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December 2014
INTRODUCTION
Background Information
In open channel flows the knowledge of discharge is important in order to solve simple open flow
equations. A sharp crested (thin plate) weir is a restrictive plate placed vertically across the whole
span of an open channel raising upstream water level enabling measurement of discharge.
Various geometries and sizes can thus be used on the thin plate depending on the precise
application of the weir.
The weir under consideration in this case is the V-notch also known as the triangular/v-shaped
sharp crested weir. The V-notch has advantage over the rectangular shaped thin plate because
the shape of the nappe does not change with head so the coefficient of discharge does not vary
so much. The V-notch controls flow such that water head must reach a given head before flow
occurs over it. It also serves as a discharge measurement device as the head upstream increases
the discharge across the V-notch also increases thus discharge can be determined by measuring
the head upstream.
Knowledge in Relation to Experiment
1. Theoretical discharge (Qt) is given by:
When logarithmic scale paper is applied to eq.4 K is determined based on an H-Q graph.
Applying the logarithmic operation to eq.4:
Log Qa = log K + 5/2 log H …… eq.6
Therefore, when the experimental data are joined by a straight line with a gradient of 5/2 the
actual discharge corresponding H = 1 m gives the value of K.
Where: CB = coefficient of discharge varying with the value of Z/B and H/Z as
shown in fig.3, and HB= head which allows for the effects of viscosity and surface
tension.
Using kh for effects:
HB = h + kh …… eq.8
b) To determine the relationship between the discharge and the head above the notch.
For the experiment of the V-notch, the head upstream of the V-notch is expected to increase with
increase in discharge after condition of steady uniform flow is established. The relationship between the
theoretical and actual discharge gives the coefficient of discharge for the V-notch.
Procedure (Method)
1. The width of the approach channel and the height of the crest were measured with a steel
tape.
2. The temperature of the water was taken.
3. The crest level of the V-notch was measured using a hook gauge. It was taken after the
approach channel was filled up to the crest with water.
4. The operation was started with a steady water supply and a small discharge set with the
gate valve.
5. After the water became steady, the water level was measured with a hook gauge
6. The discharge was measured with a bucket and a weighing balance.
7. The discharge was increased a little and procedures 5and 6 repeated. A steel container
was used instead of a bucket when the discharge became so large.
RESULTS
The following requirements were met for presentation of the results for the experiment of the
V-notch;
1) Sketching a flow over V-notch (choose one flow). Especially the experimenter should
observe the contraction of flow.
2) Preparing an arrangement table (table 2) and filling in the columns with the data.
3) Calculating the following values and filling up the table (table2);
a) Constant value of V-notch (K´)
b) Actual discharge (Qa)
c) Theoretical discharge (Qt)
d) Coefficients of discharge for each stage (Cd)
e) Coefficient for each stage (K)
4) Plotting the head (H) on abscissa and the actual discharge (Qa) on ordinate on the log-log
graph and drawing the equality: Qt = K’ H5/2.
5) Finding the mean value of the coefficient of discharge and the mean value of the coefficient,
casting aside doubtful data.
6) Plotting the theoretical discharge (Qt) on abscissa and the actual discharge (Qa) on ordinate
on part paper.
7) Plotting the coefficient of discharge (Cd) on abscissa and on ordinate on section paper.
Data Sheet
Fundamental data (table1)
H/Z
Cd K
1 6.5 5.9 5.9 3.54 1.67 1.64 0.158 0.0625 0.5208 2.31 0.71 1.677
11.1 10.5 10.5 6.41 1.64
9.2 8.6 8.6 5.33 1.61
2 9.9 9.3 9.3 4.67 1.99 2.00 0.15 0.0701 0.5842 3.07 0.65 1.539
10.6 10.0 10.0 5.19 1.93
11.0 10.4 10.4 4.97 2.09
3 10.7 10.1 10.1 4.14 2.44 2.43 0.145 0.0755 0.6292 3.70 0.66 1.552
12.3 11.7 11.7 4.93 2.37
9.5 8.9 8.9 3.58 2.49
4 10.5 9.9 9.9 3.23 3.07 2.96 0.136 0.0844 0.7033 4.89 0.61 1.43
10.2 9.6 9.6 3.30 2.91
11.6 11.0 11.0 3.79 2.9
5 13.1 12.5 12.5 3.53 3.54 3.57 0.132 0.0886 0.7217 5.52 0.65 1.528
12.7 12.1 12.1 3.32 3.64
12.6 12.0 12.0 3.39 3.54
6 13.4 12.8 12.8 3.17 4.04 4.15 0.126 0.0945 0.7875 6.49 0.64 1.511
9.2 8.6 8.6 2.09 4.11
10.5 9.9 9.9 2.31 4.29
Mean values Cdm = Km =
0.65 1.5400
The following graphs were drawn from the data acquired and computed
6 5.52
4.89
Discharge (*10-3m3/s)
5
4.15
4 3.7 3.57
3.07 2.96
3 2.43
2.31
2
2 1.64
0
0.05 0.055 0.06 0.065 0.07 0.075 0.08 0.085 0.09 0.095 0.1
Head (H) (m)
Actual discharge against Head
Theoretical discharge against Head
Log Q(Discharge)
0.1
Log H(Head)
Qa against Qt
6
4 y = 0.6024x + 0.1832
Qa(*10-3m3/s)
0
Qt(*10-3m3/s)
H/Z against Cd
0.85
0.7875
0.8
0.75 0.7217
0.7033
0.7
0.65 0.6292
H/Z
0.5842
0.6
0.55 0.5208
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.7 0.72
Cd
H/Z against Cd
DISCUSSION
The following considerations were made for the discussion
1. Deriving Eq.1 from the continuity equation and Bernoulli’s equation;
Consider a small elemental strip of flow across the V-notch with thickness dh and breadth b, as
shown in fig.5 below.
