfromconductorsformedintoclosedloops.Thereare two broad categories
ofloopantennas:
1. Smallloops which contain nomorethan 0.086λ wavelength,s ofwire

2. Large loops,whichcontain approximately 1wavelength of wire.
Loopantennashavethesamedesirablecharacteristicsasdipolesandmonopolesinthattheyareinexpensi
veandsimpleto
construct.Loopantennascomeinavarietyofshapes(circular,rectangular,elliptical,etc.)butthefundame
ntalcharacteristicsoftheloopantennaradiationpattern(far field) are largelyindependent of the loop
shape.
Justastheelectricallengthofthedipolesandmonopoleseffecttheefficiencyoftheseantennas,the
electrical sizeof theloop (circumference)determines the efficiencyof theloop antenna.
Loopantennasareusuallyclassifiedaseitherelectricallysmallorelectricallylargebasedonthecircumfer
ence of theloop.
electricallysmallloop=circumferenceȜ/10electricallyl
argeloop-circumferenceȜ
Theelectricallysmallloopantennaisthedualantennatotheelectricallyshortdipoleantennawhenoriente
dasshownbelow.Thatis,thefar-fieldelectricfieldofasmallloopantennaisidenticaltothefar-
fieldmagneticfieldoftheshortdipoleantennaandthefar-fieldmagneticfield ofasmall loop antennais
identical to the far-field electric field oftheshortdipole antenna.
Small loops.
SMALLLOOPANTENNASAsmall loopantenna is onewhose circumferencecontainsnomorethan
1.85 wavelengths ofwire. Insuch ashortconductor, wemayconsiderthe
current,atanymomentintimetobeconstant. Thisisquitedifferentfromadipole,whosecurrent was
amaximum atthefeed point andzeroat the ends of theantenna.Thesmall loop antennacan consist
ofasingleturnlooporamulti-turn loopasshown below:
Theradiationpattern of asmall loop isverysimilar to adipole.Thefigurebelowshowsa2-
dimensionalsliceof theradiation pattern inaplaneperpendicular to theplane of
theloop.Thereisnoradiationfrom aloop
When the loop isorientedvertically,theresulting radiation is vertically polarized andviceversa:
Theinputimpedanceofasmallloopantennaisinductive,whichmakessense,becausethesmallloopantenna
isactuallyjustalargeinductor.Therealpartoftheinputimpedanceisverysmall,ontheorder of1
ohm,mostof which islossresistance intheconductor makingup theloop.
Theactualradiationresistancemaybe0.5ohmsorless.Becausetheradiationresistanceissmallcomparedto
thelossresistance,thesmallloopantennaisnotanefficientantennaandcannotbeusedfortransmitting
unlesscareistakeninitsdesign and manufacture.
Whilethesmallloopantennaisnotnecessarilyagoodantenna,itmakesagoodreceivingantenna,especiallyf
orLFandVLF.Attheselowfrequencies,dipoleantennasaretoolargetobeeasilyconstructed(intheLFrange,a
dipole'slengthrangesfromapproximately1600to16,000feet,andVLFdipolescanbeupto30mileslong!)ma
kingthesmallloopagoodoption.Thesmalllooprespondstothemagneticfieldcomponentoftheelectromag
neticwaveandisdeaftomostman-
madeinterference,whichhasastrongelectricfield.Thustheloop,althoughitisnotefficient,picksupverylittl
enoiseandcanprovideabetterSNRthanadipole.Itispossibletoamplifytheloop'soutput toa
levelcomparable towhatone might receive from adipole.
Whenasmallloopisusedforreceiving,itsimmunityandsensitivitymaybeimprovedbyparallelinga
capacitor acrossits output whose capacitancewillbring thesmall loop to resonanceat
thedesiredreceivefrequency.AntennasofthistypeareusedinAMradiosaswellasinLFandVLFdirectionfind
ing equipment used onaircraft andboats.
The fieldpattern ofa smallcircular loopofradiusamaybe determinedverysimple
byconsideringasquareloop ofthe samearea,thatis.
d2= πa2…(1)
whered = sidelength ofsquareloop

It is assumedthatthe loopdimensions aresmallcomparedto thewavelength.Itwillbeshownthatthe far-
fieldpatterns ofcircularand squareloops ofthe sameareaarethe samewhen theloops
aresmallbutdifferentwhentheyare large in terms ofthe wavelength.
Ifloop is oriented asin fig.2.6.2, its farelectricfieldhasonlyan EΦcomponent. To find the

far-fieldpatternin the yz plane,itisonlynecessaryto considertwo ofthe foursmalllineardipoles(2 and
4). A cross sectionthrough the loopin theyz planeis presentedin
Fig.2.6.3.Sincetheindividualsmalldipoles 2and 4 arenondirectionalin the yzplane, feefieldpattern
ofthe loopinthis plane isthe sameas thatfortwoisotropicpointsources.Thus,
EΦ=-EΦ0ejȥ/2+EΦ0e-jȥ/2…(2)
Where EΦ0=electricfieldfromindividualdipoleand
ȥ=(2πd/Ȝ)sinθ=drsinθ…(3)
Itfollows that
EΦ = -2jEΦ0sin(drsinθ/2)…(4)
The factor j in(4) indicates that thetotalfieldEΦis inphasequadraturewiththefield
EΦ0beindividualdipole.
However, the length Loftheshortdipoleisthe same asd, thatis, L= d.

Small loopEΦ= (120π2Isin θA)/rλ2
Thisis theinstantaneous value oftheEΦ,componentofthe farfield ofa smallloop ofareaA. Thepeak
value ofthe fieldis obtained byreplacing[I]byI0,whereI0is thepeakcurrentintime ontheloop.
Compare farfieldsofsmall loopandshortdipole

Itisofinteresttocomparethefar-
fieldexpressionsforasmallloopwiththoseforashortelectricdipole.Thecomparisonismadeintable.Theprese
nceoftheoperatorjinthedipoleexpressionsanditsabsenceintheloopequationsindicatethatthefieldsoftheele
ctricdipoleandoftheloopareintime-
phasequadrature,thecurrentIbeinginthesamephaseinboththedipoleandloop.Thisquadraturerelationship
isa fundamentaldifferencebetween fieldsofloops anddipoles.

Field ElectricDipole Loop

Electric Eθ= (j 60 π[I]sinθL)/(rȜ) EΦ= (120π2[I]sinθ A)/(rȜ2)
Magnetic HΦ=(j[I]sinθ L)/(2rȜ) Hθ=(π[I]sinθ A)/(rȜ2)
Advantages
1. A smallloop isgenerallyused as magneticdipole.
2. Aloop antenna has directionalproperties whereasa simpleverticalantennanot has thesame.
3. Theinducede.m.faround theloop mustbe equalto thedifferencebetweenthetwoverticalsidesonly.
4. No e.m.fis produced incase ofhorizontalarms ofa loopantenna.
5. The radiationpattern ofthe loopantenna does notdepend upontheshapeofthe loop(forsmallloops).
6. Thecurrents are at samemagnitudeandphase,throughout the loop.
Disadvantages
1. Transmissionefficiencyofthe loop is verypoor.
2. It is suitablefor low andmediumfrequencies andnot forhighfrequencies.
3. In loop antenna,thetwo nullsofthe patternresult in 180°ambiguity.
4. Loop antennas used asdirectionfinders areunable to distinguishbetweenbearingofa
distanttransmitter andits reciprocalbearing.
farfieldpatternsofloopsof0.1λ,λand3λ/2diameter
The farfield ofloop antennais,
EΦ=(ȝȦ[I]aI1(βasinθ))/2r
Hθ= (β a[I] J1(β asinθ))/2r
The aboveexpressionshows the farfieldpatternfor loop ofanysize. The far fieldexpressionsEΦand Hθ
asa function ofθ isgiven byJ1(CȜsin θ)
Here,
CȜ=CircumferenceoftheloopCȜ
=aβ
β=(2π/Ȝ)
CȜ=(2π/Ȝ)a
Far Field Patterns ofLoops of0.1λ, λ and 3λ/4 diameters
(i) Field patterns of0.1λ

(ii) Field pattern ofλ
(iii) Field pattern of 3λ/2Diameter
LARGELOOPANTENNASAlargeloopantennaconsistsofapproximately1wavelengthofwire.Theloopmay
besquare,circular,triangularoranyothershape.Becausetheloopisrelativelylong,thecurrentdistributiona
longtheantenna isnolonger constant,asitwasfor the smallloop. As aresult,thebehavior of thelarge
loop isunlikeitssmallercousin.
Thecurrentdistributionandradiationpatternofalargeloopcanbederivedbyfoldingtwohalfwavedipolesa
nd connectingthemas shown in thediagramsbelow:
Webeginwithtwoλ/2dipolesseparatedbyλ/4.RFisfedincenterofdipole.Theresultingcurrentdistribution
is shownbelow asa pinkline. Notethatthecurrentiszeroat thedipoles'ends,
Noweachdipoleisfoldedintowardstheotherina"U"shapeasshownbelow.Thecurrentdistribution hasnot
changed- theantennacurrent is stillzeroat theends.
Sincethecurrentattheendsiszero,itwouldbeOKtoconnecttheendstomakealoopasshownbelow.
Wehavenowcreatedasquareloopofwirewhosecircumferenceis1wavelength.Fromanelectricalpointofvi
ew,wehavejustshownthatthelargeloopisequivalenttotwobentdipoleantennas. Theradiation pattern
ofaloop antennais shownbelow:

AhorizontalsliceoftheradiationpatternintheXYplaneishighlightedinred.Itissimilartothefi
gure-
8patternofadipole.Itispossibletocreateeitherhorizontallyorverticallypolarizedradiationwi
thalargeloopantenna.Thepolarizationisdeterminedbythelocationofthefeedpointasshownb
elow.Ifthefeedpointisinahorizontalsideoftheloop,thepolarizationishorizontal.Ifthefeedpoi
ntisinaverticalsideoftheloop,thepolarizationis vertical.
Sofarwehavelookedatsquareloopantennas.Oneoftheinterestingthingsaboutthelargeloopantennaisth
attheshapeisnotimportant.Aslongastheperimeteroftheantennaisapproximately1wavelength,theloop
antennawillproducearadiationpatternverysimilartotheoneshownabove.Theshapeoftheloopmaybecir
cular,square,triangular,rectangular,oranyotherpolygonalshape.Whiletheshapeoftheradiationpatterni
snotdependentontheshapeoftheloop,thegainoftheloopdoesdependontheshape.Inparticular,thegain
oftheloopisdependentontheareaenclosedbythewire.Thegreatertheenclosedarea,thegreaterthegain.T
hecircularloophasthelargestgainandthetriangularloophastheleast.Theactualdifferencebetweenthegai
nofthecircularloopandtriangularloopislessthan1dB,andisusuallyunimportant.Loopantennasmaybeco
mbinedtoformarraysinthesamemannerasdipoles.Arraysofloopantennasarecalled"quadarrays"becaus
etheloopsaremostoftensquare.ThemostcommontypeofquadarrayisaYagi-
Udaarrayusingloopsratherthandipolesaselements.Thistypeofarrayisveryusefulathighelevations,wher
ethecombinationofhighvoltageattheelementtipsofthedipolesinastandardYagiarrayandthelowerairpre
ssureleadtocoronadischargeanderosionoftheelement.Infact,thefirstuseofaquadarraywasbyabroadcas
terlocatedinQuito,Ecuador(intheAndesMountains) in the1930's.
Theinputimpedanceofaloopdependsonitsshape.Itrangesfromapproximately100ohmsforatriangularlo
opto130ohmsforacircularloop.Unlikethedipole,whoseinputimpedancepresentsagoodmatchtocommo
n50or75ohmtransmissionlines,theinputimpedanceofaloopisnotagood matchand mustbetransformed
to theappropriate impedance.

HelicalAntenna
Helicalantennais usefulatveryhighfrequencyandultra highfrequencies to providecircularpolarization.
Consider ahelicalantenna as shown in figure 4.6.1.
Herehelicalantennaisconnectedbetweenthecoaxialcableandgroundplane.Groundplaneismadeof
radialand concentric conductors. Theradiation characteristics of helicalantenna dependupon the
diameter (D)and spacing S.
In theabovefigure,
L=length of oneturn=√S2+(πD)2
N =Number of turns
D =Diameterof helix= πD
α= Pitchangle =tan-1(S/πD)
l = Distance between helixandground plane.Helical
antennais operated in two modes. Theyare,
1. Normal mode ofradiation
2. Axial mode ofradiation.
1. Normalmode ofradiation
Normalmodeofradiationcharacteristicsisobtainedwhendimensionsofhelicalantennaareverysmallco
mparedtotheoperatingwavelength.Here,theradiationfieldismaximuminthedirectionnormaltotheheli
calaxis.Innormalmode,bandwidthandefficiency
areverylow.Theabovefactorscanbeincreased,byincreasingtheantennasize.Theradiationfieldsofhelic
alantennaaresimilartotheloopsandshortdipoles.So,helicalantennaisequivalenttothesmallloops and
short dipolesconnected in series.
Weknow that,generalexpression forfarfield insmall loop is,
EΦ={120π2[I]sinθ/r}[A/Ȝ2]
Where,
r =Distance
I=I0 sinȦ(t-r/C)=Retardedcurrent
A =Area of loop = πD2/4
D =Diameter
Ȝ=Operatingwavelength.
TheperformanceofhelicalantennaismeasuredintermsofAxialRatio(AR).Axialratio is
definedas theratio of farfields of short dipole to the small loop.
AxialRatio,AR=(EØȌ/ȋEΦȌ

