Introduction To PV

CREST MSc Flexible & Distance Learning Series Solar Power 1
Unit 5 – Photovoltaic Systems

Unit Aim
A Photovoltaic (PV) system is designed to convert solar energy into electricity, either
alone or in conjunction with another source of energy. The aim of this unit is to
provide an overview of the general types and features of PV systems, and to explore
current markets and applications. Additionally, the basic design aspects will be
discussed, as well as PV system performance.
Learning Outcomes
After you have worked through this unit, you will be able to display knowledge and
understanding of:
• The current applications of PV and the various approaches to using PV devices.
• How to utilise methods for analysing and sizing PV systems.
• The components that make up a PV system.
• How PV system performance is measured.
• Current market drivers
©CREST 2013 Page 5.1 ELD533/ELP033/ELP633

Unit 5 – Contents
Page No.
5.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................ 5.4
5.2 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS ........................................................... 5.4
5.3 FROM CELL TO SYSTEM ............................................................. 5.5

5.3.1 MODULES .................................................................................................... 5.6
5.3.2 PV ARRAY, DC-FIELD, ARRAY FIELD ............................................................ 5.7
5.3.3 PV SYSTEM ................................................................................................. 5.9
5.3.4 BOS COMPONENTS ................................................................................... 5.11
5.4 SYSTEM TYPES AND DRIVERS ................................................ 5.13

5.4.1 COSTS ...................................................................................................... 5.14
5.4.2 SYSTEM CLASSIFICATIONS .......................................................................... 5.15
5.5 PV SYSTEM PERFORMANCE .................................................... 5.16

5.5.1 STANDARD TEST CONDITIONS ..................................................................... 5.16
5.5.2 PERFORMANCE INDICATORS ....................................................................... 5.17
5.5.3 REALISTIC PERFORMANCE .......................................................................... 5.20
5.5.4 PERFORMANCE LOSSES ............................................................................. 5.22
5.5.5 SAFETY ..................................................................................................... 5.23
5.6 ENERGY PREDICTION ............................................................... 5.23

5.6.1 CURVE CORRECTION .................................................................................. 5.24
5.6.2 CURVE CORRECTION FACTOR ..................................................................... 5.26
5.6.3 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTS ........................................ 5.26

5.6.4 DETERMINATION OF INTERNAL SERIES RESISTANCE ..................................... 5.27
5.7 REFERENCES............................................................................. 5.29

5.1 INTRODUCTION
A photovoltaic system is an integrated assembly of one or more PV modules (an
‘array’ or ‘array field’) or cells and other items (‘Balance Of System’ (BOS)
components), designed to convert solar energy into electricity to provide a particular
service, either alone or in conjunction with another source of energy.
This unit will provide link the devices discussed in earlier sections to the final system.
The different components and their effects on the performance will be discussed. It
will transpire that BOS can be the key in determining system performance (and
safety). The difference in performance indicators to PV materials and devices are
given.
An overview of current usage of PVs is given. Different approaches of using PV

devices are shown and discussed. The basic design parameters will be discussed as
a foundation for more detailed analysis to be conducted in the advanced module. An
overview of the general features is given as well as a method to analyse and size PV
systems.
5.2 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS

PV systems are supposed to ‘perform’ but the definition of performance is not always
clear. In order to review the vocabulary used in this section, different performance
indicators are reviewed here.
To date the main performance indicator has been efficiency so far. In the system
context, efficiency is largely used to determine the installed capacity. Installed
capacity is often also called peak capacity and quantified by Wp (Watt-peak). The
main usage is thus often to determine the cost of a system (many components are
sold as £/Wp). The qualifier ‘peak’ comes from the assumption that devices will not
deliver more power than that measured at Standard Test Conditions (STC, 1kW/m2
irradiance, 25oC module temperature, AM1.5 incident spectrum, perpendicular
incidence) – it will be discussed later that these parameters are not very common in
outdoor operation. It should be noted that the STC efficiency denotes power, while a
system is expected to deliver energy.
Sometimes an operating efficiency ηop is calculated, which is calculated as:

𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑, 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝜂𝑜𝑝 = .................................................................................. (1)
𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡,𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
The efficiency is then defined for a certain period which can be a day, week, month
or year. This then allows the quality indicator performance ratio, PR, to be calculated
as:

𝜂𝑜𝑝
𝑃𝑅 = .................................................................................................................. (2)
𝜂𝑆𝑇𝐶
The PR is by far the most useful characteristic when it comes to comparing

installations for their quality as it is not so much affected by the incident irradiance.
People also sometimes use plain kWh as systems performance, but that is a near
meaningless number when it comes to comparing systems as it depends on the
system size and the irradiance. More useful is the specific yield, kWh/kWp, which is
still location specific.
The key indicators for the real performance of a system are the costs for the service
to be delivered (mostly kWh), or nowadays the financial return on the investment.
The entire market tends to be cost (price) driven.
5.3 FROM CELL TO SYSTEM

The PV system consists of a large number of components; most of them are actually
not the PV material. Cells themselves are not suited for direct installations, as
illustrated in Figure 1. The devices are too small to handle, have too small voltages
and are susceptible to the environment. Thus cells are collated in more manageable
units (modules or panels), where they are sealed and have better voltages and
powers to be transported around. These are then the building blocks for the DC field
of the PV system.
Solar Cells
Voltage 0.4V-1.7V
Current mA – 15A
Power <4W Solar Modules

Voltage 40V-150V
Current 1 – 15A
Power <300W
Photovoltaic Systems
Voltage 600-1000V
Current >>10 A
Power variable
Figure 5.1: From cell to module.