Comparing eq.9 to eq.1; Ѳ/2 = Ѳ, thus Qt = 8/15 (√2g) H5/2 tan Ѳ …… (eq.1)
2) Explaining why the actual discharge is smaller than the theoretical discharge. And stating the
significance of the coefficient of discharge;
The value of actual discharge is smaller than the theoretical discharge due to head losses. These
head losses include:
Head losses due to friction. This is the main cause of head losses in the V-notch
experiment.
Head losses due to contraction due to the geometry of the V-notch.
Head losses due to variation of pressure and velocity with the V-notch being a barrier to
flow.
Odemba Ian Walumasi
EN251-0295/2012
The coefficient of discharge enables the determination of actual discharge from theoretical
discharge and thus enabling a calibrated V-notch (whose Cd has been established) to be used
for measurement of actual discharge.
3) Inquiring on sources of error;
Possible sources of error include errors in observing readings for examples observing and
recording mass, time and head readings. Errors may also originate from fluctuations in
temperature which vary the properties of water.
4) Comparing fig.3 and the figure of Graph 4 and describing the accuracy of the experimental
data;
The shape obtained on Graph 4 is polynomial in nature compared to the exponential curves on
fig.3.However, if similarly plotted the polynomial graph is somewhat similar to what would have
been obtained; given the value of Z/B = 0.2, therefore the V-notch experiment was acceptably
precise in calibration of the V-notch.
5) Explaining why the edge of the notch is sharpened at 45°;
The edge of the notch is sharpened to reduce drag on flow as a flat surface increases resistance
to flow causing formation of eddies thus causing drag and also it limits formation of a free nappe.
CONCLUSION
As seen from the comparison between the graphs obtained from the experiment with the
expected graphs from British Standards, the experiment was successful in the calibration of the
V-notch with a Cdm value of 0.65 being obtained. Values for theoretical and actual discharge were
successfully obtained thereby fulfilling all the objectives of the experiment.
CITED LITERATURE
Lecture notes
Manual for Hydraulics and Water resources JKUAT, School of Civil Construction and
Environmental Engineering
ECE2304 Hydraulic Structures, Dr. Kazungu Maitaria, Civil Engineering Department
JKUAT.
Hydrology Tutorial- Flow in Open Channels,www.freestudy.co.uk
However when the height of the obstacle is great in comparison to the depth of flow upstream,
for a specific discharge, there is a given height (Zc) that causes the flow over the barrier to be
critical, as shown in fig.2. A further increase in the height of the obstacle does not change the
state of flow and thus the depth of flow over the barrier is critical depth (yc). The broad crested
weir under consideration was pre-conditioned to create critical flow condition. The channel
lining and slope which affect velocity of flow as per manning’s equation can be shown to have
the following effect on the critical flow depth for a rectangular broad-crested weir. Where ξ =
√(S)/η, S = Slope of channel, η = manning’s roughness coefficient (fig.3)
Variation of critical depth with channel conditions (fig.3)
…… eq.1
…… eq.2
Where HV = Head above the V-notch.
Cdv = Coefficient of discharge of V-notch.
Ѳ = Half angle of V-notch.
KV = Coefficient of V-notch.
2. Specific Energy;
The total head reckoned from the crest level of the broad crested weir at section 1 (E) is as:
……eq.3
Where H1 = depth at section 1.
Z = height of the weir.
V1 = velocity of flow at section 1 (approaching velocity).
B = width of weir.
The specific energy at the weir is equal to the total head (E).
There is a relationship between the specific energy (E) and the depth at the control section
(critical depth, HC) as follows:
…… eq.4
If the critical depth is measured, it is very easy to calculate the specific energy and the discharge
over the weir. However, it is difficult to find out the critical section.
In this experiment, to determine the coefficient of discharge of the broad crested weir, the
upstream depth and the approaching velocity which is calculated as Qa/ (BH1) are adopted.