2. Axial mode ofradiation
HelicalantennaisoperatedinaxialmodewhencircumferenceCandspacingSareintheorderofonewavele
ngth.Here,maximumradiationfieldisalongthehelicalaxisandpolarizationiscircular.Inaxialmode,pitc
hangleliesbetween12°to18°andbeamwidthandantennagaindepends upon helixlength NS.
Generalexpressionforterminalimpedance is,
R=140C⁄Ȝohms
Where,
R = TerminalimpedanceC
= Circumference.
In normal mode, beam width andradiation efficiencyis verysmall. Theabove
factorsincreasedbyusingaxial mode ofradiation. Halfpowerbeamwidth in axial mode is,
HPBW=52/C√Ȝ3/NSDegrees.Where,
Ȝ=Wavelength
C = CircumferenceN
=Number of turnsS
= Spacing.
Axial Ratio, AR =1 + 1/2N
ResonantAntenna Non-resonantAntenna
1. Thesecorrespond toa 1. Thesecorrespond toa
resonanttransmissionlinethatisanexactnu transmissionlinethat is exited
mberofhalfwavelength longand atoneend
isopenatboth ends. andterminatedwithcharacteristicimpe
2. Because danceattheotherend.
ofincidentandreflectedwaves,standingwave 2. Due to theabsence
s exist. ofreflectedwaves,standingwaves do not
3. The radiationpattern ofthis antenna exist.
isbi-directional. 3. The radiationpattern ofthis antenna
4. Theseantennasare isuni-directional.
usedforfixedfrequencyoperations. 4. Theseantennasare
5. Resonantantenna usedforvariableand
widefrequencyoperations.
1. Non-resonantantenna
6.Radiationpattern
2. Radiationpattern
Bi-directionalradiationpattern
TravellingWaveAntennas Standing Wave Antennas
whichstandingwaves doesnot exist. Uni-directionalradiationpattern
Instandingwave
2. Travellingwaveantennas antenna,standingwaveexists.
arealsoknown as aperiodic or non- 2. Standingwaveantennasarealsoknown
resonant
antenna. as periodic orresonantantennas.
3. Reflectedwave does 3. Reflectedwaveappearsin
notappearintravellingwaveantennas. standingwaveantenna.
4. Radiationpatternoftravellingwavean 4. Radiationpatternofstandingwavean
tenna is uni-directional. tenna is bi-directional.
5. Uni-directionalpatternforn= 4 5. Bi-directionalpatternforn= 3 is shownin
isshown in figure.Here,n= Number figure.
ofwavelengths.
6. Directivityis less.
6. Directivityismore. 3. Length ofwire doesnotdepend
3. Thelength uponthe lobes
ofwireincreases,majorlobes
getcloserandnarrower to thewireaxis
NarrowBand Antennas WideBand Antennas

1.Since,the bandwidth 1.Since,the bandwidth
ofreceivingantenna is narrow,it is ofreceivingantenna is veryhigh, it is
difficultforhigh- veryeasyforhigh-
speeddatacommunication. speeddatacommunication.
2. Theseare bigger in size. 2. Theseare small in size.
3. Because oftheconstitution 3. Theseareless expensive
ofnarrowband radiomodule,theseare thannarrowband antennas.
moreexpensive. 4. Because
4. Theseantennascan realizestable oflargebandwidth,thesearenot
longrangecommunication. suitablefor longrangecommunication.
5. Theseantennas leadto 5. Theseantennas leadto
thehighefficiencyofradio thelessefficiencyofradio
waveusewithinsamefrequencyband. waveusewithinsamefrequencyband

UNIT III
VHF, UHF
AND
Microwave
Antennas-II

REFLECTORANTENNAS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Theradiationpatternofaradiatingantennaelementismodifiedusingreflectors.Asimpleexampleisthatt
hebackwardradiationfromanantennamaybeeliminatedwithalargemetallicplanesheetreflector.So,the
desiredcharacteristicsmaybeproducedbymeansofalarge,suitablyshaped,andilluminatedreflectorsurf
ace.Thecharacteristicsofantennaswithsheetreflectors ortheirequivalent areconsidered in
thischapter.
SomereflectorsareillustratedinFigure3.1.ThearrangementinFigure3.1ahasalarge,flatsheetreflectorn
earalineardipoleantennatoreducethebackwardradiation.Withsmallspacingbetweentheantennaands
heetthisarrangementalsoyieldsanincreaseinsubstantialgainintheforwardradiation.Thedesirableprop
ertiesofthesheetreflectormaybelargelypreservedwiththe reflectorreduced in size as longas its
sizeis greaterthan that of the antenna.
Reflector
Feed
Reflector Feed
(a) Plane (b) Corner
MainRefl
Reflector
Subreflector
ector
(hyperbola)
Feed Parabola
Vertex Fee Blockage
focal
(c) Curved(front-fed) (d) Curved(Cassegrain-feed)
Figure 3.1 Someconfigurations of reflectorantennas

Withtwoflatsheetsintersectingatanangle (<180 )asinFigure3.1b,asharperradiationpatternthanfro
maflatsheetreflector( =180 )canbeobtained.Thisarrangement,calledcornerreflectorantenna,ismo
stpracticalwhereaperturesof1or2areofconvenientsize.Acornerreflectorwithoutanexcitingantenna
canbeusedasapassivereflectorortargetforradarwaves.Inthisapplicationtheaperturemaybemanywave
lengths,andthecornerangleisalways90 .Reflectorswiththisanglehavethepropertythatanincidencewa
veisreflectedbacktoward its source, thecorneractingasaretroreflector.
Whenitisfeasibletobuildantennaswithaperturesofmanywavelengths,parabolicreflectorscanbeusedt
oprovidehighlydirectionalantennas.AparabolicreflectorantennaisshowninFigure3.1c.Theparabolar
eflectsthewavesoriginatingfromasourceatthefocusintoaparallelbeam,theparabolatransformingthecu
rvedwavefrontfromthefeedantennaatthefocusintoaplanewavefront.Afrontfedandacassegrain–
feedparabolicreflectorsaredepictedinFigures3.1candd.Manyothershapesofreflectorscanbeemploye
dforspecialapplications.Forinstance,withanantennaatonefocus,theellipticalreflectorproducesadiver
gingbeamwithallreflectedwavespassingthroughthesecondfocusoftheellipse.Examplesofreflectorso
fothershapes arethe hyperbolicand the sphericalreflectors.
Theplanesheetreflector,thecornerreflector,theparabolicreflectorandotherreflectorsarediscussedinm
oredetailinthefollowingsections.Inaddition,feedsystems,apertureblockage,apertureefficiency,diffra
ction,surfaceirregularities,gainandfrequency-selectivesurfacesareconsidered.
3.2 PLANEREFLECTORS
Letanomnidirectionalantennaisplacedatadistancehaboveaninfinite,flat,perfectelectricconductorass
howninFigure3.2.Powerfromtheactualsourceisradiatedinalldirectionsinamannerdeterminedbyitsun
boundedmediumdirectionalproperties. Foranobservationpointp1,
interfaceundergoesareflection.Thedirectionisdeterminedbythelawofreflection1 1
thereisadirectwave.Inaddition,awavefromtheactualsourceradiatedtowardpoint R1ofthe
i r
whichassuresthattheenergyinhomogeneousmediatravelsinstraightlinesalongtheshortestpaths.This
wavewillpassthroughtheobservationpointp1.Byextendingitsactualpathbelowtheinterface,itwillsee
mtooriginatefromavirtualsourcepositionedadistancehbelowthe
boundary.Foranotherobservationpoint p2 thepointofreflectionisR2,butthevirtualsourceis
the sameasbefore. Thesame is concludedforallotherobservation pointsabove the interface.
Theamountofreflectionisgenerally
determinedbytherespectiveconstitutiveparametersofthemediabelowandabovetheinterface.Foraperf
ectelectricconductorbelowtheinterface,theincidencewaveiscompletelyreflectedandthefieldbelowth
eboundaryiszero.Accordingtotheboundaryconditions,thetangentialcomponentsoftheelectricfieldm
ustvanishatallpointsalongtheinterface.Thusforanincidentelectricfieldwithverticalpolarizationshow
nbythearrows,thepolarizationofthereflectedwavesmustbeasindicatedinthefiguretosatisfythebounda
ryconditions.

P1
Direct
Reflected
Actual
Direct P2
source
Reflected
1i 2r
R1 R2
h =



Virtualsource
(image) Verticalelectricdipole
Figure 3.2Antenna above an infinite, flat,perfectelectricconductor.
Foraverticaldipole,toexcitethepolarizationofthereflectedwaves,thevirtualsourcemustalsobevertical
andwithapolarityinthesamedirectionasthatoftheactualsource(thusareflectioncoefficientof+1).Anot
herorientationofthesourcewillbetohavetheradiatingelementinahorizontalposition,asshowninFigure
3.3.AsshowninFigures3.3,thevirtualsource(image)isalsoplacedat adistanceh
belowtheinterface.Forhorizontalpolarizedantenna,theimagewillhavea180 polaritydifferencerelativ
etotheactualsource(thusareflectioncoefficient of -1).
Inadditiontoelectricsources,artificialequivalent―magnetic‖sourceshavebeenintroducedtoaidinthea
nalysesofelectromagneticboundaryvalueproblems.Figure3.3displaysthesourcesandtheirimagesfora
nelectricplaneconductor.Thesinglearrowindicatesanelectricelementand the doublea magnetic one.
Thedirection ofthe arrowidentifies the polarity.
Electricconductor
Figure 3.3 Electric andmagnetic sources andtheir images nearelectric conductors.

3.2.1 VerticalElectricDipole
Theanalysisprocedureforverticalandhorizontalelectricandmagneticelementsnearinfiniteelectricpla
neconductors,usingimagetheory,wasillustratedgraphicallyintheprevioussection.Basedonthegraphi
calmodelofFigure3.2,themathematicalexpressionsforthefieldsofaverticallinearelementnearaperfect
electricconductorwillnowbedeveloped.Forsimplicity,onlyfar-fieldobservationswill be considered.
ReferringtothegeometryofFigure3.4(a),thefar-zonedirectcomponentoftheelectricfieldofthe
infinitesimal dipole oflengthl, constantcurrentI0, andobservation point Pis given by
 jkr
Ed □ jkI0le
1
sin1 (3.1)
4r1
Thereflectedcomponentcanbeaccountedforbytheintroductionofthevirtualsource(image)as shown
in Figure 3.4(a), and it can bewritten as
jkr2 
Er  jRkIle
0 sin (3.2)

4r2
v 2
or
 jkr2
kI le
Er  j 0 sin2 (3.2a)
4r2
Sincethe reflectioncoefficient Rvis equal to unity.
z z
P r1
1 r1
r
r
r2 
h 
h r2

 i y
y
=  h
2 =  h

x
x
Figure 3.4 (a)Verticalelectricdipole aboveinfinite perfect electricconductor and its

(b)Far-fieldobservations

Thetotalfieldabovetheinterface(z 0)isequaltothesumofthedirectandreflectedcomponentsasgivenb
y(3.1)and(3.2a).Sinceafieldcannotexistinsideaperfectelectricconductor,itisequaltozerobelowtheint
erface.Tosimplifytheexpressionforthetotalelectricfield, it is referred to theorigin of
thecoordinatesystem(z=0).
Ingeneral, wecanwrite that
1/2
r1 r 2h2 2rhcos (3.3a)
 1/2
   
r2 r 2h2 2rh cos (3.3b)
Forfar-fieldobservations r฀ h,(3.3a)and(3.3b)reduceusingthebinomialexpansionto
r1 ฀rhcos (3.4a)
r2฀rhcos (3.4b)
AsshowninFigure3.4(b),geometrically(3.4a)and(3.4b)representparallellines.Sincetheamplitude
variationsare not as critical
r1฀r2 ฀r foramplitude variations (3.5)
Using(3.4a)-(3.5), the sum of (3.1) and (3.2a)canbe writtenas
E฀ j
kIle
0
jkr2
sin2cos  khcos

z0 
4r  
  (3.6)
E 0 
z0 

 
0
30 Relativepo wer
30
(dBdown)
10
60 20 60
30
90 30 20 10 90 


h=0 h=3/2
h=/8 h=/2h
h=/4 =

Figure3.5Elevationplaneamplitudepatternsofaverticalinfinitesimalelectricdipolefordifferentheight
sabove an infinite perfect electricconductor.
Theshapeandamplitudeofthefieldisnotonlycontrolledby
thefieldofthesingleelementbutalsobythepositioningoftheelementrelativetotheground.Toexaminethef
ieldvariationsasa
functionoftheheighth,thenormalized(to0dB)powerpatternsforh=0,/8,/4,3/8,/2,andare
plottedinFigure3.5.Becauseofsymmetry,onlyhalf ofeachpattern isshown.Forh>
/4moreminorlobes,inadditiontothemajorones,areformed.Ashattainsvaluesgreaterthan
, anevengreaternumberofminorlobesareintroduced.The introductionof
theadditionallobesisusuallycalledscalloping.Ingeneral,thetotalnumberoflobesisequaltotheintegerth
atisclose to
2hnu
mberoflobes฀ 1 (3.7)

Since the totalfieldof the antennasystemis differentfromthat of a singe element,

thedirectivityandradiationresistance arealso different. Thedirectivitycan bewrittenas

4Umax 2
D0 Prad  1 cos(2kh) sin(2kh) (3.8)
 3 (2kh)2  (2kh)3
 
Whosevalueforkh=0is3.Themaximumvalueoccurswhenkh=2.881(h=0.4585),anditisequalto6.566
whichisgreaterthanfourtimesthatofanisolateddipoleelement(1.5).Thedirectivityis displayed
inFigure 3.6 for 0h 5.
Similarly,fromradiatedpower, theradiation resistance can bewritten as
2P  l21 cos(2kh) sin(2kh)

Rr  rad 2     (3.9)
 3 (2kh) 
2 2 3
I 0
(2kh)
Whosevalueforkhisthesameandforkh=0istwicethatoftheisolatedelementasgiven
by(3.9). Whenkh =0, the value ofRr isonlyone-halfthevalueofanl2l isolatedelement.
7 0.7
6
Radiationresistance(ohms)
Directivity(dimensionless)
0.6
5
Directivity
0.5
4 Radiation
3 0.4
2
0.3
1
0.2
1 2 3 4 5
Height(wavelengths)
Figure3.6 Directivityandradiationresistanceofaverticalinfinitesimalelectricdipoleasafunction
ofits height above an infinite perfectelectricconductor.