5.3.1 Modules
Modules are a number of PV cells, which are connected in series or multiple series
and sealed against environmental influences. The trend today is to larger and larger
modules, although they are sold in any size from 5 - 300 W for larger systems.
A typical module is shown below in Figure 5.6. The cells and their interconnection
are protected from the environment by being embedded into an encapsulant
(typically the polymer EVA) and sandwiched between a back protection and a glass
front cover. The most vulnerable point is the contact to the outside, which is
protected by the terminal box.
Figure 5.2. Construction of a PV module.
The basic module construction comes with a number of different variations:
• Frameless: some modules come without a frame (thin films and some wafer
based technologies), this saves on embedded energy and cost but the
mechanical strength of such a construction is a bit weaker.
• Thin Films: these modules are typically produced in one go on the glass,
which means no interconnection with tabs as in the case shown above is
required.
• Glass-glass: This denotes the that the back-sheet (moisture proof backing
and fibre glass separator in Figure 5.6) has been replaced by glass. Glass has
very good sealing properties but is much heavier and more expensive. This is
often done in architectural applications.
• Semi-transparent: The normally opaque back-sheet has been replaced by a

transparent material. The cell spacing is normally wider than in normal

modules to allow light through, or parts of the active material have been
ablated in the case of thin films.
• Bifacial: This is a semi-transparent module with normal cell spacing, where

the cell’s back contact has been modified to allow light into the back surface of
the device and thus making use of reflected light and may be improving
efficiency.
• Concentrating: An (cheap) optical system concentrates light onto a small

solar cell. Typically these devices have very high efficiencies (>27%). The idea
is to offset ‘expensive’ solar cell materials with cheaper optics. It has been
shown in the device section that efficiency tends to increase with irradiance,
thus concentrator devices tend to operate with a slightly higher efficiency.
5.3.2 PV Array, DC-Field, Array Field

PV systems are generally described following an international standard [1]. These
standard terms are illustrated below in Figure 5.5.
Array sub-field
Array 1 Array
Module
P1
Array 2 Subarray P3..Pn Array field
P2
Panels
Array 3 A
Figure 5.3. Standard Terminology of PV Systems

.
The typical terminology is given as:
Module: The smallest complete environmentally protected assembly of

interconnected solar cells.
Panel: A group of modules fastened together, pre-assembled and wired,

designed to serve as an installable unit in an array and/or sub-array. In
most cases this is identical to a module.
Sub-array: The part of an array assembly that can be considered as a unit and
whose output is some fraction of the array output.

Array: A mechanically integrated assembly of modules or panels together with

support structure, but exclusive of foundation, tracking, thermal control
and other such components, to form a DC power-producing unit.
Array field: The aggregate of all solar photovoltaic arrays within a given system.
A photovoltaic array field is an assembly of modules, suitably mounted and

electrically connected to form a DC power generating unit. The modules are
connected in series strings to provide the required operating voltage. Modules in a
series string are matched in terms of current, as the lowest performing module will
determine the string current and, hence, the power. A by-pass diode is connected
across each module to prevent any damage due to mismatch (hot-spot effect).
Strings of modules are connected in parallel to increase the current and, hence, the
power generated (in multiples of string current).
Parallel strings should be matched, as far as possible, in terms of voltage, as voltage

imbalance will result in reverse currents and operation of some strings at non-peak
power voltage. Module mismatch losses can be reduced by pre-sorting the modules
in an array into two batches: high and low voltage. Pre-sorting into more batches
produces an insignificant reduction in mismatch losses. It is important to match
strings so that eventual shading occurs simultaneously on all modules. A module
could be damaged if only a small proportion of a single module is shaded.
A blocking diode is connected in series with each string, to prevent battery discharge
at night and also to prevent reverse currents flowing between imperfectly matched
strings. Schottky diodes are used in PV systems for by-pass and blocking diodes
due to their low voltage drop. However, a Schottky blocking diode will produce some
voltage drop and, hence, result in energy loss. It may be possible to omit blocking
diodes altogether, if the modules are well matched, so that the energy loss due to
mismatch is less than the energy loss due to blocking diodes. The series-parallel
connection of modules with module bypass diodes and string blocking diodes is
illustrated below in Figure 5.8.
Bypass Diodes
Blocking Diodes
Figure 5.4. Series & Parallel Connection.

A number of parallel strings is termed an array. An array may be sub-divided into a

number of sub-arrays with each consisting of a number of parallel strings of modules
or panels.
Arrays within fields may consist of different sub-array configurations giving different
operating voltage and peak power. The reasons for identifying the various sections
of an array depend on several factors concerned with the array design and operation.
5.3.3 PV System
The grid is the low voltage (230 V in the UK) electricity supply network, also known
as the ‘utility’ or the ‘mains’. Grid linked systems are sub-divided into those in which
the grid acts only as an auxiliary supply (grid back-up) and those in which the grid
acts as a form of storage or two-way supply (grid-connected). In these systems,
surplus energy flows into the grid and energy deficit is met from the grid.
Alternatively, the grid connected PV system energy supply to the grid can be
considered totally separately from the building energy demand, which is met from the
grid. The building with the grid connected PV system is therefore considered as an
energy consumer/supplier. In recent years, PV systems with a battery were
introduced to allow a shift of load by a couple of hours. This has been especially
driven by regulations such as in Germany where only 70% of max power must be fed
into the grid, which results in energy being wasted and thus could be used or fed in
later that day as illustrated in Figure 3. It remains to be seen if these systems will
make an impact on the market, but in terms of classification, they are similar to the
grid back-up systems.
Figure 5.5: Effect of a battery short term storage