3. Discharge Equation;
The theoretical discharge over a broad crested weir (Qt) is given as:
…… eq.5
The coefficient of discharge (Cd) is found as the ratio of the actual discharge (Qa) to the
theoretical discharge (Qt):
…… eq.6
According to the British Standards (BS 3680, PART 4F), the coefficient of discharge is
theoretically given as:
……eq.7
Where Cdt = theoretical coefficient of discharge.
L = length of flat portion of the weir.
Actually in the field it is important to find the relationship between the depth at section 1 (H 1)
and the actual discharge (Qa) since the water level is measured in a gauge well-constructed in
the upstream of the weir.
4. Froude Number;
When the actual discharge (Qa) and the depth (H) are known he Froude number (Fr) is
calculated as follows:
…… eq.8
……eq.9
The flows are classified into 3 states according to Froude number
i. Fr < 1.0: subcritical flow
ii. Fr = 1.0: critical flow
iii. Fr > 1.0: subcritical flow
The following assumptions were made during the experiment;
The flow falls freely over the weir such that a free nappe occurs and that there is no
external interference to the rate of flow of water.
The streamlines above the weir are horizontal, for easier collection and computation of
data.
There are absolutely no energy and head losses. Energy losses in form of noise, friction
losses and internal energy losses are taken to be negligible.
The velocity approach over the weir is also taken to be uniform and parallel to the
channel floor.
Procedure (method)
1) The dimensions of the broad- crested weir were measured and the distance from
section 2A to 2B - section 2F taken.
2) The open channel horizontal was set horizontal.
3) The temperature of the water was measured.
4) The crest level of the broad- crested weir and the level of the channel bed were
measured with the point gauge.
5) The crest level of the v-notch was measured with the hook gauge, pouring the water up
to the crest level.
6) The operation of the steady water supply system was started and the discharge set to
be small.
7) The head above the v-notch was measured after the flow become steady.
8) The depth of the flow in the upstream where the weir does not exert influence on the
water surface (section 1) was measured
9) The change of the state of flow by the broad- crested weir was observed and the section
where the control section occurs was established, letting a drop of water fall on the
surface of flow.
10) The discharge was increased a little and procedure 7 and 8 repeated.
11) One flow was selected and the depths of flow at section 2A-section 2F measured.
RESULTS
The following requirements were met for presentation of the results;
1) Sketching a flow over the broad-crested weir (choose one flow) (see fig.6).
2) Preparing arrangement tables (table 1, 2, 3 and 4) and filling in the columns with the data.
3) Calculating the following values and fill in the table 2;
4) Plotting the specific energy (E) on the abscissa and the actual discharge (Qa) on ordinate on
log-log graph, and drawing eq.5.
5) Finding the mean value of the coefficient of discharge (Cdm) after setting aside doubtful data,
on referring to the graph completed in step (4).
6) Plotting the upstream depth (H1) on abscissa and the actual discharge (Qa) on ordinate on
section paper and draw the equality Qt= 1.705B (H1-Z) in which the approaching velocity is
neglected.
7) Plot H1 on abscissa and the coefficient of discharge (Cd) on the ordinate on the section graph
on which the graph of eq.7 had been already shown.
8) Calculating the following values for section 2A-section 2F and fill the table 2
9) Drawing the profile of flow over the weir, plotting the data of the depths at section 2A to
section 2F, and presuming the location of the control section
Data Sheet I
Fundamental data I (table 1)
Reading (m)
(H1 – Z) (m)
L/ (H1 - Z)
Stage
Cd Cdt
1 0.145 0.074 2.31 0.65 0.17 0.02 11. 43.7 97.65 0.0260 2.14 1.07 0.942
0 3 1 2 6 6 5 7 9 9 5 8
2 0.144 0.074 2.34 0.65 0.17 0.02 11. 44.3 100.3 0.0261 2.15 1.08 0.942
6 7 2 2 6 6 5 6 0 9 8
3 0.141 0.077 2.58 0.65 0.17 0.02 10. 48.3 119.3 0.0281 2.40 1.07 0.946
6 7 4 4 8 8 7 9 5 2 5 4 5
4 0.135 0.083 3.08 0.65 0.18 0.03 9.6 56.8 164.4 0.0311 2.80 1.09 0.951
9 4 4 7 1 1 8 0 4 6 5 9 0
5 0.125 0.093 4.09 0.66 0.18 0.03 8.1 72.9 271.4 0.0372 3.67 1.11 0.958
9 4 4 3 7 7 1 8 6 7 6 0
6 0.120 0.099 4.74 0.66 0.19 0.04 7.3 82.8 349.7 0.0413 4.28 1.10 0.961
2 1 7 7 1 1 2 4 7 5 4 8 4
7 0.113 0.105 5.57 0.67 0.19 0.04 6.5 94.8 458.6 0.0464 5.10 1.09 0.965
6 7 8 2 6 6 2 6 4 6 7 2 0
8 0.101 0.118 7.34 0.68 0.20 0.05 5.5 120. 733.9 0.0547 6.53 1.12 0.969
3 0 4 0 4 4 6 00 4 3 0 5 3
9 0.090 0.128 9.08 0.68 0.21 0.06 4.8 142. 1040. 0.0630 8.07 1.12 0.972
8 5 9 8 2 2 4 90 80 4 2 6 4
10 0.070 0.149 13.2 0.70 0.22 0.07 3.8 192. 1881. 0.0808 11.7 1.12 0.977
1 2 00 5 9 9 0 14 64 8 0 8 1
Mean values Cdm Cdtm =
= 0.958
1.10 6
3
0.1
Log E(Specific energy)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
y = 0.5093x + 4E-05
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
(H1-Z) (m)
Cd against H1
1.2
1.15
Cd (coefficient of dischrage)
1.1
1.05
1
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
H1(Depth of flow upstream)
Cd against H1 Log. (Cd against H1)
Data sheet II
Fundamental data II (table 3)
DISCUSSION
The following considerations were made for discussion and analysis;
1) Given the critical depth is 2.00cm, finding the discharge by applying the mean coefficient of
discharge (Cdm):
3) Stating the relationship between upstream depth (H1) and the discharge.