3.2.2 HorizontalElectric Dipole
Anotherdipoleconfigurationiswhenthelinearelementisplacedhorizontallyrelativetotheinfiniteelectri
cgroundplane,asshowninFigure3.3.Theanalysisprocedureofthisisidenticaltotheoneoftheverticaldip
ole.Introducinganimageandassumingfar-fieldobservations,asshown in Figure3.7(a, b), the
directcomponentcan be writtenas
 jkr 
Ed □ jkI0le
1
sin (3.10)
4r1
and the reflected oneby
 jkr2 
Er  jRhkI0le sin (3.11)
4r2 
or 
jkr2 
E j
kIle
sin
r 0
(3.11a)
4r2
sincethereflectioncoefficientisequaltoRh1.
Figure3.7Horizontalelectricdipoleaboveaninfiniteperfectelectricconductoranditsfar-
fieldobservations.
Tofindtheangle ,whichismeasuredfromthey-axistowardtheobservationpoint,wefirstform
cos ây.âr ây.(âxsin cos âysin sin âzcos)sin sin  (3.12)
from which wefind 
sin  1cos2  1sin2sin2 (3.13)
Sincefor far-fieldobservations

r1 ฀rhcos
 for phase variations (3.14a)
r2 ฀rhcos  
r1฀r2 ฀r foramplitude variations (3.14b)
Thetotalfield,whichisvalidonlyabovethegroundplanez0;0  /2,0 2 ,canbe writtenas
E EdEr kI0le  jkr1 1sin2sin2 2jsinkhcos (3.15)
 j  
  
4r 
Equation(3.15)againconsistsoftheproductofthefieldofasingleisolatedelementplacedsymmetricallya
ttheoriginandafactor(withinthebrackets)knownasthearrayfactor.Thisagain is the
patternmultiplicationrule.
Toexaminethevariationsofthetotalfieldasafunctionoftheelementheightabovethegroundplane,thetw
odimensionalelevationplanepatterns(normalizedto0dB)for 90 (y-
zplane)whenh=0,/8,/4,3/8,/2,andareplottedinFigure3.8.Sincethisantennasystemisnotsymm
etric, the azimuthal plane(x-yplane) patternwill not be isotropic.
Astheheightincreasesbeyondonewavelength(h>),alargernumberoflobesisagainformed.The total
number oflobes is equal to the integer that most closelyis equal to
h
numberoflobes฀2  (3.16)

 

With unitybeingthe smallest
number.Thedirectivitycanbewritten as
4sin 2 kh 
 kh/ 2 h /4 (7.17a)
4Umax  R kh
D0  
Prad  4 kh/2 h/4 (7.17b)
R kh

where 
2 sin(2kh) cos(2kh) sin(2kh) 
R kh 3 2kh  (2kh)2 (2kh)3  (3.17c)
 

Forsmallvaluesofkhkh0  ,(3.17a)reducesto
4sin2 (kh) sinkh 2

D0 2 2 8 2 7.5   (3.18)
   kh   kh 
3 3 15 

Forh = 0 the elementis shortedandit does not radiate.The directivity is plotted
for0h5inFigure3.9.Itexhibitsamaximumvalueof3.5forsmallvaluesofh.Avaluesof6occurswhe
nh฀0.725n/2   ,n=1,2,3,…

Theconductivityhasamorepronouncedeffectontheimpedancevalues,comparedtothoseoftheverticald
ipoleoninputimpedance.Thevaluesoftheresistanceandreactanceapproach,astheheightincreases,toth
ecorrespondingvaluesoftheisolatedelementoflength/2(73ohmsforthe resistance and 42.5 ohms
for the reactance).
 
0
30 Relativepo wer
(dBdown) 30
10
60 20
60
30
90 30 20 10 90

h=0 (free space) h=3/8
h=/8 h=/2
h=/4 

Figure3.8Elevationplane90  amplitudepatternsofahorizontalinfinitesimalelectric
dipole for different heights above an infinite perfectelectricconductor.
8 0.5
Directivity
7 0.4
6 0.3
5 0.2
4
0. 0.5 1.0 1.5 2. 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4. 5.0
Heighth(wavelengths)
Figure3.9Radiationresistanceanddirectivityofahorizontalinfinitesimalelectricdipoleasafunction
ofits height above an infinite perfectelectricconductor.

3.3 CORNERREFLECTOR
Forbettercollimination ofthepowerintheforwarddirections,anarrangementcanbemade
withtwoplanereflectorsjoinedsoastoformacorner,asshowninFigure3.10(a).Thisisknownasthecorner
reflector.Becauseofitssimplicityinconstruction,ithasmanyuniqueapplications.Forexample,iftherefl
ectorisusedasapassivetargetforradarorcommunicationapplications,itwillreturnthesignalexactlyinth
esamedirectionasitreceiveditwhenitsincludedangleis90 .This is
illustratedgeometricallyinFigure3.10(b). Because
ofthisuniquefeature,militaryshipsandvehiclesaredesignedwithminimumsharpcornerstoreducetheir
detectionbyenemyradar.
s  Da =90
(a) (b)90
l l Grid
g
z wires
s ’
Supporting
Feed r y structure
elemen
h
’

Da
(c) Perspectiveview (d) Wire-grid
Figure 3.10 Side andperspective views ofsolid and wire-grid cornerreflectors.
Inmostpracticalapplications,theincludedangleformedbytheplatesisusually90 ;howeverother
anglesarealsoused.Tomaintainagivensystemefficiency,thespacing
betweenthevertexandthefeedelementmustincreaseastheincludedangleofthereflectordecreases,andvi
ce-
versa.Forreflectorswithinfinitesides,thegainincreasesastheincludedanglebetweentheplanesdecrease
s.This,however,maynotbetrueforfinitesizeplates.Forsimplicity,inthischapter it will beassumed that
the plates themselves areinfinite in extent (l=).However,since
inpracticethedimensionsmustbefinite,guidelinesonthesizeofapertureDa,length(l),height
(h)is given.
Thefeedelementforacornerreflectorisalmostalwaysadipoleoranarrayofcollineardipolesplacedparall
el to the vertexdistance s away,as shown in in Figure3.10(c).Greater bandwidth
isobtainedwhenthefeedelementsarecylindricalorbiconicaldipolesinsteadofthinwires.Inmanyapplica
tions, especiallywhenthewavelength is largecomparedto
tolerablephysicaldimensions,thesurfacesofthecornerreflectorarefrequentlymadeofgridwiresrathert
hansolid sheetmetal,as shown in Figure 3.10(d). Oneof thereasons for doingthat is to reduce
windresistanceandoverallsystemweight.Thespacinggbetweenwiresismadeasmallfractionofawavele
ngth(usuallyg /10).Forwiresthatareparalleltothelengthofthedipole,asisthecaseforthearrangemen
tofFigure3.10(d),thereflectivityofthegrid-wiresurfaceisasgoodasthat ofasolid surface.
Inpractice,theapertureofthecornerreflector(Da)isusuallymadebetweenoneandtwo
wavelengths Da2.Thelengthofthesidesofa90 cornerreflectorismostcommonly
takentobeabouttwicethedistancefromthevertextothefeedl฀2s .Forreflectorswith
smallerincludedangles,thesidesaremadelarger.Thefeed-to-vertexdistance(s)is usually
takentobebetween/3and2/3(/3<s<2/3).Foreachreflector,thereisanoptimumfeed- to-
vertexspacing.Ifthespacingbecomestoosmall,theradiationresistancedecreasesandbecomescompara
bletothelossresistanceofthesystemwhichleadstoaninefficientantenna.Forverylarge spacing, the
systemproducesundesirablemultiple lobes,anditlosesits
directionalcharacteristics.Ithasbeenexperimentallyobservedthat increasingthesizeofthe
sidesdoesnotgreatlyaffectthebeamwidthanddirectivity,butitincreasesthebandwidthandradiationresi
stance.Themainlobeissomewhatbroaderforreflectorswithfinitesidescompared
tothatofinfinitedimensions.Theheight(h)ofthereflectorisusuallytakentobeabout1.2to
1.5 timesgreaterthanthetotallengthofthefeedelement,inordertoreduceradiationtowardthebackregion
from theends.
Theanalysisforthefieldradiatedbyasourceinthepresenceofacornerreflectorisfacilitatedwhentheinclu
dedangle()ofthereflectoris=/n,wherenisaninteger(=,/2,/3,
/4,etc.). For thesecases180 ,90 ,60 ,45 ,etc.itispossible tofindasystemof images,
whichwhenproperlyplacedintheabsenceofthereflectorplates,formanarraythatyieldsthesamefieldwit
hinthespaceformedbythereflectorplatesastheactualsystem.Thenumberofimages,polarity,andpositio
niscontrolledbyincludedangleandthepolarizationofthefeedelement.Thegeometricalandelectricalarr
angementoftheimagesforcornerreflectorswithincludedanglesof90 ,60 ,45
and30 andfeedwithperpendicularpolarizationaredisplayedinFigure4.11.

90 60
(a)90 (b)60
45
30
(c)45
(d)30
Figure3.11Cornerreflectorsandtheirimages(withperpendicularlypolarizedfeeds)foranglesof90 ,60
,45 and30 .
Plate#1
Image#2
s Feed 90 s s Feed
Image#3
s
Image#4
Plate#2
(b) Imagesfor90
(a) 90 cornerreflector cornerreflector
Figure4.12Geometricalplacementandelectricalpolarityofimagesfora90 cornerreflectorwith a
parallel polarized feed.

Theprocedureforfindingthenumber,location,andpolarityoftheimagesisdemonstratedgraphicallyinF
igure3.12foracornerreflectorwitha90 includedangle.Itisassumedthatthefeedelementisalineardipole
placedparalleltothevertex.Asimilarprocedurecanbefollowedforallotherreflectorswithanincludedan
gleof 180 /n,wherenisaninteger.
4.3.1A90 CornerReflector
Forthe cornerreflectorwithan includedangle of90 ,the totalfield ofthe systemcan be

derivedbysummingthecontributions from the feedand its images. Thus
E r,,E1 r1,, E2 r2,, E3 r3,, E4 r4,,  (3.18)
In thefar-zone, the normalizedscalarfieldcan bewrittenas
ejkr1 ejkr2 ejkr3 ejkr4

E r, , f, f, f, f, 
r1 r2 r3 r4
 jkr
e
E r,, ejkscos1 ejkscos2 ejkscos 3 ejkscos4  f,  (3.19)
r
where
cos1 âx.âr sincos (3.19a)
cos 2 â y.âr sinsin (3.19b)
cos3 âx.âr sincos (3.19c)
cos 4 â y.âr sinsin (3.19d)
sinceâr âxsin cos âysin sin  âzcos. Equation (3.18) can also be written, using
(4.19a)-(4.19d),as 
ejkr
E r, ,2cos(kssincos)cos(kssinsin )f, (3.20)
r
where0/2 0  2 /22 (3.21a)
Lettingthe fieldof asingle isolated(radiatingin free-space)element to be

ejkr
E0 f 
, 
  (3.22)
r
(4.20)canbe rewrittenas
E
AF, 2cos kssin cos cos  kssin sin   (3.23)
E0
Equation(4.23)representsnotonlytheratioofthetotalfieldtothatofanisolatedelementattheoriginbutals
othearrayfactoroftheentirereflectorsystem.Intheazimuthalplane(=/2),(4.23)reduces to

E
AF /2, 2cos kscos cos  kssin  (3.24) The
E0
normalizedpatternsfora 90 cornerreflectorforspacingsofs=0.1,0.7,0.8,0.9,and1.0 issho
wninFigure3.13.Itisevidentthatforthesmallspacingthepatternconsistsofasinglemajorlobewhereasm
ultiplelobesappearforthelargerspacings(s>0.7).Fors=thepatternexhibitstwolobesseparatedbyan
ullalongthe 0 axis.
Anotherparameterof performancefor the cornerreflectoris the field strengthalong the

symmetryaxis90 ,0  as afunctionoffeed-to-vertexdistances.Thenormalized
(relative to the fieldof a singleisolatedelement)absolute fieldstrength peaks whens=0.5,
anditisequalto4.The fieldisalsoperiodicwithaperiodofs/ 1.

0
330
30
20
300 40 60
60
60 40 20
270 90
240 120

90 
210 150
180
s0.7 s0.1
s0.8 s0.9
s1.0

Figure3.13Normalizedradiationpatternsfor 90 cornerreflectorforvariousvaluesofs.