In grid back-up systems, the grid could be unreliable at meeting the demand,
therefore, a stand-alone AC system, consisting of PV array, batteries and stand-
alone inverter, is used with a switch to inverter output when the grid supply goes.
The basic grid back-up PV system is illustrated overleaf in Figure 5.3. The main
disadvantage of this type of system is that the batteries are expensive to maintain.
Also, depending on the system design, not all the available PV system energy will be
consumed (stored by the battery). Some of the PV generated energy will be lost
when the battery is fully charged. This is particularly important for systems installed in
weak grid areas.
Inverter Fuse Battery Regulator Fuse
Grid AC
Loads
Connection
Switch Fuses
Import Meter
Figure 5.6. Grid Back-Up PV System

.
In grid connected systems, the grid is assumed to be available permanently and a

grid connected inverter converts the DC output of the PV array to 230 V or 400 V
50 Hz AC for direct connection to the grid supply without the need for a battery. A
typical grid connected PV system is illustrated below in Figure 5.4. The connection
to the grid depends largely on the funding circumstances of the system. Generally
speaking, four configurations of metering are possible:
(i). C-B, A-D, E-F Parallel metering, no demand offset.
(ii). C-B, A-D, E-F, C-F Parallel metering with demand offset.
(iii). C-E, E-F Reversible or No metering with demand offset.
(iv). C-B, C-F, E-A Series metering with demand offset.

A B C
Export Meter Fuse Inverter Fuse
Grid D E F
AC
Connectio Loads
Import Meter Fuses
Figure 5.7. Grid Connected PV System.
The disadvantage of this system is the need for the presence of the grid for the
inverter to function, if the grid fails then no energy is generated even at times of high
irradiance. The advantage of this system is the buffering due to the grid, which
results in all of the energy generated by the PV system being consumed, albeit by
the grid. Furthermore, it allows the export of all PV electricity, which is important if a
premium price is paid for this energy.
5.3.4 BOS Components

Balance Of System (BOS) is a term that is used for all non-photovoltaic parts of a PV
system. They contribute significantly to the overall system and getting these wrong
can seriously damage the system. BOS components can be separated into electrical
and mechanical components.
5.3.4.1 Electrical
The electrical components are:
• Cables. Required to connect modules to strings and then connect the strings to
combiner boxes
• Combiner Box. Weather-tight box which may house string fuses, blocking
diodes normally a number of strings are connected to a combiner box.
• Fuses. Can be string fuses or circuit breakers, depending where in the system
they are mounted. Generally there to protect the system/string from over-
voltages or over-currents
• Diodes. There are diodes in the modules (bypass diodes) but these may also
be externally mounted. In some systems there are also blocking diodes, which
protect the string/ module from reverse currents that may cause damage.
• Earthing. Sets the ground in the system and is installed according to national
requirements. It can prevent voltage driven failures (e.g. potential induced
degradation) on a systems level.

• Lightning Protection. In many buildings installed systems, the PV is the

highest point and would attract lightning. A lightning rod will help to prevent any
incidents.
• Battery. Currently only in stand-alone systems, but there is a trend to have PhD
systems with integrated storage to allow a better match to load profiles.
• Charge Regulation. Used in conjunction with batteries to prevent overcharging

or deep-discharge of batteries.
• Low Voltage Disconnect. Disconnects the battery if it reaches too low a

voltage and would start consuming power from the grid.
• Inverters. Transferring DC power to AC power, setting the maximum power

point and feeding power into the grid. Inverters can be installed for each
module, string, array or field.
• Power optimisers. An external maximum power point tracker and DC-DC

converter that enhances performance in shaded conditions.
• Maximum Power Point Tracker. Sets the maximum power point of the system.
5.3.4.2 Mechanical
Arrays are either on a fixed mounting or on a moving mounting (where the mounting
is moved to ‘track’ the position of the Sun in the sky). Fixed mounting is the more
usual for economic reasons associated with maintenance of tracking mechanisms.
For northern and southern latitudes, with clear sunny weather prevailing for most of
the year, an array with an inclination equal to the site latitude and facing the equator
will produce its highest annual output. A smaller tilt angle will be better for sites with a
high proportion of diffuse radiation and a larger tilt angle will increase output on
sunny winter days helping to reduce seasonal storage requirements. Close to and
between the two tropics the situation is more complicated due to the Sun’s high
position in the sky.
The tilt angle of small arrays can be adjusted manually on a daily and/or seasonal
basis to increase output, e.g. two daily positions and four annual positions.
Maximum array output can be achieved through two-axis automatic tracking of the
Sun’s position (N-S & E-W), with up to 40% more energy being generated than with a
static mounted array. Automatic solar trackers require energy and their complexity of
moving parts increases maintenance costs and decreases system reliability. Single
axis automatic tracking (E-W), with seasonal manual adjustment, would probably
prove to be the most cost-effective option, depending on the size of the installation.
There are, however, severe problems with accurate tracking in locations with high
contribution of albedo or diffuse irradiance.
Arrays are mounted on a framework, or rack, of aluminium or steel. The array rack is
free standing on the ground or integrated into a building. Small arrays are
alternatively mounted on a pole enabling easier E-W orientation. Large arrays are
arranged in rows of inclined racks, for cost reasons and ease of access for
installation and maintenance. The racks are spaced to prevent too much over-

shading of one row by its neighbour. The land area required for multiple rack arrays
is 1.5 to 4 times the total module area, depending on the tilt angle, lower tilt angle
requiring less area to avoid self-shading.
PV arrays are increasingly being mounted on buildings: either in racks on flat roofs
as on the ground; or integrated into the building fabric (e.g. the roof or walls).
Integration of PV arrays into the building removes the need for separate mounting
racks and is done at the building design stage or as retro-fits during building
refurbishment. This integration needs to be done carefully because the PV module is
then of multiple function, as it does not only generate electricity, it also has to
weather proof the building. Furthermore, it is important for building integrated
installation to consider cooling options, as it is crucial to run the PV as cool as
possible.
5.4 SYSTEM TYPES AND DRIVERS

The main driver in PV systems is cost/service. In recent years PV was heavily
subsidised to increase uptake, based on the theory of learning curves (i.e. that each
doubling of the production will decrease the price by a certain percentage). This
resulted in a drastic market increase but also resulted in a shift in the market. In
earlier times, a significant proportion of installed capacity went into stand alone PV
(SAPV) rather than into grid connected PV (GCPV). However, SAPV has now
become rather insignificant as shown in Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.8: Development of the split between SAPV and GCPV.
The split between SAPV and GCPV has, as shown in Figure 5.8, shifted and there is
relatively small percentage, but there is still a very significant growth in the market. In
the following, SAPV is not discussed but in many ways is similar to GCPV in system
design, with the added complication of a storage device.