Graph 2 shows the relationship between theoretical discharge and depth of flow above the
crest of the broad-crested weir described by an exponential graph trend. The relationship
between actual discharge and depth of flow upstream(H1) follows the same exponential trend
with discharge increasing exponentially with increase in depth of flow given that actual
discharge is given by (see eq.5 and eq.6):
CONCLUSION
The experiment was successful as the objectives of the experiment were met. The critical depth
was established to be approximately 0.057m The flow over the broad-crested weir was observed
(fig.6), the broad-crested weir was calibrated (Cdm = 1.103), and flow compared to British
Standards with graphs from experimental and computed data drawn.
CITED WORK
Lecture notes
Manual for Hydraulics and Water resources JKUAT, School of Civil Construction and
Environmental Engineering
ECE2304 Hydraulic Structures, Dr. Kazungu Maitaria, Civil Engineering Department
JKUAT.
Civil Engineering hydraulics(Essential Theory and Worked Examples), R.E. Featherstone
and C. Nalluri, Third Edition 1998
Dissipation of energy of water flowing over dams and weirs – to prevent possible
erosion and scouring due to high velocities
Raising water levels in canals to enhance irrigation practices and reduce pumping heads
Reducing uplift pressure under the foundations of hydraulic structures
Creating special flow conditions to meet certain special needs at control sections such as
gaging stations, flow measurement and flow regulation
INTRODUCTION
Basic Theory
A hydraulic jump occurs when water in an open channel is flowing supercritical and is slowed by
a deepening of the channel or obstruction in the channel causing the water surface to rises
abruptly, and changing into subcritical flow with considerable to large energy loss. There are
several types of hydraulic jumps
a) Undular jump (1.0 <Fr1 <1.7): The jump exhibits slight undulation. The conjugate
depths of the jump are close and transition is less abrupt with slightly ruffled water.
b) Weak jump (1.7 <Fr1 <2.5): There is formation of eddies and rollers at the surface of
the jump, with small energy loss. The ratio of final depth to initial depth is between
2.0 and 3.1. The velocity throughout is fairly uniform, and the energy loss is low.
c) Oscillating jump (2.5 <Fr1 <4.5): A jet oscillates from top to bottom generating
surface waves that persist beyond the end of the jump. The ratio of final depth to
initial depth is 3.1 to 5.0.
d) Stable/Steady jump (4.5 <Fr1 <9.0): The downstream extremity of the surface
roller and the point at which the high velocity jet tends to leave the flow occur at
practically the same vertical section. The energy dissipation ranges from 45 to 70%.
e) Strong /Rough jump (Fr1 >9.0): The high-velocity jet grabs intermittent slugs of water
rolling down the front face of the jump, generating waves downstream, and a rough
surface can prevail. The jump action is rough but effective since the energy
dissipation may reach 85%.
Considering fig.1 above where for the respective sections 1 and 2: h1, h2 = depths of flow, V1, V2
= mean velocity of flow, Fr1, Fr2 = Froude’s number, Q = discharge and b = Breadth of
rectangular section;
The loss of energy head due to the occurrence of the hydraulic jump is the difference between
the specific-energy heads at sections:
Consider fig.2 below where for the respective sections 1 and 2: h1, h2 = depths of flow, F1, F2 =
force at section, P1, P2 = Hydrostatic pressure, V1, V2 = mean velocity of flow, Fr1, Fr2 = Froude’s
number, q = mass flux (mass per second) and b = Breadth of rectangular section.