3.3.2 Other Corner Reflectors
Asimilarprocedurecanbeusedtoderivethearrayfactorsandtotalfieldsforallothercornerreflectorswithi
ncludedanglesof 180 /n.Referring
toFigure3.11,itcanbeshownthatthearrayfactorsfor60 ,45 and30 canbewrittenas
60  
X  X 
AF,4sin cos cos  Y 
  (3.25)
 2  2  3 2
     
45
  X
AF,2 cos(X)cos(Y)2cos cosY 
  (3.26)
    
  2  2
30
 3  Y


AF, 2cos(X)2cos
  X cos   
  2   2
 
X  (3.27)
 cos(Y)2cos cos  3 
    Y   
 2  2  
 
where
Xkssincos (3.28)
Ykssinsin (3.29)
Thearrayfactorforacornerreflectorhasaformthatissimilartothearrayfactorforauniformcirculararray.
ThisshouldbeexpectedsincethefeedsourcesandtheirimagesinFigure3.11formacirculararray.Thenu
mberofimagesincreasesastheincludedangleofthecornerreflectordecreases.
Patternshavebeencomputedforcornerreflectorswithincludedanglesof60 ,45 and30 .It
hasbeenfoundthatthesecornerreflectorshavealsosingle-lobedpatternsfor
thesmallervaluesofs,andtheybecome narroweras theincluded angledecreases. Multiple lobesbegin
to appearwhen
s฀0.95 for60
s฀1.2 for45 f
s฀2.5 or30
Themaximumfieldstrengthincreasesastheincludedangleofthereflectordecreases.Thisisexpectedsinc
easmalleranglereflectorexhibitsbetterdirectionalcharacteristicsbecauseofthe
narrownessof its angle.The maximum valuesof E/E0 for 60 ,45 ,and30 are
approximately5.2, 8, and9, respectively. The firstfieldstrengthpeak, is achieved when
s for60
฀0.65s for45
฀0.85s for30
฀1.20
Thegaininthedirection=0areshowninFigure3.12foreachcornerangle.Thesolidcurveineachcaseis
computedforzerolosses(R1L=0),whilethedashedcurveisforanassumedloss
resistance R1 =1.Itisapparentthatforefficientoperationtoosmallspacingshouldbe
L
avoided.Asmallspacingisalsoobjectionablebecauseofnarrowbandwidth.Ontheotherhand,too
largeaspacingresults in lessgain.
14 16
12 14
10 12
8 10
Gain,dBi
Gain,(dB)
6 8
4 6
2 4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Antenna-to-corner spacing, 

Figure3.14Gainofcornerreflectorantennasovera/2dipoleantennainfreespacewiththesamepowerin
putasafunctionoftheantenna-to-
cornerspacing.Gainisinthedirection=0andisshownforzerolossresistance(solidcurves)andforanass
umedlossresistanceof1  R1L 1(dashedcurves).

Thegainofa90 cornerreflectorwith antenna-to- S฀0.5 isnearly10dBover
cornerspacingareference /2 antenna or12 dBi.
Restrictingpatternstothelower-orderradiationmode(nominorlobes),itisgenerallydesirablethat Slie
between thefollowinglimits:
 S
90 0.25-0.7
180 (flatsheet) 0.1-0.3
Intheabovediscussions,itisassumedthatthereflectorsareperfectlyconductingandofinfiniteextent,wit
htheexceptionthatthegainswithafinitelyconductingreflectormaybeapproximatedwith a proper
choiceofR1L.
Although thegain of a cornerreflectorwith infinite sidescanbe

increasedbyreducingthecornerangle,itdoesnotfollowthatthegainofacornerreflectorwithfinitesidesof
fixedlengthwillincreaseasthecornerangleisdecreased.Tomaintainagivenefficiencywithasmallercorn
eranglerequiresthatSbeincreased.Alsoona60 reflector,forexample,thepointatwhichawaveisreflecte
dparalleltotheaxisisatadistanceof1.73Sfromthecornerascomparedto
1.41Sforthe900 type.Hence,torealizetheincreaseingainrequiresthatthelengthofthe
reflectorsidesbemuchlargerthanfora90 cornerreflectordesignedforthesamefrequency.Usuallythisis
apracticaldisadvantageinviewoftherelativelysmallincreasetobeexpectedingain.
Ifthelengthorarmofthereflectorisreducedtovaluesoflessthan0.6,radiationtothesidesandreartendsto
increaseandthegaindecreases.WhenRisdecreasedtoaslittleas0.3,thestrongestradiationisnolongerfo
rwardandthe―reflector‖actsasadirector.
3.4 PARABOLICREFLECTOR
Ifabeamofparallelraysisincidentuponareflectorwhosegeometricalshapeisaparabola,theradiationwill
convergeorgetfocusedataspotwhichisknownasthefocalpoint.Inthesamemannerifapointsourceisplac
edatthefocalpoint,theraysreflectedbyaparabolicreflectorwillemergeasaparallelbeam.Thesymmetric
alpointontheparabolicsurfaceisknownasthevertex.Raysthatemergeinaparallelformationareusuallys
aidtobecollimated.Inpractice,collimationisoftenusedtodescribethehighlydirectionalcharacteristicso
fanantennaeventhoughtheemanatingraysarenotexactlyparallel.Sincethetransmitter(receiver)isplace
datthe focal point of the parabola, the configuration is usuallyknown asfrontfed.
Aparabolicreflectorcantaketwodifferentforms.Oneconfigurationisthatoftheparabolicrightcylinder,
whoseenergyiscollimatedatalinethatisparalleltotheaxisofthecylinderthroughthefocalpointoftherefl
ector.Themostwidelyusedfeedforthistypeofareflectorisalineardipole,alineararray,oraslottedwaveg
uide.Theotherreflectorconfigurationisthatwhichisformedbyrotatingtheparabolaarounditsaxis,anditi
sreferredtoasaparaboloid

(parabolaofrevolution).Apyramidaloraconicalhornhasbeenwidelyutilizedasafeedfor
thisarrangement.
3.4.1 Front-FedParabolic Reflector
Paraboliccylindershavewidelybeenusedashigh-
gainaperturesfedbylinesources.Theanalysisofaparaboliccylinder(singlecurved)reflectorissimilar,b
utconsiderablysimplerthanthatofaparaboidal(doublecurved)reflector.Theprinciplecharacteristicsof
apertureamplitude,phase,andpolarizationforaparaboliccylinder,ascontrastedtothoseofaparaboloid,a
reasfollows:
1. Theamplitudetaper,duetovariationsindistancefromthefeedtothesurfaceofthereflector,
is proportional to1/in a cylindercompared to 1/r2 in a paraboloid.
2. Thefocalregion,whereincidentplanewavesconverge,isaline-sourceforacylinderandapoint source
foraparaboloid.
3. Whenthefieldsofthefeedarelinearlypolarizedparalleltotheaxisofthecylinder,nocross-
polarizedcomponentsareproducedbytheparaboliccylinder.Thatisnotthecaseforaparaboloid.
Thesurfaceofaparaboloidalreflectorisformedbyrotatingaparabolaaboutitsaxis.Itssurfacemustbeapar
aboloidofrevolutionsothatraysemanatingfromthefocusofthereflectoraretransformed into
planewaves. The design is basedon opticaltechniques, and it does not
takeintoaccountanydeformations(diffractions)fromtherimofthereflector.ReferringtoFigure3.15and
choosingaplaneperpendicular to theaxis of the reflectorthrough thefocus, it follows that
P(x,y,z) 
Q
 n̂
r
’
x
z O
d
0
S r0
S0
z0
f
Figure 3.15 Two-dimensional configuration ofa paraboloidalreflector.

OP +PQ=constant = 2f (3.30)
Since
OP =r’ (3.31)
PQ=r’cos’
(3.30)canbe writtenas
r‘ (1+ cos‘)=2f (3.32)

or

r 2f  fsec2   
 
(3.32a)
1cos  2
0
Sinceaparaboloidisaparabolaofrevolution(aboutitsaxis),(3.32a)isalsotheequationofaparaboloidinte
rmsofthesphericalcoordinatesr,, .Becauseofitsrotationalsymmetry,thereareno variations
withrespect to.
Anotherexpressionthatisusuallyveryprominentintheanalysisofreflectorsisthatrelatingthe
subtendedangle0 to thef/d ratio.From thegeometryofFigure 3.15
d/ 2 
 tan1  
 (3.33)
0
 z0 
where z0is the distancealongtheaxis ofthe reflectorfrom the focal pointto theedge of the rim.
d 1 f
 
z0tan1 2 tan1 2d (3.34)
2
f d
2
 f 1
  
16f  d  16
It can also be shown thatanotherformof(3.34) is

0
f cot
d (3.35)
 4  2
Apertureantennasusuallyhaveanobviousphysicalapertureofarea Apthroughwhichenergy
passes on its wayto thefar field. Themaximum achievablegain for anaperture antennais
4
(3.36)
GmaxDu 2 Ap

Thisgainispossibleonlyundertheidealcircumstancesofauniformamplitude,uniformphaseantennawit
hnospilloverorohmiclossespresent.Inpractice,theseconditionsarenotsatisfiedandgain is
decreasedfrom ideal, as representedthrough thefollowing:
4
G D  A (3.37)
apu ap
 2 p
It is found that for a givenfeed pattern

 Thereisonlyonereflectorwithagivenangularapertureorf/dratiowhichleadstoamaximum
aperture efficiency.
 Each maximum apertureefficiencyis in the neighborhood of82-83%.
 Eachmaximumapertureefficiency,foranyoneofthegivenpatterns,isalmostthesameas that of
anyof theothers.
 Asthefeedpatternbecomesmoredirective,theangularapertureofthereflectorthatleads to the
maximum efficiencyis smaller.
Theaperture efficiencyis generallythe product ofthe
o fractionofthetotalpowerthatisradiatedbythefeed,intercepted,andcollimatedbythereflectings
urface(generallyknown asspillover efficiencyS)
o uniformityofthe amplitudedistributionof thefeedpatternoverthe surfaceof thereflector
(generallyknown astaper efficiencyt)
o phaseuniformity of the fieldoverthe aperture plane (generally known asphaseefficiencyp)
o polarizationuniformity of the fieldoverthe apertureplane (generally known
aspolarizationefficiencyx)
o blockageefficiencyb
o random error efficiencyrover thereflector
surfaceThis in general
apstpxb r (3.38)
Anadditionalfactorthatreducestheantennagainistheattenuationintheantennafeedandassociatedtrans
missionline.
Thetwomainfactorsthatcontributetotheapertureefficiencyarethespilloverandnonuniformamplituded
istributionlosses.Becausetheselossesdependprimarilyonthefeedpattern,acompromisebetweenspillo
verandtaperefficiencymustemerge.Ithasbeendepictedpictoriallyin Figure3.16.
tislow
tishigh
Highspillover
Lowspillover
(a) Broadfeed pattern

(b) Narrow feed pattern
givinghighaperturetaper
givinghighspillover efficiency
efficiency but
butlow
lowspilloverefficiency.
Figure3.16Illustrationoftheinfluenceofthefeedantennapatternonreflectoraperturetaperandspillover
.

Veryhighspillover efficiencycanbeachieved byanarrow
beampatternwithlowmajorlobesattheexpenseofaverylowtaperefficiency.Uniformilluminationandi
dealtaperefficiencycanbe obtainedwhen thefeed powerpattern Gf (‘) is givenby
 4  
sec  0
Gf ()
0
 
2 (3.39)

0 0
whichisplottedinFigure5.13.Althoughsuchapatternis―ideal‖andimpracticaltoachieve,
much effort has been devoted to developfeeddesigns whichattempt to approximate it.
1.5
1.0

G ()sec
4
 
 2
f 0.5
40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40
Figure3.17Normalizedgainpatternoffeedforuniformamplitudeilluminationofparaboloidalreflector
withatotalsubtendedangleof80 .
Todevelopguidelinesfordesigningpracticalfeedswhichresultsinhighapertureefficiencies,it
is instructive to examinethe relativefieldstrengthat theedgesofthereflector‘s bounds
(0)forpatternsthat lead to optimum efficiencies.
Inpractice,maximumreflectorefficienciesareinthe65-
80%range.Todemonstratethatparaboloidalreflectorefficienciesforsquarecorrugatedhornsfeedswere
computedandareshowninFigure3.18(a).ForthedataofFigures3.18(a)and(b),eachhornhadaperturedi
mensionsof8×8,theirpatternswereassumedtobesymmetrical(byaveragingtheE-andH-
planes).Fromtheplotteddata,itisapparentthatthemaximumapertureefficiencyforeachfeedpatternisint
herangeof74-79%,andthattheproductofthetaperandspilloverefficienciesis approximatelyequal
tothe total apertureefficiency.

80
0 35
60 0 42.5
0 50
40
Feed
0
20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Reflectorangularaperture (degrees)
0
100
80
0 50
0 35
60 0 42.5 
0
42.5

0
50  35
0
40
Feed
Taperefficiency
0
Spilloverefficiency
20
0 10 20 30 80 90
40 50 60 70
Reflectorangularaperture (degrees)
0
Figure3.18Parabolicreflectorapertureefficiencyasafunctionofangularaperturefor88squarecor
rugatedhornfeedwithtotalflareanglesof2 0 70,85,and100.
PhaseErrors
Anydepartureofthephase,overtheapertureoftheantenna,fromuniformcanleadtoasignificantdecreasei
nitsdirectivity.Foraparaboloidalreflectorsystem,phaseerrorsresultfrom
1. displacement(defocusing) of thefeed phasecenterfrom thefocal point

2. deviationofthereflectorsurfacefromaparabolicshapeorrandomerrorsatthesurfaceofthe
reflector
3. departure of thefeed wave frontsfromspherical shape