A similar situation is in types of materials. The new thin film materials seem to have a
shrinking market percentage, but the overall quantities being sold are still growing
significantly. Nevertheless, more than 90% of today’s market are crystalline silicon,
i.e. wafer based technologies.
5.4.1 Costs
The number, type and size of systems installed in any given market depend very
strongly on the policies. As an illustration, one could see the UK market where one of
the incentive mechanisms is called feed-in tariff (FIT). This means that all energy
generated by a system is fed into the grid and an elevated (subsidised) rate is paid
for each kWh. The introduction of this resulted in an explosion of installed systems,
as illustrated in Figure 5.9, especially in the small-domestic range (here <4kWp),
which attract the highest FIT. Once the government realised that the initial FIT rates
were set too high, it tried to curb installations by reducing the FITs. This was
challenged in court, and the case was lost, and thus installations shot up enormously
again. Further reductions in the FIT brought down installation rates, with a peak just
before each reductions and dips in the installation rates just after. This gives a very
nice correlation between political actions and the installation in a country. It thus
should be kept in mind that PV does not grow in a vacuum but strongly depends on
the political framework. Broadly speaking, it is not cost competitive with active
generation costs in the grid.
1,800,000 Cumulative installed capacity 10-50 kWp 100,000

Cumulative installed capacity 4-10 kWp
1,600,000 Cumulative installed capacity 0-4 kWp
Installation 0-4 kWp
1,400,000 Installation 4-10 kWp 10,000
Cumulative Installation [kWp]
Installation 10-50 kWp
1,200,000
Weekly Installations
1,000
1,000,000
800,000
100
600,000
400,000 10
200,000
0 1
Jul 09
Apr 10
Apr 11
Oct 09
Jul 10
Oct 10
Jul 11
Apr 12
Oct 11
Jul 12
Apr 13
Oct 12
Jul 13
Jan 10
Jan 11
Jan 12
Jan 13
Figure 5.9: Weekly installations and influence of actions of the government.
Competitiveness of PV has increased dramatically over the last years. There are
different milestones for the technology to achieve competitiveness:
• General cost reduction in an impressive learning curve. Prices have reduced by a

factor of 2.5 in the 6-year period from 2006 to 2012.

• Grid parity is when PV achieves generation costs below that of private

consumers. This should, provided that appropriate metering is applied, and thus
makes it attractive to install PV for self consumption. This has been achieved in a
number of countries in the EU.
• Industrial energy parity, which is similar to the grid parity with the only difference
that the reference cost here is the lower cost industrial electricity. This has not yet
been achieved.
• Generation parity, which is when generation costs are below that of conventional
sources. This is not achieved.
5.4.2 System classifications

In previous times, a number of classification schemes existed but as today the majority of
systems is GCPV, these have lost in relevance. The main classification is now largely based
on size and that has sometimes a bit subjective (i.e. there is no standard, just one that is based
on opinions of authors of certain papers). An indicative scheme is given in Figure 5.10.
<10 W Gadgets: Pocket calculators, watches, garden lights
Micro systems: remote electricity, leisure

<500 W
use, rural electrification
Small systems: domestic rooftops, small

<10 kW
industrial applications, remote houses
Medium systems: industrial buildings,

<500 kW
barns, facades
Large systems: ground based, ‘industrial

>500 kW
sheds’
Figure 5.10: Classification of PV systems
The classification given in Figure 5.10 are often linked to the local subsidies, a small
system is then linked to the smallest size funded (in the UK a 4kWp system), the
medium to large then go along the lines of funded systems. In the UK would then be
an issue that there are two funding mechanisms, one for ‘small’ systems (up to
50kWp) and one for large systems (above 1 MWp), which leaves a curious gap in the
middle ground where PV systems are actually at their most useful.
One classification often used in marketing terms is a ‘power system’ or the ‘power
market’, which includes all GCPV systems, i.e. systems feeding into the power grid.
Today this would be 99% of the market and all other applications have degenerated
to niche applications (despite being quite sizeable in some cases).

5.5 PV SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

PVs are typically used to achieve something specific, be it grid connected power
generation or secure power supply of fridges for vaccines. In each case, it is crucial
to be able to predict how much energy will be produced by the overall system, as
flawed installations will be of limited economic profit or not fit for their purpose. Thus,
in the following sections the basic tools for performance analysis and prediction are
given.
PV systems are typically sold based on their Standard Test Condition (STC)
efficiency, i.e. the efficiency measured with an irradiance of 1000 W/m2, and angle of
incidence of zero, a solar spectrum of AM1.5 and a cell temperature of 25°C. A very
rough estimation of the power generation could be obtained by multiplying the
system area AS with the radiative energy measured/predicted at the site and multiply
this with the system efficiency.
Pel = AS Gannη ................................................................................................... (3)
This would indicate that a 500 Wp system of 10% efficiency would produce 662 kWh
in Mallorca, where an annual in plane irradiance of 1324 kWh/m2 was measured.
Typically, systems produce only about 70 or 80% of this. In the following sections,
the basic tools of predicting and analysing system performance to identify problems
are investigated. The reason for this is that STC conditions are hardly ever achieved
in realistic operating conditions.
5.5.1 Standard Test Conditions

Performance data given by a manufacturer is only valid for certain test conditions.
These STCs are given below in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1. Standard Test Conditions.

