Punyatoya Patra AM

Introduction to Field Informatics
1. Remote Sensing and Geographic Information

Systems
One of the most basic types of information used in field work is space information about a specific target
area. There are various types of information which that fall within space information; such as information
concerning topography, land use, social infrastructure, climate, and manufacturing infrastructure. All of this
information must be appropriately gathered, in accordance with the objectives of a study or research.
Remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) are among the many useful means for gathering
and analyzing such information. Using aerial photography and satellite image obtained through remote
sensing, it is possible to gather information covering wide geographic areas; such as information about
natural resources or information about the environment. For example, it is possible to gain an
understanding about the expansion of desertification or the state of food production by studying the
distribution of vegetation. In addition, if these methods are used in conjunction with field work or by
rearranging existing data, more detailed space information can be collected. Positioning data is attached to
this collected information and it can then be analyzed using a geographic information system (GIS). A GIS
is both a database of space information and a tool for its analysis. For example, analysis of landform data or
precipitation data can lead to information used to predict natural disasters. In this chapter, we will cover the
basic outline of these methods of gathering and analyzing data.
1.1 Remote Sensing

1.1.1 An Overview of Remote Sensing
“Remote sensing” is a technical term which was coined during the space age of the 1960s, combining the
words “remote” and “sensing” to describe what it is and does. The term refers to techniques which are used
to analyze objects which are far away; for example, analyzing what these objects are or what states they are
in. In order to obtain an understanding of the characteristics and status of a target object, the
most-commonly used methods involve the reflection and radiation of electromagnetic waves. Target objects
or phenomena can be deciphered and analyzed based upon the unique electromagnetic wave characteristics
of objects, which can be summarized by the following statement: “All objects, if their types and
environmental conditions differ, have different characteristics in terms of the reflection or emission of
electromagnetic waves.” There are also other methods, such as those using magnetic or gravitational force
instead of electromagnetic waves.
Remote sensing, which covers wide-scale terrestrial, atmospheric and oceanographic data collection as
well as the monitoring of global-scale environmental shifts, has applications for a wide variety of fields. In
terrestrial science, remote sensing is used as a means of acquiring and analyzing data about the
environment and natural resources; such as data on land use, land cover, changes in vegetation and
projections of crop growth and grain harvests. In oceanography, it is used to measure sea level, water
pollution, the distribution of plant plankton, sea temperature and so on. In atmospheric science, it is used to
examine the composition of minor atmospheric constituents, such as carbon dioxide and ozone, and to
analyze cloud formations and other weather phenomena.
Figure 1-1 displays a conceptual diagram of remote sensing. There are three types of remote sensing.
First, there is visible spectrum/reflection infrared remote sensing, which measures reflected sunlight.
Second, there is thermal infrared remote sensing, which measures heat radiation emanating from objects.
Copyright (C) 2010 Field Informatics Research Group. Kyoto University. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 1: Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
Third, there is microwave remote sensing, which measures the reflection of emitted microwaves. Each of
these is applied appropriately according to the purpose of an investigation.
Information about the properties of a target object can be obtained by measuring reflected solar radiation
using both visible spectrum and reflection infrared remote sensing and then by comparing the differences
between the two measurements. The reflection of solar radiation contains electromagnetic waves in the
form of ultraviolet light, visible light and infrared light, with the peak of solar radiation coming in the form
of visible light. Because the electromagnetic wavelengths being observed are short and, in order to make
use of reflected solar radiation, observation is not possible at night or when cloud cover is prevalent. Also,
measurements are affected by such observational conditions as scattering within, and reflection off of, the
atmosphere, the position of the sun at the time of observation and the topographical features of the ground.
Because of this, it is necessary to perform corrections for atmospheric and topographical conditions for
usage of these images. The most readily-available example of usage is the observation of cloud distribution
carried out by Himawari, a weather observation satellite. Himawari provides a wealth of weather and
climate data by measuring the reflections of not only visible light spectrum, but of infrared spectrum as
well.
Thermal infrared remote sensing measures the thermal radiation which a target object emits in order to
obtain information about the object. All objects on the surface of the earth emit thermal infrared radiation
and it is possible to find the temperature of the earth's surface or of the ocean by measuring this thermal
radiation. In particular, measuring ocean surface temperature is not only important for global-scale weather
observation, but it is also useful to the fishing industry as a way of predicting good fishing grounds. The
use of remote sensing to measure electromagnetic waves which emanate from objects is not limited to
thermal infrared radiation, but also includes measurements of night-time artificial light or lightning
discharges and so on. Night-time artificial light not only serves as an indicator of the economic activity of a
country or area; it can also be utilized to grasp the extent of damage in areas hit by earthquakes and other
disasters.
Microwave remote sensing has two methods: the passive method, in which microwaves emitted by an
object are measured directly, and the active method, in which fixed-wavelength microwaves are first
emitted from the sensor, which then measures factors such as the strength of the resulting scattering
(backscattering coefficient). The latter method is referred to as Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). Using
SAR, one can obtain information about a target object, such as its geometric shape or, by the Doppler
Effect, its velocity. Because long-wavelength microwaves can penetrate clouds and particulate matter in the
atmosphere, microwave remote sensing’s characteristic is its ability to make observations regardless of
weather conditions or time of day. However, because microwave radiation is directional, microwave remote
sensing is also strongly affected by ground topography.
Devices that measure electromagnetic waves reflected off of or emitted from objects are called remote
sensors, with two of the familiar examples being digital cameras and scanners. Electromagnetic waves have
four elements - frequency (wavelength), direction of propagation, vibration amplitude and
Figure1-1 Conceptual outline of remote sensing
plane of polarization. Remote sensors are set up in such a way as to measure some or all of these elements