Analysis of a hydraulic jump (fig.2)
The net force (F1 - F2) is equivalent to the change in hydrostatic pressure force from P1- P2
given by:
However we know from continuity v = q/h thus replacing for v1 and v2;
F1 – F2 = M1 – M2 (1)
w {h12/2) – h22/2)} = (wq2/g) {(h1 – h2)/h1h2} (2)
1/2 (h12 – h22) = q2/g (h1 – h2)/h1h2 (3)
(h12 – h22) = 2q2/g (h1 – h2)/h1h2 (4)
(h1 + h2) (h1 – h2) = (2q2/g.h1h2) (h1 - h2) (5)
h1 + h2 = 2q2/g.h1h2 (6)
h22 + h1h2 = (2q2/g.h1) (7)
h22 + h1h2 - (2q2/g.h1) = 0 …… eq.5
Solving the quadratic equation above for h2 and ignoring the negative result
……eq.7
Where HV=head above V-notch.
KV = coefficient of discharge
The values of Cdv and KV have been obtained in experiment on the v-notch
……eq.8
Where H = depth of flow.
α = Energy coefficient (= 1.0 to 1.1 in laboratory).
V = mean velocity of flow.
B = breadth of rectangular channel.
3) State of flow;
Based on fig.3, the flow with a certain value of specific energy (E) can form two types of flow:
subcritical flow with larger flow depth (Hsp) and supercritical flow with smaller flow depth (Hsp).
When specific energy equal Ec, the flow becomes critical. We know that critical flow occurs over
the broad crested weir and critical mean velocity is given by:
……eq.9
Where HC represents critical flow depth
Depth (H) against specific energy (E) for constant discharge (fig.3)
Froude’s number is calculated in order to classify flow. The table 1 below shows the
relationship between the Froude’s number and state of flow.
Relationship between Froude’s number and state of flow (table 1)
…… eq.10
…… eq.11
5) Head loss due to jump;
From eq.2 the theoretical energy loss from the jump (hj) is given by:
…… eq.12
Consider fig.1 the actual energy loss (ΔE) is given by:
……eq.13
Procedure (Method)
1) The sluice gate was put on the open channel and the rubber pickings was put in the
space between the gate and the channel wall.
2) The channel was set horizontal.
3) The width of the channel was measured with a steel tape measure and the channel bed
levels at section 1(about 0.5m downstream of the gate) was measured with a point
gauges.
4) The temperature of water was measured
5) The crest level of the v-notch, pouring water into the approach channel was measured.
6) The operation of the water supply was started and a hydraulic jump at 1.0m
downstream of the sluice gate was produced by adjusting the opening height of the gate
and the height of the gate and the height of the suppressed weir.
7) The head above the v-notch was measured.
8) The water surface level at section 1 and 2 was measured with a point gauges.
9) The changes of flow were observed.
10) The opening height of the sluice gate was increased a little (increment of 2-4 mm) and
another hydraulic jump was created by adjusting the height of the suppressed weir.
11) Procedure 8 was repeated.
12) Procedure (10) and (11) was also repeated.
13) The discharge was increased and procedure (7) to (12) was repeated.
RESULTS
The following requirements were met for presentation of the results
1) Sketching the state of the hydraulic jump.
2) Preparing an arrangement table and filling in the columns with data
3) Calculating the following values and filling in the table
a) Discharge (Qa)
b) Depth of flow at each section (H1 and H2)
c) Mean velocity of flow at each section
d) Specific energy at each section (E1 and E2)
e) Froude’s number at each section (Fr1 and Fr2)
f) Ratio of downstream depth to upstream depth of flow (H2/H1)
g) Theoretical ratio from eq.8 (H2/H1)
h) Actual head loss (ΔE)
i) Theoretical head loss (hj)
4) Finding the equation for the relationship between depth and specific energy under constant
discharge at each stage (eq.8).
5) Drawing the graph of the relationship above (4) on section graph.
6) Plotting specific energy on abscissa and corresponding depth on ordinate for each stage on
section paper, and showing the change of state of flow due to hydraulic jump (see fig.3).