Thedefocusingeffectcanbereducedbyfirstlocatingthephasecenterofthefeedantennaandthenplacingit
atthefocalpointofthereflector.Itisfoundthatthephasecenterforhornantennas,whicharewidelyutilized
asfeedsforreflectors,islocatedbetweentheapertureofthehornandtheapexformedbytheintersectionoft
heinclinedwallsofthehorn.Verysimpletheoryhasbeenderivedtopredictthelossindirectivityforrectan
gularandcircularapertureswhenthepeakvaluesoftheaperturephasedeviationisknown.Whenthephase
errorsareassumedtoberelativelysmall,itisnotnecessarytoknowtheexactamplitudeorphasedistributio
n functionover theaperture.
3.5 CASSEGRAINREFLECTORS
Thedisadvantageofthefront-
fedarrangementisthatthetransmissionlinefromthefeedmustusuallybelongenoughtoreachthetransmit
tingorthereceivingequipment,whichisusuallyplacedbehindorbelowthereflector.Thismaynecessitate
theuseoflongtransmissionlineswhose
lossesmaynotbetolerableinmanyapplications,especiallyinlow-
noisereceivingsystems.Insomeapplications,thetransmittingorreceivingequipmentisplacedatthefoca
lpointtoavoidtheneedforlongtransmissionlines.However,insomeoftheseapplications,especiallyfortr
ansmissionthatmayrequirelargeamplifiersandforlow-
noisereceivingsystemswherecoolingandweatherproofingmaybenecessary,theequipmentmaybetooh
eavyandbulkyand will provideundesirableblockage.
Thearrangementthatavoidsplacingthefeed(transmitterand/orreceiver)atthefocalpointisthatshownin
Figure3.1(d)anditisknownastheCassegrainfeed.Throughgeometricaloptics,Cassegrain,afamousastr
onomer(N.CassegrainofFrance,henceitsname),showedthatincidentparallelrayscanbefocusedtoapoi
ntbyutilizingtworeflectors.Toaccomplishthis,themain(primary)reflectormustbeaparabola,thesecon
daryreflector(Subreflector)ahyperbola,andthefeedplacedalongtheaxisoftheparabolausuallyatornear
thevertex.Cassegrainusedthisschemetoconstructopticaltelescopes,andthenitsdesignwascopiedforus
einradiofrequencysystems.Forthisarrangement,theraysthatemanatefromthefeedilluminatetheSubre
flectorandarereflectedbyitinthedirectionoftheprimaryreflector,asiftheyoriginatedatthefocalpointoft
heparabola(primaryreflector).Theraysarethenreflectedbytheprimaryreflectorandareconvertedtopar
allelrays,providedtheprimaryreflectorisaparabolaandthesubreflectorisahyperbola.Diffractionoccur
sattheedgesofthesubreflectorandprimaryreflectorandtheymustbetakenintoaccounttoaccuratelypred
icttheoverallsystempattern,especiallyinregionsoflowintensity.Eveninregionsofhighintensity,diffrac
tionmustbeincludedifanaccurateformationofthefineripplestructureofthepatternisdesired.WiththeC
assegrain-
feedarrangement,thetransmittingand/orreceivingequipmentcanbeplacedbehindtheprimaryreflector.
Thisschememakesthesystemrelativelymoreaccessibleforservicing andadjustments.
Cassegraindesigns,employingdualreflectorsurfaces,areusedinapplicationswherepatterncontrolisess
ential,suchasinsatelliteground-basedsystems,andhaveefficienciesof65-
80%.Theysupersedetheperformanceofthesingle-reflectorfront-
fedarrangementbyabout10%.Usinggeometricaloptics,theclassicalCassegrainconfiguration,consisti
ngofaparaboloidand

hyperboloid,isdesignedtoachieveauniformphasefrontintheapertureoftheparaboloid.Byemployingg
oodfeeddesigns,thisarrangementcanachievelowerspilloverandmoreuniformilluminationofthemainr
eflector.Inaddition,slightshapingofoneorbothofthedual-
reflector‘ssurfacescanleadtoanaperturewithalmostuniformamplitudeandphasewithsubstantialenhan
cementingain.Thesearereferredtoasshapedreflectors.Shapingtechniqueshave been employed in
dual-reflectorsused inearthstationapplications.
Tworeflectorswithraygeometry,withconceptofequivalentparabola,areshowninFigure3.19The use
of asecondreflector,whichisusually
referredtoasthesubreflectororsubdish,givesanadditionaldegreeoffreedomforachievinggoodperform
anceinanumberofdifferentapplications.Foranaccuratedescriptionofitsperformance,diffractiontechn
iquesmustbeusedtotakeintoaccountdiffractionsfromtheedgesofthesubreflector,especiallywhenitsdi
ameteris small.
Ingeneral, the Cassegrainarrangementprovidesavarietyof benefits,suchas the
1. abilityto place thefeed in a convenient location

2. reduction of spillover and minor loberadiation
3. abilityto obtain an equivalentfocallengthmuchgreaterthan the physicallength
4. capabilityforscanningand/orbroadeningofthebeambymovingoneofthereflectingsurfaces
Principlesurface and
r v equivalent parabola
dm
VirtualFeed
lr lv
fm
fe
Figure 3.19 Equivalent parabolaconcepts.
Toachievegoodradiationcharacteristics,thesubreflectormustbefewwavelengthsindiameter.Howeve
r,itspresenceintroducesshadowingwhichistheprinciplelimitationofitsuseasamicrowaveantenna.The
shadowingcansignificantlydegradethegainofthesystem,unlessthemainreflectorisseveralwavelength
sindiameter.ThereforetheCassegrainisusuallyattractivefor applicationsthat require gainsof40 dBor
greater.Thereare,however,a variety of

techniquesthatcanbeusedtominimizetheapertureblockingby
thesubreflector.Someofthemareminimum blockingwith simple Cassegrain, and
twistingCassegrains for leastblocking.
Sub-
reflectorsofferflexibilityofdesignforreflectingtelescopes.ReferringtoFigure3.20,itisrequiredthatallr
aysfromthefocalpointFformasphericalwavefront(circleofradiusCF‘)onreflectionfromthe(hyperboli
c)subreflector(asthoughradiatingisotropicallyfromtheparabolafocus F‘)or byFermat‘sprinciple
ofequalityof path lengththat
CAFACAFA (3.40)
NotingthatCACFAFandthatFAAF2OAweobtain
FAAF2OABA (3.41)
which is the relation foranhyperbola with standard form
OF =OF’
Hyperbola Virtualfocus at
C’ P
Feed focusof
horn A’ ’ parabola
y
 C
F B O A F’ Axis
Real x
Hyperbolic
focus reflector
Originof
Circleofradius
coordinates
CF’ =C’F’
forx, y
Planeof symmetry of
Vertex of hyperbolicgeometry
parabola
Figure 3.20Geometryfor Cassegrainreflector.
x2  y2 1 (3.42)
a2 f2 a2
whereaOAOB,f OFOF,andxandy areasshowninFigure3.20.Or
x2  2 2 
y  2 1 f a 
2
(3.43)
a 
Theparabolicsub-
reflectoristhentruncatedatpointPforwhicharayreflectedfromthehyperbolahitstheedgeoftheparabolic
reflector.ThehyperbolicreflectorthensubtendsananglefromthefeedlocationatthefocalpointFwhilet
he(main)parabolicreflectorsubtendsananglefromthefocalpointF‘oftheparabola.Thus,thefeedhor
nbeamangleisincreased
in the ratio/ to fill the parabolaaperture.
Thesurfaceofthehyperbolaisdeformedtoenlargeorrestricttheincrementalraybundle,therebydecreasi
ngorincreasingthewattspersteradianinthebundleandfinallythewattspersquaremeterintheaperturepla
neoftheparabola.Thisshapingtechniquemaybeextendedovertheentiresub-reflectorandoftenbothsub-
reflectorandparabolaareshaped.Asaresultamoreuniformaperturedistributionandhigherapertureeffic
iencycanbeachievedbutwithhigherfirstsidelobes and alsomore rapid loss as the feed is moved off-
axis to squintthe beam.
AconstraintontheCassegrainarrangementisthattominimizeblockagethesub-
reflectorshouldbesmallcomparedtotheparabola,yetthesub-
reflectormustbelargecomparedtothewavelength.
InFigure 3.21aparabola is givenby
y24fx (3.44)
wheref =focaldistance= VF
y Parabola Circle
R
R2f
Apertur r
eradius
 
V f F C
x1 x
Vertex of Focusof Centerof
parabola parabola circle
Figure3.21Circleandparabolacompared,withradiusofcircleequaltotwicethefocallengthofthe
parabola.
ThisparabolaiscomparedwithacircleofradiusR=VC.Itmaybeshownthatforsmallvaluesofx, the
circle is of nearlythe same form as the parabolawhen
R =2f (4.45)
Overanangle andaperture radius
rRsin (4.46)
ThecirclediffersfromtheparabolabylessthanR.If R฀ (orspecifically/16)thefield
radiatedfromapointsourceatFwithinanangle andreflectedfromthecirclewillbewithin45 (2360
/16)ofthephaseofafieldradiatedfromFandreflectedfromtheparabola.Thenafeedantennaatthefocalp
ointFwhichilluminatesthesphereonlywithintheangle willproduceaplanewaveoverthe aperture
ofdiameter2rhavingaphasedeviation ofless than45 ,this amount of deviationoccurringonlynear
the edge of theaperture.

UNIT IV
Antenna Arrays
&
Measurements

Dr.V.Thrimurthulu Lecture Notes
Antenna&WavePropagationAntennaArray
INTRODUCTION
Usuallyasingleelementprovides wideradiation and low directivity(gain).
Inmanyapplications it is necessaryto designantennas with verydirectivecharacteristics to meetthe
demands oflongdistancecommunication.
 Enlargingthe dimensions of singleelements.
 Enlargingthedimensions of the antenna,without increasingthe sizeofthe
individualelements, is to form an assemblyofradiatingelements inanelectrical
andgeometricalconfiguration.
This new antenna,formedbymulti‐elements, is referred to as anarray.
Inmostcases,theelementsofanarrayareidentical.Thisisnotnecessary,butitisoftenconvenient,simpler,
andmorepractical.Theindividualelementsofanarraymaybeofanyform(wires,apertures,etc).
 Thetotalfieldof thearrayisdeterminedby the vectoraddition of

thefieldsradiated by theindividualelements
 Duringthesummation, the current in each element is assumedto be thesame as that
ofthe isolatedelement(neglecting coupling).
 This is usuallynot thecase anddepends on the separationbetween the elements.
Inanarrayofidenticalelements,thereareatleastfivecontrolsthatcanbeusedtoshapetheoverallpattern of
theantenna.
1. Thegeometricalconfiguration ofthe overall array(linear, circular,rectangular, spherical, etc.)
2. Therelative displacement between the elements
3. Theexcitationamplitude of theindividual elements
4. Theexcitationphase of theindividual elements
5. Therelativepattern of the individualelements
This is oneof thecommon methods of combining the radiationsfrom a group of

similarantennasinwhichthewave-
interferencephenomenonisinvolved.Thefieldstrengthcanbeincreasedinpreferreddirectionsbyproper
lyexcitinggrouporarrayofantennassimultaneously,suchasarrangement is known
asantennaarray.Arrayofantennais an arrangement, of
severalindividualantennassospacedandphasedthattheirindividualcontributionscominginonepreferre
ddirectionandcancelinallotherdirections,whichwillbegoingtoincreasethedirectivityofthesystem.
Thedifferenttypes ofarrayswith regard to beampointingdirection areasfollows,
1. Broadside array
2. End firearray
3. Collineararray.
1 .BroadsideArray
Broadsidearrayisoneofthemostcommonlyusedantennaarrayinpractice.Thearrayinwhichanumberof
identicalparallelantennasarearrangedalongalineperpendiculartothelineofarrayaxisisknownasbroad
sidearray,whichisshowninfigure(2.1).Inthis,theindividualantennasareequallyspacedalongalineande
achelementisfedwithcurrentofequalmagnitude,all in thesamephase.

Theradiation pattern ofbroadside arrayis bidirectional, which radiates equallywell in

eitherdirection ofmaximum radiation.
2 . End FireArray
ThearrayinwhichanumberofidenticalantennasarespacedequallyalongalineandIndividualelementsar
efedwithcurrentsofunequalphases(i.e.,withaphaseshiftof180°)isknownasendfirearray.Thisarrayissi
milartothatofbroadsidearrayexceptthatindividualelementsarefedinwith,aphaseshiftof180.Inthis,the
directionofradiationiscoincideswiththedirectionofthe arrayaxis, which is shown in figure (2.2).
Theradiationpatternofendfirearrayisunidirectional.But,theendfirearraymaybebidirectionalalso.One
suchexampleisatwoelementarray,fedwithequalcurrent,180°outofphase.
3.CollinearArray
Thearrayin which antennas arearrangedend to end in a single line is known as
collineararray.Figure(2.3),showsthearrangementofcollineararray,inwhichoneantennaisstackedover
anotherantenna.Similartothatofbroadsidearray,theindividualelementsofthecollineararrayarefedwit
hequalinphasecurrents.Acollineararrayisabroadsideradiator,inwhichthedirectionofmaximumradiat
ionisperpendiculartothelineofantenna.Thecollineararrayissometimes calledasbroadcastor Omni
directionalarraysbecauseits radiationpatternhascircularsymmetrywith its main to be
everywhereperpendicular to theprincipal axis.
3. Arrays oftwo point sources with equal amplitude and opposite phase:
In this, point source 1 isout of phase or oppositephase (180°) to source2i.e. when thereis

maximumin source 1 atone particular instant, and then thereis minimum in source 2 atthatinstant
and vice-versa.
ReferringtoFig.1.1 the totalfarfieldat distant pointP ,is givenby
E= (-Ei e-φ j / 2) + (+ E 2 e+ φ i / 2 )
ButE1=E2=E0
(say)ThenE=E0 2j
E=2jE0 sinφ/2……………. (1.1a)

E=2jE0sin
Cosθ ………. (1.1b)
Letd =Ȝ/2and2E0j=1
Enorm, = sin (π/2 COS θ) ……………………..
(1.2)Maximumdirections:Maximum value of sine functionis
±1sin (π/2cosθ)=±1
(П/2 cosθmax) =± (2 n +1)n / 2 wheren = 0, 1,2
(cosθmax) =±1ifn= 0
θmax=0° and 180°……………..(1.3 a)
Minima directions: Minimum valueof asine function is 0
sin (π/2 cosθ)=0
π/2 cosθmin =± nπwheren =0, 1, 2……..COS
θmin =0
Thereforeθmin= 90° and-90° ……………….. (1.3b)
Halfpower pointdirections:
sin (П/2 cosθ)=±
√฀
П/2 cosθHPPD =±(2 n+ 1) π/4П/2
cosθHPPD =±π/ 4 ifn
=0cosθHPPD= ±
θHPPD =60°, ± 120° ………………………… (1.3c)

Fromthese, it is possible to draw the field patternwhich is as shown in Fig.1.2
It is seen that maximahave shifted 90° alongX-axisin comparison to in-phase field pattern.
Thefigure is horizontal figure of 8 and3-dimensionalspace pattern is obtainedbyrotatingit alongX
-axis. Once the arrangementgives maximaalonglinejoiningthe two sources andhencethis isoneof
thesimpl e s t typ eo f"Endfire"'Array'.