Test Condition Quantity
Irradiance 1,000 W/m2
Spectrum AM1.5G
Angle of Incidence 0°
Cell Temperature 25°C
In an installed system, the rated power at STC is called nameplate power or installed
Watt-peak Wp. Performance data could also be that values are quoted for the
Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT). This temperature is measured at
nominal operating conditions, which are given below in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2. Definition of NOCT Measurements.

Operating Condition Measurement
Irradiance 800 W/m2

Spectrum AM1.5G
Ambient Temperature 20°C
Wind Speed 1 m/s
Mounting Open back side
In reality, the operating conditions are often dramatically different and, thus, the
performance of a module is significantly different from the one expected from the
data sheet. STC use a spectrum that is typical for spring and autumn, an operating
temperature that might be achieved in winter and an irradiance typical for summer.
These conditions favour the performance of a module and, thus, the real
performance will almost always be less than expected. However, performance
indicators have to be calculated at STC, because otherwise a meaningful comparison
is not possible.
5.5.2 Performance Indicators

Manufacturers typically supply customers with minimal data only. It is postulated that
this is sufficient to compare different devices and estimate their energy production.
However, in recent times it has been recognised that this is not sufficient and a
measurement standard for energy based assessment of devices is in the process of
being published. This should give at least performance matrices.
Normally, the data sheet contains a value for efficiency, short circuit current (ISC),
open circuit voltage (VOC), Maximum Power Point (MPP), voltage at maximum power
point (VMPP) and current at maximum power point (IMPP). Normally the temperature
coefficients for ISC, PMPP and VOC are given as α, β and γ values on the datasheets as
values relative to the STC value.
These are illustrated below in Figure 5.9 and explained in more detail in the devices
notes. The short circuit current is the intersection of the I-V characteristic with the
current axis, the open circuit voltage is the intersection with the voltage axis. The
MPP is the point at which the most power is generated.

Figure 5.11. Illustration of Performance Indicators. The graph illustrates the

performance indicators on a measured I-V characteristic
.
The Fill Factor (FF) is often used as an indicator of the quality of the device,
especially if people deal with devices (cells, modules) alone. In a systems context it
is much more difficult to obtain and normally no longer used. It is defined as:
I MPPVMPP
FF = ................................................................................................ (4)
I SCVOC
The FF can thus be seen as a measure of the ‘squareness’ of the IV characteristics.

It is strongly influenced by the magnitude of the shunt or parallel resistance RP and
the series resistance RS. The slope of the IV characteristic at the open circuit voltage
′ is strongly dependent on the series resistance, at least for high irradiances. If
I OC
′ are
this slope and the slope of the IV characteristic at the short circuit condition I SC
known and the one diode model is applicable to the device, the series resistance can
be estimated as:
′
I SC
1− ′
kT I OC 1
RS = − ............................................................................. (5)
′
e I SC + VOC I SC ′
I OC
where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature and e is the elemental

charge of an electron. The parallel resistance RP can then be estimated as:
1
RP = − RS ................................................................................................. (6)
′
I SC

The series resistance is typically a small quantity, thus, the slope of the IV
characteristic at the short circuit conditions almost exclusively depends on RP.
When measuring these performance indicators, they normally cannot be compared

directly with the manufacturers’ values because the values are dependent on the
operational conditions, and one has to compare at the same conditions.
Manufacturers give the values typically at STC.
The Performance Ratio (PR) is a common quality factor for the performance of a PV
module or a PV system. It allows a quantification of how well or badly the unit is
performing. It is given as:
real energy
PR = ..................................................................................... (7)
theoretical energy
The real energy is the amount of energy produced by the system; the theoretical
energy is given as the product of efficiency, device area and irradiance received.
Good systems have PRs of 80% and above; everything below 65% or so needs
further investigation as it might indicate system problems.
The definition of PR is sometimes given as:
η ann
PR = ....................................................................................................... (8)
η STC
Where ηann is the annual performance and ηSTC is the efficiency measured in the
laboratory. Related measures are the energy production for an installed capacity
(kWh/kWp) or the energy production for a system area (kWh/m2). It would be a good
exercise to try to link these.
Understanding system design and detailed optimisation has resulted in the last
decades in a significant improvement in PRs seen in the field. The PRs have edged
up e.g. in German systems shown in Figure 5.12 from around 60-70% to around 80-
85% in two decades. That equates to a gain of energy of nearly 30%!

Figure 5.12: Development of the PR of systems over the last 20 years
5.5.3 Realistic Performance

The definition of efficiency implies a constant seasonal performance. However, in
the device lectures some effects on the performance were illustrated, e.g. the
increase of efficiency with irradiance, which is seen for many devices. This will have
varying effects in different environments, as illustrated overleaf in Figure 5.10, where
the percentage of energy generation is plotted against irradiance levels.
The question to be addressed here is, how important these effects are when
accumulating over the whole year in different locations. Systems will typically
operate in different irradiance and temperature conditions, with the relative
importance of these being site dependent. Figure 5.10 compares the importance of
irradiance levels at different sites across the world. Similar pictures can be drawn for
operating temperature and incident spectrum.