Data Sheet
Fundamental data (table 2)
(*10-3m3/s)
opening (m)
reading (m)
head (HV)
discharge
section 1
section 2
section 1
section 2
(H1) (m)
(H2) (m)
state
(m)
(m)
(m)
A 0.15 0.134 0.081 2.867 0.487 0.517 0.01 0.04
B 0.13 0.486 0.52 0.009 0.043
C 0.11 0.484 0.517 0.007 0.04
A 0.15 0.114 0.101 4.978 0.488 0.541 0.011 0.064
B 0.13 0.486 0.544 0.009 0.067
C 0.11 0.484 0.536 0.007 0.059
Calculation (table 4)
(m)
Theoretical H2/H1
(v22/2g)
section 1 (Fr1)
section 2 (Fr2)
Actual H2/H1
Opening (m)
section 2
Stage
State
1 A 0. 0.95 0.23 0.04 0.00 0.05 0.04 3.05 0.38 4.0 3.85 0.053 0.067
15 6 9 66 29 66 29 2 2 0 7 5
B 0. 1.06 0.22 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.04 3.57 0.34 4.7 4.58 0.064 0.101
13 2 2 75 25 65 55 4 2 8 0 6
C 0. 1.36 0.23 0.09 0.00 0.10 0.04 5.20 0.38 5.7 6.88 0.056 0.128
11 5 9 50 29 20 29 9 2 1 5 3
2 A 0. 1.50 0.25 0.11 0.00 0.12 0.06 4.59 0.32 5.8 6.01 0.057 0.211
15 8 9 59 34 49 74 1 7 2 5 5
B 0. 1.84 0.24 0.17 0.00 0.18 0.07 6.20 0.30 7.4 8.29 0.112 0.264
13 4 8 33 31 23 01 6 6 4 2 7
C 0. 2.37 0.28 0.28 0.00 0.29 0.06 9.04 0.36 8.4 12.3 0.230 0.340
11 1 63 40 33 30 4 9 3 3 5
0.1
Depth of flow (h) (m)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
Specific energy (E) (m)
Depth against Specific energy (Q1)
0.25
Depth of flow (H) (m)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
specific energy (E) (m)
Depth agaisnt specific energy (Q2)
DISCUSSION
The following considerations were to be fulfilled for adequate discussion and analysis;
1) Deriving eq.10, eq.11 and eq.12;
The above equations are fully discussed and derived in the introduction as eq.2 (for eq.12) and
eq.6 (for eq.10) the derivation of eq.11 simply is the similar to that of eq.10 with values being
reversed.
2) Stating causes for difference in values for actual H2/H1 and theoretical H2/H1 as well as
theoretical and actual head loss;
The difference in values for actual H2/H1 and theoretical H2/H1 is caused by some additional
causes of head loss that are taken to be negligible during the hydraulic jump. Such causes of
head loss include energy loss due to noise, energy loss due to friction with the channel surface
and internal energy losses due to drag and formation of eddies. As a result, the actual values of
actual H2/H1 are generally lower than theoretical H2/H1. Also many assumptions made during
derivation of theoretical H2/H1 (see introduction) result in accumulated error transfer.
However, the theoretical head loss is obtained entirely from specific energy and is a function of
the depths of flow (see eq.2), and therefore the values obtained for actual head loss are smaller
from values obtained from the theoretical head loss. Errors in calibration affecting the reliability
of the characteristic discharge coefficient (Cd) may have resulted in the difference.
CONCLUSION
The experiment was successful as the objectives were met with the profile of a hydraulic jump
being observed, the relationship between depth of flow and specific energy being drawn on
graphs, and the relationship between Froude’s number and change in depth being appreciated
through derivations and analysis of experimental data.
CITED WORK
Lecture notes
Manual for Hydraulics and Water resources JKUAT, School of Civil Construction and
Environmental Engineering
ECE2304 Hydraulics of uniform flows, Dr. Kazungu Maitaria, Civil Engineering
Department JKUAT.
Civil Engineering hydraulics(Essential Theory and Worked Examples), R.E.
Featherstone and C. Nalluri, Third Edition 1998
…… eq.1
…… eq.2
Where KV = Coefficient
The values of KV and Cdv are obtained from the experiment of the V-notch.
The actual depth of flow downstream (H2) is measured. Therefore the coefficient of contraction
(Cc) is given by:
…… eq.3
Where a represents the opening height of the sluice gate.
Condition of Free outflow (fig.2)
Employing the coefficient of velocity (Cv) the discharge through the gate (Q) which is equal to
the discharge over the V-notch is:
…… eq.4
Where B = width of rectangular section channel
…… eq.5
Where α = Energy coefficient (1.0 substituted in experiment)
……eq.6
Cd above is the coefficient of discharge and is the product of Cc and Cv. In this experiment H 1,
H2, B, a and Q are measured. Cd and Cv are calculated as follows:
…… eq.7
…… eq.8
Where Qt is theoretical discharge through the sluice gate.
If the head loss due to outflow (ΔE) is denoted as fo. V22/ (2g), in which fo represents the
coefficient of loss due to outflow, the specific energy at section 1 is expressed as:
…… eq.9
…… eq.10
Comparing eq.10 with eq.6:
…… eq.11
d) Practical discharge;
Generally in the field the discharge equation for the sluice gate is expressed as follows since
upstream depth is usually measured:
…… eq.12
Where:
……eq.13
3) Under Condition of Submerged flow
Condition of Submerged flow (fig.3)
a) Discharge equation;
The discharge through the sluice gate under the condition of submerged flow (fig.3) is given by
……eq.14
…… eq.15
And
…… eq.16
eq.14 is the same as that of a submerged orifice.
b) Experiments by Henry;
H.R. Henry suggested the following equation to find discharge through a sluice gate and the
coefficient of discharge (C’d) H1/a values and H2/a values as shown in fig.4:
……eq.17
…… eq.18
H.R. Henry’s equation graphical illustration (fig.4)
Procedure (Method)
1) The width of channel and temperature of water was measured.