Whatis uniformlineararray?Discuss the applicationoflinear array?and also
explaintheadvantages and disadvantageoflinear array?
Ans:Ingeneralsingleelementantennashavingnonuniformradiationpatternareusedinseveralbroadcast
services.Butthistypeofradiationpatternisnotusefulinpoint-to-
pointcommunicationandservicesthatrequiretoradiatemostoftheenergyinoneparticulardirectioni.e.,t
hereareapplicationswhereweneedhighdirectiveantennas.Thistypeofradiationpatternisachievedbya
mechanismcalledantennaarray.Anantennaarrayconsistsofidenticalantennaelementswithidenticalori
entationdistributedinspace.Theindividualantennasradiateandtheirradiation is coherentlyadded in
space to form theantennabeam.
Inalineararray,theindividualantennasofthearrayareequallyspacedalongastraightline.Thisindividual
antennasofanarrayarealsoknownaselements.Alineararrayissaidtobeuniformlineararray,ifeacheleme
ntinthearrayis.fedwithacurrentofequalmagnitudewithprogressive phaseshift (phaseshift
betweenadjacent antenna elements).
ApplicationofLinear Array
1. Adaptive lineararraysareusedextensivelyin wireless communication to reduce
interferencebetween desired users and interferingsignals.
2. Manylinear arrays spaced parallel on thecommon planecreatea planararrayantenna.
Theseareusedin mobile radarequipment.
3. Thelineararrayis mostoftenused to generate-afanbeamand is useful wherebroad coveragein
one plane andnarrowbeam width in the orthogonalplane aredesired.
4. Lineararrayscan bemadeextremelycompact and .arethereforeveryattractive for
shipboardapplications.
Theadvantages and disadvantages of linear arraysare asfollows.
Advantages
1. Increases the overallgain. .
2. Providediversityreceptions.
3. Cancel out interference from aparticular set
ofdirections.4."Steer"thearrayso that it is moresensitivein
aparticulardirection.
5. Determines the direction of arrivalof theincomingsignals.
6. It maximizethe Signal toInterference plus Noise ratio
Disadvantages
1. Raydeflectiononlyina single planepossible.
2. Complicatedarrangement and more electronicallycontrolled phaseshifter needed. ;
3. Field viewis restricted.
4. Considerable minor lobesareformed.
5. Largepower loss duetocurrent flowingin all elements.
6. Overall efficiencydecreases.
3. Costlyto implement.
Whatis linear array? Compare Broad sidearray and Endfirearray?

Ans : Linear arrays: The arrays in which the individual antennas(called as
elements)areequallyspacedalonga straight linearecalledas linear arrays. Thus,
linearantennaarrayis asystem ofequallyspacedelements.
Broad side array Endfirearray
1. Thearrayis said to bebroad side array, 1. Thearrayis said to beendfirearray,
ifthe direction ofmaximum radiation ifmaximum radiation is alongthearrayaxis.
isperpendicular to thearrayaxis. 2. Inendfire,phase difference between
2.In broad side, phase differenceα=0 adjacentelement is α= -βd
3.Generalequationfor pattern maximais 3. Generalexpressionforpattern maximais,
(θmax)minor=cos-1 (θmax)minor=cos-
4.general Expression forpattern minima is,
(θmax)minor=cos-1 4.Genaralexpressionforpattern minima is,
П θ min =2sin-1
5.Half power beam widthis 5.Halfpowerbeam widthis givenby,

givenby,HPBW= HPBW=53.3
degree degree
6.Directivityofbroad sidearrayis 6.Directivityofend
,D=2 firearrayis,D=4
L=Length of array L=Length of array

3.Beamwidth betweenfirst nulls 3.Beamwidth betweenfirst nulls
is,BWFN= isBWFN=114.6฀
degree degree
8. In broad sidearray,allelements 8. In Endfirearray,all elements are
areequallyspaced alongthearrayaxis and fed equallyspaced alongthearrayaxis and fed
withcurrent of withcurrent of
equalmagnitude and same phase. equalmagnitude but theirphases aredifferent.
9. Radiationpattern ofbroad 9. Radiationpattern ofbroad
sidearrayisbidirectional sidearrayisUnidirectional
10.In broad sidearray, 10.Inendfirearray,
φ =βdcosθ+α(sinceα=0) φ =βdcosθ+α(sinceα=-βd)
Therefore Therefore
φ =βdcosθ φ =βd(cosθ-1)
4. Explain theprincipal ofpatternmultiplication.Whatis the effect ofearthofradiationpattern

ofantennas?
Ans: Multiplicationof Patterns ,
Thetotal field pattern of an arrayof non-isotropic but similarsources is the multiplication
oftheindividual source patternandthe pattern of an arrayofisotropicpoint sourceseach locatedat
thephase centreof individual source and havingtherelative amplitude and phase, whereas the
totalphase patterns is theaddition of the phase patternofthe individualsourcesand the
arrayofisotropicpoint sources. Total fieldbyan arrayis definedas
E ={ E0(θ,φ) xEi(θ,φ)} x{ Epi(θ,φ)+Epa(θ,φ)}
= (Multiplication of fieldpatterns)(Addition ofphase
patterns)Where
E- Total field
E0(θ,φ) =Fieldpatternofindividualsource
Ei(θ,φ) =Field pattern of arrayof isotropicpoint
sourceEpi(θ,φ)=Phase patternofindividual source
Epa(θ,φ)=Phase patternofarrayof isotropicpoint
sources.Hence, θand φ arepolar and azimuth
anglesrespectively.
Theprinciple of multiplication of pattern is best suited foranynumberof similar
sources.Consideringatwo dimensional case, the resultingpattern is givenbythe equation,
E =2 E0 cosφ /2
E =2 E1 sinθ cosφ /2.
Dr.V.Thrimurthulu
CREC Lecture
Dept. of Notes
ECE Antenna&WavePropagation
Page|83
E =E(θ) cosφ /2
It can beseen that E0 is afunction ofE (θ).In theaboveequation the total fieldpattern is equal
to the product of primarypattern E (θ)and asecondarypatterncosφ/2.
Effect of Earth on the RadiationPattern
Theeffectofearthontheradiationpatterncanbeobtainedbyusinganimageprinciple.Inimageprinciple,e
arthisconsideredasanimageantennaofsamelengthandcurrentasshowninthe figure(3.1).
Forverticalantenna,currentsinactualandimageantennasareequalandhavesamedirection,whereasopp
ositedirectionforhorizontalantenna.Theresultantfieldisobtainedbytheadditionoffieldofanimageante
nnatothatofanactualantenna.Theshapeoftheverticalpatternisaffectedmore than the horizontal
pattern
Effect of Earth on the RadiationPattern

ofVerticalAntennaTheground-effectfactorofaperfectlyconducting
earth isgivenas,2cos sinφ
Where,
h = Height of the center of antennaabove earth
φ = Elevationangle abovehorizontal.
But,forthecaseoffiniteconductingofearth,theabovegivenexpressionisvalidforlargeanglesofφ0.Wher
eas,forlowanglesofφ0,lessthan15°knownas"Pseudo-
Brewsterangle",thephaseofthereflectionfactorisnearerto180°thanitisto0°andtheuseofaboveequatio
nwould lead to erroneous result.
The effectof earthon radiationpatterncanbe explained bytaking differentcasesof
onductivities(σ).Thefunction‗n‘isdefinedas,
n=
Where,x=σ/Ȧ
σ = conductivityof theearth in mho/meter
฀฀=15,Relativedielectricoftheearth.\
Theverticalradiationpattern of avertical dipole is a shown in thefig3.2

Effect of Earth on the RadiationPattern ofHorizontalAntenna

Theeffect ofground is obtainedbymultiplyingfree-spacepattern andground factor,i.e.2cos
Sinφ
Thefirst maximain thispattern occurs at,
Sinφ=Ȝ/4h(h>Ȝ/4)
Theeffect ofearth on theverticalpattern perpendicular to theaxis of dipoleis as shown infigure3.4.


AntennaMeasurements
Testingofrealantennasisfundamentaltoantennatheory.Alltheantennatheoryintheworlddoesn'taddup
toahillofbeansiftheantennasundertestdon'tperformasdesired.AntennaMeasurementsisascienceunt
oitself;asaverygoodantennameasureroncesaidtome"goodantennameasurementsdon't just happen".
What exactlyare welookingforwhen wetest ormeasureantennas?

Basically,wewanttomeasuremanyofthefundamentalparameterslistedontheAntennaBasicspage.The
mostcommonanddesiredmeasurementsareanantenna'sradiationpatternincludingantennagainandeffi
ciency, theimpedanceorVSWR, thebandwidth,and the polarization.
Theproceduresandequipmentusedinantennameasurementsaredescribedinthefollowingsections:
1. RequiredEquipmentand Ranges
InthisfirstsectiononAntennaMeasurements,welookattherequiredequipmentandtypesof"antenna
ranges"usedin modernantennameasurementsystems.
2. RadiatonPattern andGainMeasurements
Thesecondantennameasurementssectiondiscusseshowtoperformthemostfundamentalantennameas
urement-determininganantenna'sradiationpatternandextractingtheantennagain.
3. Phase Measurements
Thethirdantennameasurementssectionfocusesondeterminingphaseinformationfromanantenna'sradi
ationpattern.Thephaseismoreimportantintermsof'relativephase'(phaserelative to otherpositions on
the radiation pattern),not 'absolutephase'.
4. PolarizationMeasurements
Thefourthantennameasurementssectiondiscussestechniquesfordeterminingthepolarizationoftheant
ennaundertest.Thesetechniquesareusedtoclassifyanantennaaslinearly,circularlyorellipticallypolari
zed.
5. Impedance Measurements
Thefifthantennameasurementsectionillustrateshowtodetermineanantenna'simpedanceasafunction
of frequency.Herethefocus is on theuseof aVector NetworkAnalyzer(VNA).
6. ScaleModel Measurements
Thesixthantennameasurementsectionexplainstheusefulconceptofscalemodelmeasurements.Thispa
geillustrateshowtoobtainmeasurementswhenthephysicalsizeofthedesired test is too large (or
possibly, too small).
3. SAR (SpecificAbsorptionRate)Measurements
ThefinalantennameasurementsectionillustratesthenewfieldofSARmeasurementsandexplainswhatS
ARis.Thesemeasurementsarecriticalinconsumerelectronicsasantennadesign
consistentlyneedsaltered (or even degraded)in order to meetFCC SAR requirements.

RequiredEquipment in AntennaMeasurements
Forantennatestequipment,wewillattempttoilluminatethetestantenna(oftencalledanAntenna-Under-
Test)withaplanewave.Thiswillbeapproximatedbyusingasource(transmitting)antennawithknownrad
iationpatternandcharacteristics,insuchawaythatthefieldsincidentuponthetestantennaareapproximat
elyplanewaves.Morewillbediscussedabout this in the next section. The requiredequipment
forantennameasurements include:
□ Asourceantennaandtransmitter-
Thisantennawillhaveaknownpatternthatcanbeusedtoilluminatethe test antenna
□ A receiver system-This determines how much power is receivedbythetest antenna
□ Apositioningsystem-Thissystemisusedtorotatethetestantennarelativetothesourceantenna, to
measurethe radiationpatternasafunction of angle.
A blockdiagram of theabove equipment is shown in Figure1.
Figure1. Diagram ofrequiredantennameasurement equipment.

Thesecomponentswillbebrieflydiscussed.TheSourceAntennashouldofcourseradiatewellatthedesir
edtestfrequency.Itmusthavethedesiredpolarizationandasuitablebeamwidthforthegivenantennatestra
nge.Sourceantennasareoftenhornantennas,oradipoleantennawithaparabolic reflector.
TheTransmittingSystemshouldbecapableofoutputingastableknownpower.Theoutput
frequencyshouldalso
betunable(selectable),andreasonablystable(stablemeansthatthefrequencyyouget from the
transmitter is close tothe frequencyyou want).
TheReceivingSystemsimplyneedstodeterminehowmuchpowerisreceivedfromthetestantenna.Thisc
anbedoneviaasimplebolometer,whichisadeviceformeasuringtheenergyofincidentelectromagneticw
aves.Thereceivingsystemcanbemorecomplex,withhighqualityamplifiers forlow
powermeasurementsand more accuratedetection devices.
ThePositioningSystemcontrolstheorientationofthetestantenna.Sincewewanttomeasuretheradiation
patternofthetestantennaasafunctionofangle(typicallyinsphericalcoordinates),weneedtorotatethetest
antennasothatthesourceantennailluminatesthetestantennafromdifferentangles.
Thepositioningsystem is usedfor this purpose.
Once we haveall the equipment we need (and anantennawe want to test),we'llneed to

placetheequipment and perform thetest in an antennarange, the subject of thenext section.
Thefirstthingweneedtodoanantennameasurementisaplacetoperformthemeasurement.Maybeyouwo
uldliketodothisinyourgarage,butthereflectionsfromthewalls,ceilingsand

floorwouldmakeyourmeasurementsinaccurate.Theideallocationtoperformantennameasurementsiss
omewhereinouterspace,wherenoreflectionscanoccur.However,becausespacetraveliscurrentlyprohi
bitivelyexpensive,wewillfocusonmeasurementplacesthatareonthesurfaceoftheEarth.Therearetwo
maintypesofranges,FreeSpaceRangesandReflectionRanges.Reflectionrangesaredesignedsuchthatr
eflectionsaddtogetherinthetestregion to support aroughlyplanar wave. Wewill focus on
themorecommon free spaceranges.
Free Space Ranges

Freespacerangesareantennameasurementlocationsdesignedtosimulatemeasurementsthatwouldbep
erformedinspace.Thatis,allreflectedwavesfromnearbyobjectsandtheground(whichareundesirable)a
resuppressedasmuchaspossible.Themostpopularfreespacerangesareanechoicchambers,elevatedran
ges, andthecompactrange.
AnechoicChambers
Anechoicchambersareindoorantennaranges.Thewalls,ceilingsandfloorarelinedwithspecialelectrom
agneticwaveabsorberingmaterial.Indoorrangesaredesirablebecausethetestconditionscanbemuchmo
retightly
controlledthanthatofoutdoorranges.Thematerialisoftenjaggedinshapeaswell,makingthesechambers
quiteinterestingtosee.Thejaggedtriangleshapesaredesignedsothatwhatisreflectedfromthemtendstos
preadinrandomdirections,andwhatisaddedtogetherfromalltherandomreflectionstendstoaddincohere
ntlyandisthussuppressedfurther.Apictureofananechoicchamberisshowninthefollowingpicture,alon
gwith some testequipment:
Thedrawbacktoanechoicchambersisthattheyoftenneedtobequitelarge.Oftenantennasneedtobesever
alwavelenghtsawayfromeachother ataminimumtosimulatefar-
fieldconditions.Hence,itisdesiredtohaveanechoicchambersaslargeaspossible,butcostandpracticalco
nstraintsoftenlimittheirsize.SomedefensecontractingcompaniesthatmeasuretheRadarCrossSection
oflargeairplanesorother
objectsareknowntohaveanechoicchambersthesizeofbasketballcourts,althoughthisisnotordinary.uni
versitieswithanechoicchamberstypicallyhavechambersthatare3-
5metersinlength,widthandheight.Becauseofthesizeconstraint,andbecauseRFabsorbingmaterialtypi
callyworksbestatUHFandhigher,anechoicchambersaremostoftenusedforfrequenciesabove300MHz
.Finally,thechambershouldalsobelargeenoughthatthesourceantenna'smainlobeisnotinviewofthesid
ewalls,ceilingorfloor.