3.5
2.5
Relative Yield [%]
1.5
Florianopolis
1 Hong Kong
Mallorca
Neuchâtel
0.5 Oxford
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Irradiance [W/m2]
Figure 5.13. Percentage of the overall energy yield of a PV system achieved in
different irradiance bins at different location.
The variation of the efficiency varies quite significantly for different devices. Figure
5.11 shows that the efficiency is not constant during a year. This variation clearly
indicates that it cannot be summarized by a single number. At the end of the day, the
customer is interested in the energy production or annual operating efficiency and
thus STC efficiency should not be over-interpreted.
1.30
1.20
1.10
Performance Ratio
1.00
0.90
0.80
c-Si a-Si-1
0.70 a-Si-2 a-Si-3
CIGS-1 CIGS-2
0.60
Oct 2007
Jan 2008
Oct 2008
Jan 2009
Oct 2009
Jan 2010
Oct 2010
Jan 2011
Oct 2011
Jan 2012
Oct 2012
Jul 2007
Jul 2008
Jul 2009
Jul 2010
Jul 2011
Jul 2012
Apr 2007
Apr 2008
Apr 2009
Apr 2010
Apr 2011
Apr 2012
Figure 5.14. Monthly variation of the relative performance ratio of some

devices in Loughborough.
In the following sections, the effects of non-STC on this measure are summarized.
Figure 5.11 also shows the difference between device classes. Typically, one would
expect crystalline silicon (c-Si) better than poly-crystalline silicon (p-Si) materials, as
also apparent from the graph. Amorphous silicon (a-Si) has roughly half the
efficiency, but it should be noted that the seasonal trend is inverted to that of c-Si and

p-Si, i.e. the highest efficiency is seen in Summer. This is to illustrate the importance
of device specific investigations.
The main contribution of efficiency in a systems context is that is has an effect on

system costs, or more precisely the BOS costs. Some costs relate to the area and
number of connectors required, i.e. if one deploys modules with twice the efficiency,
one only needs half the area and half the modules. This means that higher efficiency
systems incur lower BOS costs. There is, however, very little influence of efficiency
on the performance.
5.5.4 Performance Losses

There is a variety of different losses involved, which are summarised below.
• Irradiance Loss (Intensity Loss): Irradiance typically is not at STC. In the

device lectures it has been shown that higher irradiances are beneficial for
device performance. Devices will operate the majority of the time at lower
irradiances and thus at lower efficiencies. The effects are device specific.
• Angle of Incidence loss: With the exception of tracking systems, the angle of
incidence of the Sun will vary throughout the day and in nearly all cases not be
perpendicular. Thus reflection losses (as discussed in the resource lecture)
will reduce the power. The effect depends on the device, installation and
location.
• Temperature losses: The module temperature is typically 30oC above ambient

temperatures at one Sun irradiance, depending on wind speed and installation
method. Irradiance weighted module temperatures will mostly be higher than
25oC as given by STC, and in the device lectures and the laboratory it is
demonstrated that efficiency decreases with increasing temperature.
• Spectral losses: Most devices do not have a uniform spectral response. With
changes in the Sun’s elevation and weather conditions, the spectrum will
change. This will cause a change in operating efficiency, and this loss may
even be negative for some devices (i.e. a gain).
• Module ageing: mostly it is assumed that device age by 1% per year, although
this is more of an assumption than something borne out by research.
• Inverter losses: Inverter efficiencies are evaluated at a specific power, the

rated power (Pr). Similarly to photovoltaic devices, efficiencies will change with
different input. If the input is larger than the rated power, the inverter will take
measures to make sure that it doesn’t get overloaded and down-regulate the
input power by either switching off or increasing the voltage on the modules
beyond VOC. Thus, energy is wasted if the inverter operates beyond rated
power. Energy will also be wasted if the inverter operates at lower power
ratings, as part load efficiencies mostly are lower than full load efficiencies.
• Resistive losses: cabling will introduce resistive losses. Thus systems operate
normally at as high a voltage as possible, as this minimises ohmic losses.
Every cable, contact or fuse will contribute to the resistive losses

• Soiling: Dust or ‘normal’ dirt will accumulate on the front glass sheet and
slowly start decreasing power outputs. Rain will to some degree clean this off
again. The non-self-cleaning contribution in the UK is less than 3%, other
locations are more affected.
• Shading: Shading can be an absolute performance killer. In each string the

worst shaded cell will determine the current in the entire string. Thus shading
of a single cell can eliminate an entire string from the system.
• Workmanship: Potentially the biggest influence on system performance is in

the quality of the installer. Some installers will do a flawless job and thus not
cause any losses, but others manage to destroy an entire system’s
performance by sometimes rather silly attempts to cut corners.
There are a number of additional factors affecting the performance, but the dominant
factors are discussed above.
5.5.5 Safety
A great deal is being researched about the performance of devices, but very often
the safety is neglected. In recent years a number of fires has caused some
awareness of this problem and more is being done, but not yet in the same
structured way as performance enhancement, as many issues are about
workmanship.
5.6 ENERGY PREDICTION

Having shown in the previous section, how important it is to consider changes in the
environment in order to guarantee a working system, this section will outline the
basic approach of doing so.
In the majority of cases, the energy yield of a system needs to be calculated for
economic purposes because, in the majority of countries, subsidies are paid based
on energy production.
Normally, it is possible to obtain hourly values of irradiance for a location (either
measured or estimated using specialist software). A method utilizing such data is
given in these notes to carry out the prediction of annual energy production – monthly
or daily effects can be calculated the same way. The method presented can be
easily implemented using a simple spreadsheet package such as Microsoft Excel. It
is the basic structure of most simulation approaches.
The datasheet efficiency and the irradiance and temperature should be available. It
is assumed that the effect of irradiance G and temperature T is independent of each
other, which is not too bad an approximation in most cases. The basic approach is
illustrated in Figure 5.16 and could be seen as a blueprint for all time-step based
performance analysis methods. The idea is to correct the efficiency for the irradiance
and temperature seen at that time (obviously further modifiers could be added to
allow for effects such as spectrum or inverter part load).