2) The channel was set horizontal.
3) The opening height of the sluice gate was set between 2.5cm and 3.0cm and measured
accurately using the tape measure.
4) The crest level of the V-notch was recorded with the hook gauge.
5) The channel bed levels upstream (section 1) and downstream (section 2) of the sluice
gate were measured with a point gauge.
6) The steady water supply system operation was started and discharge set to be small.
7) After the flow became steady (free outflow) the depths at section 1 and section 2 were
measured.
8) Head above the V-notch was measured.
9) The state of flow through the sluice gate was observed, and contraction of flow
confirmed.
10) Discharge was increased so that another free flow can be observed repeating steps (7),
(8) and (9). The discharge at section 1 should not be too large.
11) The discharge was set small again, and the gate opening height set between 3.0cm and
4.0cm then adjusted such that a suppressed submerged outflow occurred.
12) Step (8) was executed, and steps (7) and (9) repeated at least five times, changing the
downstream depth using suppressed weir.
13) Discharge was increased such that a submerged outflow is observed, and step (12)
repeated.
RESULTS
The following requirements were met for presentation of results;
1) Condition of Free outflow
1) Preparing an arrangement table (table 2) and filling in the columns with data.
2) Calculating the following values and filling in the table;
a) Discharge (Qa)
b) Velocity of flow at section 1 (V1)
c) Velocity of flow at section 2 (V2)
d) Specific energy at each section (E1)
e) Coefficient of contraction (Cc)
f) Theoretical discharge (Qt)
3) Plotting values of H1/a on abscissa and coefficient of discharge (Cd) on ordinate on section
graph.
4) Plotting the depth at section 1 (H1) on abscissa and discharge (Q) on ordinate on log-log
graph. Draw the equation Q’t = aB√ (2g.H1).
5) Plotting H1/a on abscissa and coefficient of loss due to outflow (fo) on ordinate on section
graph.
6) Plotting H1/a on abscissa and coefficient of contraction (Cc) on ordinate on section graph.
a) Discharge (Qa)
b) Velocity of flow at section 1 (V1)
c) Specific energy at each section (E1)
d) Ratio of depth at section 1 to depth at section 2 (H1/H2)
e) Ratio of depth at section 1 to the opening height of gate (H1/a)
f) Ratio of depth at section 2 to the opening height of gate (H2/a)
g) Theoretical discharge (Qt)
h) Coefficient of discharge (Cd)
i) Theoretical discharge obtained from depth at section 1 (eq.18) (Q’t)
j) Coefficient of discharge produced by eq.12 (C’d)
4) Plot value of H1/a on abscissa and coefficient of discharge (Cd) and coefficient of discharge
(C’d) introduced in eq.17 on ordinate on section graph.
Froude's number at
Froude's number at
specific energy (E1)
section 1 (H1) (m)
section 1 (Fr1)
section 2 (Fr2)
head (HV) (m)
velocity head
discharge (Q)
section 1 (m)
section 2 (m)
(V12/2g) (m)
reading (m)
(*10-3m3/s)
(V1) (m/s)
stage
(m)
1 0.11 0.1 4.85 0.55 0.49 0.07 0.01 0.218 0.002 0.076 0.06 6.52
5 6 2 3 4 6 7 4 4 6
2 0.10 0.10 5.61 0.59 0.49 0.12 0.01 0.154 0.001 0.122 0.02 7.27
9 6 7 9 4 1 7 7 2 2
3 0.10 0.10 5.88 0.56 0.49 0.08 0.01 0.220 0.002 0.091 0.05 7.99
7 8 6 7 4 9 7 4 5 5 5
4 0.10 0.11 6.30 0.57 0.49 0.09 0.01 0.212 0.002 0.101 0.04 9.16
4 1 3 7 4 9 7 2 3 3 6
5 0.10 0.11 6.73 0.58 0.49 0.11 0.01 0.204 0.002 0.112 0.03 10.4
1 4 8 8 4 7 2 1 1 9 6
6 0.09 0.11 7.03 0.60 0.49 0.13 0.01 0.180 0.001 0.131 0.02 11.4
9 6 7 8 4 7 4 7 7 6 2
Calculation I (table 3)
coefficient of contraction
H1/a
Section2 0.477 m
1 (V12/2g) (m)
discharge (Q)
section 1 (m)
section 2 (m)
head (H) (m)
Reading (m)
(*10-3m3/s)
(V1) (m)
stage
1 A 0.117 0.098 4.617 0.58 0.542 0.102 0.065 0.1509 0.0012 0.1032