Elevated Ranges
ElevatedRangesare
outdoorranges.Inthissetup,thesourceandantennaundertestaremountedabovetheground.Theseantenn
ascanbeonmountains,towers,buildings,orwhereveronefindsthatissuitable.Thisisoftendonefor
verylargeantennasoratlowfrequencies(VHFandbelow,
<100MHz)whereindoormeasurementswouldbeintractable.Thebasicdiagramofanelevatedrange is
shown in Figure2.
Figure2.Illustration ofelevatedrange.
Thesourceantennaisnotnecessarilyatahigherelevationthanthetestantenna,Ijustshoweditthatwayhere
.Thelineofsight(LOS)betweenthetwoantennas(illustratedbytheblackrayinFigure2)mustbeunobstru
cted.Allotherreflections(suchastheredrayreflectedfromtheground)areundesirable.Forelevatedrange
s,onceasourceandtestantennalocationaredetermined,thetestoperatorsthendeterminewherethesignifi
cantreflectionswilloccur,andattempttominimizethereflectionsfromthesesurfaces.Oftenrfabsorbing
materialisusedforthis purpose, or othermaterial that deflects the rays awayfrom the test antenna.
CompactRanges
Thesourceantenna must be placed in thefar fieldofthe testantenna.The reason is that
thewavereceivedbythetestantennashouldbeaplanewaveformaximumaccuracy.Sinceantennasradiat
esphericalwaves,theantennaneedstobesufficientlyfarsuchthatthewaveradiatedfromthe
sourceantennais approximatelyaplanewave- seeFigure3.
Figure3. A sourceantenna radiatesawavewith aspherical wavefront.

However,forindoorchambersthereisoftennotenoughseparationtoachievethis.Onemethodtofixthispr
oblemisviaacompactrange.Inthismethod,asourceantennaisorientedtowardsareflector,whoseshapeis
designedtoreflectthesphericalwaveinanapproximatelyplanarmanner.Thisisverysimilartotheprincipl
euponwhichadishantennaoperates.Thebasicoperation is shown in Figure4.

Figure4.CompactRange-thesphericalwavesfromthesourceantennaarereflectedtobeplanar(collimated).
Thelengthoftheparabolicreflectoristypicallydesiredtobeseveraltimesaslargeasthetestantenna.Theso
urceantennainFigure4isoffsetfromthereflectorsothatitisnotinthewayofthereflectedrays.Caremustal
sobeexercisedinordertokeepanydirectradiation(mutualcoupling)from thesource antennato
thetestantenna.
1. AntennaRadiationPatternmeasurement
Nowthatwehaveourmeasurementequipmentandanantennarange,wecanperformsomeantenname
asurements.Wewillusethesourceantennatoilluminatetheantennaundertestwithaplanewavefroma
specificdirection.Thepolarizationandantennagain(forthefieldsradiated toward thetest antenna)
ofthe sourceantennashould beknown.
Duetoreciprocity,theradiationpatternfromthetestantennaisthesameforboththereceiveandtransmi
tmodes.Consequently,wecanmeasuretheradiationpatterninthereceiveortransmitmodeforthetest
antenna.Wewilldescribethereceivecasefortheantennaundertest.
Thetestantennaisrotatedusingthetestantenna'spositioningsystem.Thereceivedpowerisrecordeda
teachposition.Inthismanner,themagnitudeoftheradiationpatternofthetestantennacanbedetermin
ed.Wewilldiscussphasemeasurementsandpolarizationmeasurements later.
Thecoordinate system ofchoicefor theradiationpattern isspherical coordinates.
Measurement Example
Anexampleshouldmaketheprocessreasonablyclear.Supposetheradiationpatternofamicrostripan
tennais to beobtained.Asis usual, lets
letthedirectionthepatchfaces('normal'tothesurfaceofthepatch)betowardsthez-
axis.Supposethesourceantennailluminates the test antennafrom+y-direction,asshown in
Figure1.

Figure1.Apatchantennaorientedtowardsthez-axiswithaSourceilluminationfromthe+y-direction.
InFigure1, the receivedpowerfor this case representsthe powerfromthe angle:
.Werecordthispower,changethepositionandrecordagain.Recallthatweonlyrotatethetestantenna,
henceitisatthesamedistancefromthesourceantenna.Thesourcepoweragaincomesfromthesamedir
ection.Supposewewanttomeasuretheradiationpatternnormaltothepatch'ssurface(straightabovet
hepatch).Thenthemeasurement would lookas shown in Figure 2.
Figure2. A patch antenna rotated to measuretheradiation powerat normalincidence.

InFigure2,thepositioningsystemrotatingtheantennasuchthatitfacesthesourceofillumination.Inth
iscase,thereceivedpowercomesfromdirection
.Sobyrotatingtheantenna,wecanobtain"cuts"oftheradiationpattern-forinstancetheE-
planecutortheH-planecut.A"greatcircle"cutiswhen =0and
isallowedtovaryfrom0to360degrees.Anothercommonradiationpatterncut(acutisa2d'slice'ofa3dr
adiationpattern)iswhen isfixedand
variesfrom0to180degrees.Bymeasuringtheradiationpattern alongcertain slices or cuts, the3d
radiation patterncanbe determined.
Itmustbestressedthattheresultingradiationpatterniscorrectforagivenpolarizationofthesourceante
nna.Forinstance,ifthesourceishorizontallypolarized(seepolarizationofplanewaves),andthe
testantennais verticallypolarized, the
resultingradiationpatternwillbezeroeverywhere.Hence,theradiationpatternsaresometimesclassif
iedasH-pol (horizontalpolarization)orV-pol(verticalpolarization). See alsocross-polarization.
Inaddition, theradiationpatternis afunctionoffrequency.Asaresult,themeasuredradiationpattern
is onlyvalid at thefrequencythesourceantennais transmittingat. To
obtainbroadbandmeasurements, thefrequencytransmittedmust bevariedto
obtainthisinformation.
2. AntennaImpedenceMeasurement
TheimpedanceisfundamentaltoanantennathatoperatesatRFfrequencies(highfrequency).Iftheimpeda
nceofanantennaisnot"close"tothatofthetransmissionline,thenverylittlepowerwillbetransmittedbyth
eantenna(iftheantennaisusedinthetransmitmode),orverylittlepowerwillbereceivedbytheantenna(ifu
sedinthereceivemode).Hence,withoutproperimpedance (or an impedancematchingnetwork), out
antenna will not workproperly.
Beforewebegin,I'dliketopointoutthatobjectplacedaroundtheantennawillalteritsradiationpattern.Asa
result,itsinputimpedancewillbeinfluencedbywhatisaroundit-
i.e.theenvironmentinwhichtheantennaistested.Consequently,forthebestaccuracytheimpedanceshou
ldbemeasuredinanenvironmentthatwillmostcloselyresemblewhereitisintendedtooperate.For
instance, ifabladeantenna (whichis basicallyadipoleshapedlikea paddle) is to be
utilizedonthetopofafuselageofanaiprlane,thetestmeasurementshouldbeperformedontopofacylinder
typemetallicobjectformaximumaccuracy.Thetermdrivingpointimpedanceistheinputimpedancemea
suredinaparticularenvironment,andself-impedanceistheimpedanceof an antennain free space, with
noobjects around to alterits radiation pattern.
Fortunately,impedancemeasurementsareprettyeasyifyouhavetherightequipment.Inthiscase,theright
equipmentisaVectorNetworkAnalyzer(VNA).Thisisameasuringtoolthatcanbeusedtomeasurethein
putimpedanceasafunctionoffrequency.Alternatively,itcanplotS11(returnloss),andtheVSWR,bothof
whicharefrequency-dependentfunctionsoftheantennaimpedance. The Agilent8510 Vector
Network Analyzer is shown inFigure 1.
Figure1. ThepopularAgilent (HP)8510VNA.
Let'ssaywewanttoperformanimpedancemeasurementfrom400-
500MHz.Step1istomakesurethatourVNAisspecifiedtoworkoverthisfrequencyrange.NetworkAnaly
zersworkoverspecifiedfrequencyranges,whichgointothelowMHzrange(30MHzorso)andupintotheh
ighGigaHertzrange(110GHzorso,dependingonhowexpensiveitis).Onceweknowournetwork
analyzer is suitable, we can move on.
Next,we needtocalibratetheVNA.Thisis muchsimpler thanitsounds.Wewill take thecablesthatwe

areusingforprobes(thatconnecttheVNAtotheantenna)andfollowa simpleprocedure so that theeffect
of thecables (which act as transmissionlines) is calibrated out. To
dothis,typicallyyourVNAwillbesuppliedwitha"calkit"whichcontainsamatchedload(50Ohms),anop
encircuitloadandashortcircuitload.WelookonourVNAandscrollthroughthemenustillwefindacalibra
tionbutton,andthendowhatitsays.Itwillaskyoutoapplythesuppliedloadstotheendofyourcables,andit
willrecorddatasothatitknowswhattoexpectwithyourcables.Youwillapplythe3loadsasittellsyou,andt
henyourdone.Itsprettysimple,youdon'tevenneedtoknowwhatyou'redoing,justfollowtheVNA'sinstru
ctions,anditwillhandleall the calculations.
Now,connecttheVNAtotheantennaundertest.SetthefrequencyrangeyouareinterestedinontheVNA.If
youdon'tknowhow,justmessaroundwithittillyoufigureitout,thereareonlyso manybuttons
andyoucan't reallyscrewanythingup.

IfyourequestoutputasanS-
parameter(S11),thenyouaremeasuringthereturnloss.Inthiscase,theVNAtransmitsasmallamountofp
owertoyourantennaandmeasureshowmuchpowerisreflectedbacktotheVNA.Asampleresult(fromthe
slottedwaveguidespage)mightlook somethinglike:
Figure2. ExampleS11 measurement.
NotethattheS-
parameterisbasicallythemagnitudeofthereflectioncoefficient,whichdependsontheantennaimpedanc
easwellastheimpedanceoftheVNA,whichistypically50Ohms.Sothis measurement
typicallymeasures howclose to 50 Ohms the antennaimpedanceis.
AnotherpopularoutputisfortheimpedancetobemeasuredonaSmithChart.ASmithChartisbasicallyagr
aphicalwayofviewinginputimpedance(orreflectioncoefficient)thatiseasytoread.ThecenteroftheSmi
thChartrepresentedzeroreflectioncoefficient,sothattheantennaisperfectlymatchedtotheVNA.Thepe
rimeteroftheSmithChartrepresentsareflectioncoefficientwithamagnitudeof1(allpowerreflected),ind
icatingthattheantennaisverypoorlymatchedtotheVNA.Themagnitudeofthereflectioncoefficient(whi
chshouldbesmallforanantennatoreceiveortransmitproperly)dependsonhowfarfromthecenteroftheS
mithChartyouare.Asanexample,considerFigure3.Thereflectioncoefficientismeasuredacrossafreque
ncyrange and plotted on aSmith Chart.
Figure3. Smith ChartGraphofImpedance Measurement versusFrequency.