ηSTC G,T (hourly)
hour=0, Pann=0
hour=hour+1
Correct for G
Correct for T
Calculate Pel
Pann=Pann+Pel
n
hour=8760
y
finished
Figure 5.15. Outline of Basic Performance Prediction Method

The difference between the common performance prediction approaches is in how
the G and T correction is carried out. In the following sections, the most basic of
approaches is given, which is currently defined as a standard for translating I-V
characteristics [3]. The caveat is that it only works for irradiances and temperatures
close to STC, but it is sufficient to use as an illustration of such a process. More
complicated processes will be introduced in the advanced course module. For
example, the method given by Anderson [4] is an improvement over this initial
approach and is now widely used. It certainly should be used if the deviation of G
and T is larger than 200 W/m2 and 5°C respectively. However, in this lecture we
want to restrict ourselves to the IEC standard.
5.6.1 Curve Correction

As stated before, it is necessary to correct any measurements for variations in the
environment. The method used here is, strictly speaking, made for correcting
measurements to STC, but works with the same accuracy the other way around.
Correcting to STC is of importance as these are the conditions at which different

devices can be compared with each other or with their datasheet values. It will also
need to be carried out as part of the laboratory experiments.
Values on the data sheet of a module are given at this condition and a comparison is
therefore only possible at this combination of irradiance and temperature. The idea
used in the international standard is to use a current correction α, and a voltage
correction β. Cells (or modules) with realistic series resistance will also be affected
by that, and a linear correlation for this is introduced into the voltage correction.

Finally, in order to allow for some ‘unexplained’ effects a curve correction factor is
used.
The correction to STC is done by applying the following equations (obviously

correction from STC to realistic conditions works similarly):
I 
I 2 = I1 + I SC  SR − 1 + α (T2 − T1 ) (9)
 I MR 
V2 = V1 − R S (I 2 − I 1 ) − kI 2 (T2 − T1 ) + β (T2 − T1 ) (10)
If no reference cell is available (which is not ideal and should normally not be done),
the term considering the reference cell should be used by purely considering the
short circuit current to be linearly dependent on irradiance, i.e. equation (7) should
become:
G 
I 2 = I1 + I SC  STC − 1 + α (T2 − T1 ) (11)
 G1 
The meaning of the terms used in equations (9), (10) and (11) are given overleaf in
Table 5.3.
The determination of the parameters RS, α, β and K are discussed in the following
subsection. The voltage and the current factors are often given by manufacturers on
their datasheet.

Table 5.3. Meaning of Abbreviations.

Abbreviation Meaning
I1, V1 Current and voltage of the measured characteristic
I2, V2 Current and voltage of the corrected characteristic
ISC Measured short-circuit current of the test sample
IMR Measured short-circuit current of the reference solar cell
ISR Short-circuit current of the reference cell in standard sunlight at
1,000 Wm-2
T1 Measured temperature of the test sample
T2 Standard temperature (25 °C)
α, β Current and voltage temperature coefficients of the test sample for
standard sunlight at 1,000 Wm (β is negative)
RS Internal series resistance of the test sample
K Current correction factor
5.6.2 Curve Correction Factor

The curve correction factor K may be obtained from current-voltage characteristics
measured on the test sample at different temperatures. A typical value for silicon
cells is 1.25 x 10-3 Ω/°C. With a cell giving, for example, a current of 950 mA at
maximum power, this gives an additional voltage transformation of about 1 mV/°C
per cell at the maximum power point, i.e. a change of about 2% for (T2 – T1) = 10 °C.
When (T2 – T1) is under 2 °C, as it should be if the specified procedure is followed,
the curve correction term in the above voltage equation can generally be ignored.
5.6.3 Measurement of Temperature Coefficients

The temperature coefficients of current (α) and voltage (β) vary with irradiance and, to
a lesser extent, with temperature. However, for the purpose of correcting current-
voltage characteristics to STC, values corresponding to an irradiance of 1,000 Wm-2
and temperatures up to 20 °C above ambient are appropriate. The coefficients are
best measured in simulated sunlight, using a single representative solar cell of the
same area and configuration as those in the relevant module, panel or array.
The parameters can be determined as follows:
• Attach a suitable lightweight temperature sensor to the test cell and position the
test cell and a suitable reference solar cell side-by-side with their active
surfaces in the test plane and at normal incidence (within ± 5°) to the centre line
of the simulator beam.
• Set the irradiance to a level such that the reference solar cell produces its
calibrated short-circuit current under STC.

• With the test cell stabilised at or near ambient temperature, measure its short-
circuit current (ISC) and open-circuit voltage (VOC).
• Stabilise the test cell at a temperature T2 about 10 °C above the ambient

temperature T1 and then at a temperature T3 about 20 °C above ambient.
• Repeat ISC and VOC measurements at each temperature.
In the case of two measurements the temperature coefficients would be defined as:
I SC 2 − I SC1
α= ............................................................................................... (12)
T2 − T1
VOC 2 − VOC1
β= ............................................................................................. (13)
T2 − T1
The parameters αC and βC, the temperature coefficients for single cells, can then be
calculated by a least square fit to the measured temperature dependence of VOC and
ISC, preferably on more than one sample.
For a module, panel, array or other assembly of cells, calculate the temperature
coefficients as follows:
α = n pα C ....................................................................................................... (14)
β = ns β C ........................................................................................................ (15)
Where np is the number of cells in parallel and ns the number of cells in series.
A similar procedure may be used to determine α and β at other irradiances and

temperatures. At sub-ambient temperature, precautions must be taken to prevent
moisture condensing on the active surface of the test cell, for instance, by directing a
dry nitrogen gas jet on the surface or by enclosing the cell in a vacuum chamber.
5.6.4 Determination of Internal Series Resistance

RS may simply be determined in simulated sunlight by the method described by Wolf
and Rauschenbach [5]. The procedure needs two I-V characteristics at different
irradiances and at the same temperature. Choose a point on each characteristic,
preferably near the ‘knee’ of the curve, where the current is the same increment ∆I
below the short-circuit current. Measure the voltage displacement ∆V between these
two points.
RS is then calculated as:
∆V
RS = ............................................................................................ (16)
I SC ,1 − I SC , 2

Where ISC,1 and ISC,2 are the two short-circuit currents.
Repeat the above steps, using a characteristic taken at a third irradiance and the
same temperature in combination with each of the first two curves. Take the mean of
the three values of RS thus calculated. A method of calculating RS from a single
measurement is given in equation (3).