B 0.567 0.534 0.089 0.057 0.1729 0.0015 0.0905
C 0.533 0.53 0.055 0.053 0.2798 0.004 0.059
D 0.549 0.529 0.071 0.052 0.2168 0.0024 0.0734
E 0.546 0.528 0.068 0.051 0.2263 0.0026 0.0706
2 A 0.102 0.113 6.591 0.634 0.558 0.156 0.081 0.1408 0.001 0.157
B 0.63 0.547 0.152 0.07 0.1445 0.0011 0.1531
C 0.623 0.543 0.145 0.066 0.1515 0.0012 0.1462
D 0.605 0.535 0.127 0.058 0.173 0.0015 0.1285
E 0.591 0.535 0.113 0.058 0.1944 0.0019 0.1149
Calculation II (table 6)
Theoretical discharge (Qt)
Henry's Experiment
coefficient of discharge
Theoretical discharge
(Q't)(*10-3m3/s)
discharge (C'd)
from equation
discharge (Q)
coefficient of
(*10-3m3/s)
(*10-3m3/s)
7
Discharge(Q) (*10-3m3/s)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
H1/a
Discharge(Q) against H1/a
Linear (Discharge(Q) against H1/a)
Log Q(Discharge)
0.8
0.6
Log H1
Fo against H1/a
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Fo
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
H1/a
Fo against H1/a
Cc against H1/a
0.66
0.655
0.65
0.645
0.64
Cc
0.635
0.63
0.625
0.62
0.615
0.61
0 1 2 H1/a 3 4 5 6
Cc against H1/a
Cd against H1/H2
1.4
1.2
0.8
Cd
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
H1/H2
Cd against H1/H2 Log. (Cd against H1/H2)
1.2
discharge coefficient
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
H1/a
Cd against H1/a C' d against H1/a
DISCUSSION
The following consideration were made for discussion
1) Deriving eq.12 for discharge;
Bernoulli’s Equation is energy equation for an ideal fluid (friction and energy losses assumed
negligible.) which is derived to the question for using to calculation in this laboratory as follow:
𝟐 𝐏 𝟐 𝐏
𝐙𝟏 + 𝐕𝟐𝐠 + = 𝐙𝟐+ 𝐕𝟐𝐠 + …… eq.19
𝛄 𝛄
From (1);
𝐪𝟐 𝐪𝟐
𝟐
𝟐𝐠𝐲𝟏
− 𝟐
𝟐𝐠𝐲𝟐
= 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 (3)
𝒒𝟐 𝟏
(𝟐𝒈) (𝒚𝟏𝟐 − )= 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 (4)
𝟏 𝒚𝟐𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒒
(𝟐𝒈) (𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐−𝒚
𝒚𝟐
𝟏) = 𝒚 − 𝒚
𝟐 𝟏 (5)
𝟏 𝟐
𝟐
𝒒
(𝟐𝒈) ((𝒚𝟐+𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟐)(𝒚
𝒚𝟏
𝟐−𝒚𝟏 )) = 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 (6)
𝟏 𝟐
(𝒚𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝒚𝟐 )×(𝒚𝟐−𝒚𝟐 )×𝟐𝒈
𝒒𝟐 = (𝒚𝟐 +𝒚𝟏 )(𝒚𝟐 −𝒚𝟏)
(7)
(𝒚𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝒚𝟐 ×𝟐𝒈)
𝒒𝟐 = (𝒚𝟐 +𝒚𝟏 )
(8)
√𝒚𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝒚𝟐 ×𝟐𝒈
Q= 𝒚𝟐 +𝒚𝟏
(9)
Q = 𝒚𝟏𝒚𝒚𝟐+𝒚√𝟐𝒈 (10)
𝟐 𝟏
Q = 𝑪𝒅 𝑾√𝟐𝒈𝒚𝟏 (11)
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
𝐪(𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥)
𝐪(𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐲)
= Cd < 1 (12)
𝒒
𝑪𝒅 = 𝑾√𝟐𝒈𝒚
𝟏
Bernoulli’s Equation:
𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝒚𝟏 + 𝟐𝒈
= 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈
(13)
𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟐
𝒚𝟏 + 𝟐𝒈𝒚𝟏
= 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒚𝟏
(14)
Free Flow
q = 𝑪𝒅 𝑾√𝟐𝒈𝒚𝟏 …… eq.21
Compare eq.20 with eq.12
2) Stating the facts:
The graphs of coefficients of discharge against H1/a (graph 5) for submerged outflow and graph
2 as a predictor for free outflow followed the expected trend laid by H.R. henry equations used
in the analysis (fig.4)
3) Finding Froude’s number at each section for free outflow: (table 2)
CONCLUSION
Objectives of experiment were met Cdm = 0.564 for submerged outflow and Cdm = 0.612 for free
outflow.
CITED WORK
Lecture notes
Manual for Hydraulics and Water resources JKUAT, School of Civil Construction
and Environmental Engineering
Gate Lip Hydraulics under Sluice Gate, Department of Dam and Water Resources,
College of Electronic Engineering, University of Mosul, Mosul, Iran