InFigure3,theblackcirculargraphistheSmithChart.TheblackdotatthecenteroftheSmithChartisthepoi
ntatwhichtherewouldbezeroreflectioncoefficient,sothattheantenna'simpedanceisperfectlymatchedt
othegeneratororreceiver.Theredcurvedlineisthemeasurement.Thisistheimpedanceoftheantenna,ast
hefrequencyisscannedfrom2.7GHzto
4.5GHz.Eachpointonthelinerepresentstheimpedanceataparticularfrequency.Pointsabovetheequator
oftheSmithChartrepresentimpedancesthatareinductive-
theyhaveapositivereactance(imaginarypart).PointsbelowtheequatoroftheSmithChartrepresentimpe
dancesthatarecapacitive-
theyhaveanegativereactance(forinstance,theimpedancewouldbesomethinglikeZ=R-jX).
TofurtherexplainFigure3,thebluedotbelowtheequatorinFigure3representstheimpedanceatf=4.5GH
z.Thedistancefromtheoriginisthereflectioncoefficient,whichcanbeestimatedtohaveamagnitudeofab
out0.25sincethedotis25%ofthewayfromtheorigintotheouterperimeter.
Asthefrequencyisdecreased,theimpedancechanges.Atf=3.9GHz,wehavethesecondbluedotontheim
pedancemeasurement.Atthispoint,theantennaisresonant,whichmeanstheimpedanceisentirelyreal.T
hefrequencyisscanneddownuntilf=2.7GHz,producingthelocusofpoints(theredcurve)thatrepresentst
heantennaimpedanceoverthefrequencyrange.Atf=
2.7GHz,theimpedanceisinductive,andthereflectioncoefficientisabout0.65,since itis closerto the
perimeter oftheSmith Chartthan to the center.
Insummary,theSmithChartisausefultoolforviewingimpedanceoverafrequencyrangeinaconcise,clea
r form.
Finally,themagnitudeoftheimpedancecouldalsobemeasuredbymeasuringthe
VSWR(VoltageStandingWaveRatio).TheVSWRisafunctionofthemagnitudeofthereflectioncoeffici
ent,sonophaseinformationisobtainedabouttheimpedance(relativevalueofreactancedividedbyresista
nce).However,VSWRgivesaquickwayofestimatedhowmuchpowerisreflectedbyanantenna.Conseq
uently,inantennadatasheets,VSWRisoftenspecified,asin"VSWR:<3:1from100-
200MHz".UsingtheformulafortheVSWR,youcanfigureoutthatthismenasthatlessthanhalfthepoweri
sreflectedfromtheantennaoverthespecifiedfrequencyrange.
Insummary,thereareabunchofwaystomeasureimpedance,andalotareafunctionofreflectedpowerfrom
theantenna.Wecareabouttheimpedanceofanantennasothatwecanproperlytransfer thepower to the
antenna.
In the next Section,we'lllook at scalemodelmeasurements.
3.GainMeasurement
Onthepreviouspageonmeasuringradiationpatterns,wesawhowtheradiationpatternofanantennacanbe
measured.Thisisactuallythe"relative"radiationpattern,inthatwedon'tknowwhatthepeakvalueofthega
inactuallyis(we'rejustmeasuringthereceivedpower,soinasensecanfigureouthowdirectiveanantennai
sandtheshapeoftheradiationpattern).Inthispage,wewillfocusonmeasuringthepeakgainofanantenna-
thisinformationtellsushowmuch power wecan hopeto receivefrom agivenplanewave.
WecanmeasurethepeakgainusingtheFriisTransmissionEquationanda"gainstandard"antenna.A
gainstandard antennais a test antenna with anaccurately known gainand

polarization(typicallylinear).Themost popular types ofgainstandardantennas arethethin half-
wavedipoleantenna(peakgainof2.15dB)andthepyramidalhornantenna(wherethepeakgaincanbeaccu
ratelycalculatedandistypicallyintherangeof15-
25dB).ConsiderthetestsetupshowninFigure1.Inthisscenario,againstandardantennaisusedintheplace
ofthetestantenna,with thesourceantennatransmitting afixed amount of power (PT).Thegains of
bothoftheseantennasare accuratelyknown.
Figure1. Record the received power from a gain standard antenna.

From theFriistransmissionequation, weknow that the powerreceived (PR) is givenby:
Ifwereplacethegainstandardantennawithourtestantenna(asshowninFigure2),thentheonlythingthatc
hangesintheaboveequationisGR-
thegainofthereceiveantenna.Theseparationbetweenthesourceandtestantennasisfixed,andthefrequen
cywillbeheldconstantaswell.
Figure2. Record the received powerwith the testantenna(same source antenna).
Letthereceivedpowerfromthetestantenna bePR2.Ifthegainofthetestantenna
ishigherthanthegainofthe"gainstandard"antenna,thenthereceivedpowerwillincrease.Usingourmeas
urements,wecaneasilycalculatethegainofthetestantenna.LetGgbethegainofthe"gainstandard"antenn
a,PRbethepowerreceivedwiththegainantennaundertest,andPR2bethepowerreceivedwiththetestante
nna.Thenthegainofthetestantenna(GT)is(inlinearunits):

Theaboveequationuseslinearunits(non-dB).Ifthegainistobespecifiedindecibels,(powerreceived still
in Watts), then the equation becomes:
And that is all thatneedsdoneto determine thegain for an antennain a particular direction.
Efficiency and Directivity
Recall that thedirectivitycan becalculated from the measuredradiation pattern

withoutregardtowhatthegainis.Typicallythiscanbeperformedbyapproximatedtheintegralasafinitesu
m,which is prettysimple.
Recallthattheefficiency ofanantennaissimplytheratioofthepeakgaintothepeakdirectivity:
Hence,oncewehavemeasuredtheradiationpatternandthegain,theefficiencyfollowsdirectlyfromthese
.
antennatemperature
Toestimateantennatemperatureoneshouldknowthepoweratantennaterminals.Forthis,asimpleexperi
mentiscarriedoutusingthespectrumanalyzerandLownoiseRFamplifier.ThelownoiseRFamplifierinfr
ontofspectrumanalyzerreducesthenoisetemperatureofthereceivingsystem,andthenwiththistheestim
atedsystemtemperatureismainlyconributedbyantenna temperature.
Fig:-Antenna temperaturemeasurementsetup
TheRFamplifierused hereis actuallytwo cascaded stagesof J310 amplifierusedin
jovereceiver.Theamplifierhas gain of18dBand noise figureof 3.71dB. Spectrum analyzer
usuallyhashigh noisefigureof the order of 20dB.

Let'sassumethespectrumanalyzernoisefigureof25dB.Thentheoverallreceivingsystem(asshowninfig
ure)willhavethenoisefigureof8.66dB.Thiswillleadtonoisetemperatureof
1840.1 Kelvin@ 290Kelvin. Thus themain cotributor to the systemtemperaturein this setup
willbethe antenna itself!
It is observed that the Noise floorseen on spectrum analyzer is typically-94dBm.
So consideringthe 18dB gain of low noise amplifierin front of thespectrum
analyzer,powerat antennaterminals =-94-18 = -112dBm =6.3 x10^-15 Watt.

Equatingpower to K*T*Bwe get,
Tsys= P/(K*B)=0.152 x10^6 Kelvin= 0.152 Million Kelvin.
Sincethecontributiontosystemtemperatureby
thereceiverismuchless(~1800Kelvin).sothesystemtemperature
canbeapproximatedasantennatemperatureat20.1MHz.Tant=0.152 Million Kelvin.
Theantennatemperatureof0.152MillionKelvinishigh,typicallygalacticbackgroundcontributiontoan
tennatemperaturecanbe50000Kelvin.Thehightemperatureof0.152MillionKelvinsuggestsomelocaln
oisecausingincreaseintemperature.WiththistemperatureonecanreceiveonlystrongburstsofJupiter.A
sfor10^6JanskyJupiterburstspoweratantennaterminals will be -115dBm, still 3dBless than the
antennanoise!
Theproperwaytomeasureantennatempeartureistheuseofthenoisesourses.Sotheabovemethod will
give aroughestimate.

UNIT V
Wave
propagation

POLARIZATION
Formaximumabsorptionofenergyfromtheelectromagneticfields,thereceivingantennamustbelocated
intheplaneofpolarization.Thisplacestheconductoroftheantennaatrightanglestothemagneticlinesoffo
rcemovingthroughtheantennaandparalleltotheelectriclines,causingmaximuminduction.
Normally,theplaneofpolarizationofaradiowaveistheplaneinwhichtheEfieldpropagateswithrespectto
theEarth.IftheEfieldcomponentoftheradiatedwavetravelsinaplaneperpendiculartotheEarth'ssurface
(vertical),theradiationissaidtobeVERTICALLYPOLARIZED,asshowninfigure2-
5,viewA.IftheEfieldpropagatesinaplaneparalleltotheEarth'ssurface(horizontal), the radiation is
said
to beHORIZONTALLYPOLARIZED,
ATMOSPHERICPROPAGATION
Within the atmosphere,radiowaves can bereflected,refracted,and diffracted like light and
heatwaves.
Reflection
Radiowavesmaybereflectedfromvarioussubstancesorobjectstheymeetduringtravelbetweenthetrans
mittingandreceivingsites.Theamountofreflectiondependsonthereflectingmaterial.Smoothmetalsurf
acesofgoodelectricalconductivityareefficientreflectorsofradiowaves.ThesurfaceoftheEarthitselfisa
fairlygoodreflector.Theradiowaveisnotreflectedfromasinglepointonthereflectorbutratherfromanare
aonitssurface.Thesizeofthearearequiredforreflectiontotakeplacedependsonthewavelengthoftheradi
owaveandtheangleat which thewavestrikesthe reflectingsubstance.
When radiowavesarereflected from flatsurfaces, a phase shift in thealternations of the
waveoccurs.Figure2-
7showstworadiowavesbeingreflectedfromtheEarth'ssurface.Noticethatthepositiveandnegativealter
nationsofradiowaves(A)and(B)areinphasewitheachotherintheirpathstowardtheEarth'ssurface.After
reflectiontakesplace,however,thewavesareapproximately180degreesoutofphasefromtheirinitialrela
tionship.Theamountofphaseshiftthatoccursisnotconstant.Itdependsonthepolarizationofthewaveand
theangleatwhichthewave strikes thereflectingsurface.
Radiowavesthatkeeptheirphaserelationshipsafterreflectionnormallyproduceastrongersignalatthere
ceivingsite.Thosethatarereceivedoutofphaseproduceaweakorfadingsignal.Theshiftinginthephasere
lationshipsofreflectedradiowavesisoneofthemajorreasonsforfading.Fading will be discussed in
more detail later inthis chapter.
Refraction
Anotherphenomenoncommontomostradiowavesisthebendingofthewavesastheymovefromonemedi
umintoanotherinwhichthevelocityofpropagationisdifferent.Thisbendingofthewavesiscalledrefracti
on.Forexample,supposeyouaredrivingdownasmoothlypavedroadataconstantspeedandsuddenlyone
wheelgoesoff
ontothesoftshoulder.Thecartendstoveerofftooneside.Thechangeofmedium,fromhardsurfacetosofts
houlder,causesachangeinspeedorvelocity.Thetendencyisforthecartochangedirection.Thissameprin
cipleappliestoradiowavesaschangesoccurinthemediumthroughwhichtheyarepassing.Asanexample,
theradiowaveshowninfigure2-
8istravelingthroughtheEarth'satmosphereataconstantspeed.Asthewaveentersthedenselayerofelectri
callychargedions,thepartofthewavethatentersthenewmediumfirsttravelsfasterthanthepartsofthewav
ethathavenotyetenteredthenewmedium.Thisabruptincreaseinvelocityoftheupperpartofthewavecaus
esthewavetobendback toward theEarth. This bending, or change ofdirection, is alwaystoward
themediumthat has the lower velocityof propagation.

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Dr.V.

Thrimurthulu Lecture Notes Antenna&WavePropagation

Antenna & Wave Propagation

B.Tech. III-I Sem(13A04501)ANTENNAS&WAVEPROPAGATION

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|2

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|4

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|6

And ---------------------------------------------------- 1.2

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|7

Transmissionline opened out in a Taperedfashionas Antenna:

Figure11:Antenna as a a) TransmissionModeb) ReceivingMode

Figure 12.Current and voltage distributionon an antenna

1. A current flows in theantennawith an amplitude that varies with thegeneratorvoltage.

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|11

Figure14: Radiation Pattern

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|12

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|13

Figure: (a)Linearpolarization(b) Circularpolarization (c)Elliptical polarization

Itisdefinedastheratioof maximumradiationintensityof subjectortestantenna

D = 4π x Maximum radiationintensity/Totalpower radiated

As we mentioned earlier,some antennas arehighlydirectional.That is, theypropagate

Directivityfunction D, describesthevariationoftheradiationintensity.Thedirectivity

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|14

Themaximum of directivityfunction is called thedirectivity.

Pr  Pin …………………………………… (3)

where istheradiation efficiencyoftheantenna.

G,  D , --------(5)

Themaximum gain function is termedas gain ofthe antenna.

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|15

dPr  I 0  kdl

0 dl . -----------(5)

Fig ure16(b)Principal H planepattern

Thebandwidth (3 dBbeam width) can be found tobe900in theEplane.

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|16

Fig17: Plane wave intercepted byan antenna

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|17

Figure18: radian andsteradian

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|18

Area ofsphere =2πr2

Pn(θ,Φ) = U(θ,Φ)/U(θ,Φ)max= S(θ,Φ)/S(θ,Φ)max

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|19

Fig18(a): Equivalent circuit of aTxantenna

Vg= opencircuitvoltageofthe generator

Z A RlRrjX ARAjX A antennaimpedance.

Fig18(b):Equivalent circuit of receiving antenna

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|20

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|21

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|22

Figure1. Short dipoleantennaof lengthL.

Figure 2. Current distribution alongashort dipoleantenna.

Thefieldsradiatedfrom theshort dipole antennain thefarfieldaregivenby:

Theaboveequations canbe broken downand understood somewhatintuitively.First, notethat inthe

far-field,onlythe and fieldsare nonzero.Further,thesefields areorthogonal and in-

This indicatesthat in the far-fieldregion thefields arepropagatinglikeaplane-wave.Second,

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|25

Directivity, Impedance andother Propertiesof theShortDipoleAntenna

Theradiationresistancecan becalculated to be:

Theresistance representingloss dueto thefinite-conductivityof theantennais givenby:

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|26

Figure1. Current distributions on finite-length dipole antennas.

CREC Dept. of ECE Page|27

Thenormalizedradiationpatternsfor dipoleantennas of variouslengths are shown in Figure3.

Figure3. Normalized radiation patterns fordipoleantennas of specified length.