5.7 REFERENCES
1. IEC, 1995, Terrestrial Photovoltaic (PV) Power Generating Systems -
General and Guide, International Electrotechnical Commission, IEC
61277:1995.
2. A Raicu, H R Wilson, H Fischer and K Heidler, 1990, Realistic Reporting

Conditions Efficiency: New Algorithm for the Assessment of Solar Cells,
Proceedings of the 9th EC Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference.
3. IEC, 1992, Procedures for Temperature and Irradiance Corrections to

Measured I-V Characteristics of Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Devices,
International Electrotechnical Commission, IEC 891:1987.
4. A J Anderson, 1996, Photovoltaic Translation Equations: A New

Approach. Final Subcontract Report, NREL, Golden.
5. M Wolf and H Rauschenbach, 1963, Series Resistance Effects on Solar

Cell Measurements, in Advanced Energy Conversion, Vol 3, pp 455.
6. B Goss, 2010, Choosing Solar Electricity: A guide to photovoltaic

systems, ISBN 9781902175591

Introduction To PV

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CREST MSc Flexible & Distance Learning Series Solar Power 1

Unit 5 – Photovoltaic Systems

• The current applications of PV and the various approaches to using PV devices.

• How to utilise methods for analysing and sizing PV systems.

• The components that make up a PV system.

• How PV system performance is measured.

• Current market drivers

©CREST 2013 Page 5.1 ELD533/ELP033/ELP633

5.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................ 5.4

5.2 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS ........................................................... 5.4

5.3 FROM CELL TO SYSTEM ............................................................. 5.5

5.3.2 PV ARRAY, DC-FIELD, ARRAY FIELD ............................................................ 5.7

5.3.3 PV SYSTEM ................................................................................................. 5.9

5.3.4 BOS COMPONENTS ................................................................................... 5.11

5.4 SYSTEM TYPES AND DRIVERS ................................................ 5.13

5.4.2 SYSTEM CLASSIFICATIONS .......................................................................... 5.15

5.5 PV SYSTEM PERFORMANCE .................................................... 5.16

5.5.2 PERFORMANCE INDICATORS ....................................................................... 5.17

5.5.3 REALISTIC PERFORMANCE .......................................................................... 5.20

5.5.4 PERFORMANCE LOSSES ............................................................................. 5.22

5.5.5 SAFETY ..................................................................................................... 5.23

5.6 ENERGY PREDICTION ............................................................... 5.23

5.6.2 CURVE CORRECTION FACTOR ..................................................................... 5.26

5.6.3 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTS ........................................ 5.26

©CREST 2013 Page 5.2 ELD533/ELP033/ELP633

5.6.4 DETERMINATION OF INTERNAL SERIES RESISTANCE ..................................... 5.27

5.7 REFERENCES............................................................................. 5.29

©CREST 2013 Page 5.3 ELD533/ELP033/ELP633

An overview of current usage of PVs is given. Different approaches of using PV

5.2 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS

Sometimes an operating efficiency ηop is calculated, which is calculated as:

©CREST 2013 Page 5.4 ELD533/ELP033/ELP633

The PR is by far the most useful characteristic when it comes to comparing

5.3 FROM CELL TO SYSTEM

Power <4W Solar Modules

Figure 5.1: From cell to module.

©CREST 2013 Page 5.5 ELD533/ELP033/ELP633

Figure 5.2. Construction of a PV module.

The basic module construction comes with a number of different variations:

• Semi-transparent: The normally opaque back-sheet has been replaced by a

©CREST 2013 Page 5.6 ELD533/ELP033/ELP633

• Bifacial: This is a semi-transparent module with normal cell spacing, where

• Concentrating: An (cheap) optical system concentrates light onto a small

5.3.2 PV Array, DC-Field, Array Field

Figure 5.3. Standard Terminology of PV Systems

The typical terminology is given as:

Module: The smallest complete environmentally protected assembly of

Panel: A group of modules fastened together, pre-assembled and wired,

©CREST 2013 Page 5.7 ELD533/ELP033/ELP633

Array: A mechanically integrated assembly of modules or panels together with

A photovoltaic array field is an assembly of modules, suitably mounted and

Parallel strings should be matched, as far as possible, in terms of voltage, as voltage

Figure 5.4. Series & Parallel Connection.

©CREST 2013 Page 5.8 ELD533/ELP033/ELP633

A number of parallel strings is termed an array. An array may be sub-divided into a

Figure 5.5: Effect of a battery short term storage

©CREST 2013 Page 5.9 ELD533/ELP033/ELP633

Inverter Fuse Battery Regulator Fuse

Figure 5.6. Grid Back-Up PV System

In grid connected systems, the grid is assumed to be available permanently and a

(i). C-B, A-D, E-F Parallel metering, no demand offset.

(iii). C-E, E-F Reversible or No metering with demand offset.

(iv). C-B, C-F, E-A Series metering with demand offset.