according to the purpose of investigation. The efficiency (resolution) of a sensor used in remote sensing is
expressed in terms of how large (wide) of a target area is covered by a single pixel. A resolution of 30 m
means that a single pixel covers an area of 30 square-meters. Usually, high resolution refers to a few meters
or less, medium resolution refers to several dozen meters and low resolution refers to several hundred
meters or more.
Every object has a unique reflection and radiation characteristics in response to electromagnetic waves at
all different frequencies. These characteristics are called spectral reflection characteristics. Figure 1-2
illustrates the relationship between the electromagnetic spectral bands and these reflection and radiation
characteristics. The horizontal axis represents the wavelengths of electromagnetic waves across each of the
electromagnetic spectra. The vertical axis illustrates the strength of the corresponding reflection and
thermal radiation for plants, soil and water, respectively. Because plants reflect solar radiation with their
leaves, their reflection characteristics are strongly affected by the reflection characteristics of chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll absorbs comparatively more red light and blue light than green light and strongly reflects
near-infrared range electromagnetic waves. The more active a plant is, the stronger the reflection tends to
be. By using this sort of reflection characteristic of plants, it is possible to observe the activity of vegetation.
Soil's reflection peaks in the visible light spectrum, growing weaker as it moves into the infrared spectrum.
Water’s reflection in the visible light spectrum is weaker than earth’s, and water barely reflects radiation at
all in the infrared spectrum. In order to determine the composition of an object using the respective
reflection characteristics of plants, earth and water, the most commonly-used sensors measure reflections in
four spectral bands: the three colors of visible light—red, green and blue (RGB)—and near-infrared light.
1.1.2. Methods of Processing Image Data
Remote sensing produces information in the form of digital data. The data is the reflective brightness value
for each pixel across all of the wavelength ranges measured by a sensor. The reflective brightness value,
which is called a digital number (DN), is a one-byte (8 bit) integer value between 0 and 255 in most cases,
though it can differ depending upon the sensor. The wavelength range that a sensor measures is called a
band or a channel. The most commonly used multi-spectral sensors (MSS) measure four bands – red, green,
and blue light within the visible spectrum, and near-infrared radiation.
The processing of remote sensing image data, as shown in Figure 1-3, includes two major areas:
correction processing and classification processing. In general, after corrected sensor image data is
Figure 1-2: Electromagnetic spectral bands and reflection/radiation characteristics
obtained, atmospheric corrections, geometric corrections and topography corrections are performed. Next,
the features of a target area or object are extracted, and these are used to perform quantitative image
classification.
Atmospheric correction is conducted in order to remove distortion caused by scattering which takes
place in the atmosphere during the interval between solar radiation’s reflection off the surface of the earth
and its measurement by a sensor. Some simple methods of correction include corrections made using values
for an object whose reflection ratio is already known or corrections made by performing comparative
calculations between spectral bands.
Geometric correction is to correct for distortions in the sensor itself or distortions brought about by the
method of projecting a map onto a two-dimensional surface, and it is normally conducted by comparing
maps and images of the target area and designating several overlapping points as a basis for correction.
Satellite image data contains information on the positions of the image’s center point and its four corner
points, and corrections are performed automatically based upon the positions of these five points.
Topography correction is to correct for differences in the angle or angular direction (inclination) of the
reflection of solar radiation caused by reflection off of a slanted surface. Corrections are made based upon
the angle and inclination of the terrain, as calculated using digital topography (DEM), and the position of
the sun at the time of observation. One simple method for making these corrections is to perform
comparative calculations between spectral bands. Topography correction is unnecessary when the target
area is mostly flat.
The methods used for image enhancement and feature extraction are similar to the methods used to
process photographs taken by digital cameras. There are several methods used for image enhancement
processing. One method is color tone conversion, which uses a histogram (brightness frequency
distribution) of reflective brightness values to convert color density. Another method is to make information
from outside of the visible spectrum visible through the use of color synthesis. Feature extraction includes
such methods as spectral feature extraction, using principal component analysis or vegetation index,
textural feature extraction, and spatial filtering among others. It is vitally important to perform, in
accordance with the purpose of analysis, image enhancement and/or feature extraction in order to grasp the
features of a classification target.
Image classification begins by determining, according to the purpose of analysis, the classification
classes to be used for analysis. In other words, generalized
classification classes for analysis are determined according
to what one wants to know about a target area or what one
hopes to discover. For example, if one wants to know about
land use conditions, one may establish classification classes
such as rice paddies, fields, forests, buildings, water and so
on. After doing so, one then determines the variables to be
used in the classification (classification variables) based
upon the features of the classes, which are derived using
image enhancement and feature extraction. In general, the
respective values across each spectral band and indices, or
characteristic quantities derived by performing calculations
across spectral bands, are used as classification variables. It
is also important, when choosing classification variables, to
consider previous research. When there exists a wealth of
previous information about a target area, the method of Figure 1-3 The process of image data
classification is based upon (or “supervised” by) this processing
information. Thus, this method is called “supervised
classification.” By contrast, when there is little previous
information about an area, classification is conducted through statistical methods, which is why this method
is called “unsupervised classification.”
In supervised classification, the locations appearing in images are specified in terms of each
classification class and these locations are selected as training areas. Using data from these training areas,
the statistical values of the classification classes are calculated and the entire target area is then classified
using these statistical values. The maximum-likelihood classification method is generally used as the
algorithm for classification. The accuracy of classification can then be verified by comparing and
examining the classification result of the training area. The features of this method are that classification
classes are pre-determined and that the accuracy of classification can be verified.
For unsupervised classification, one first extracts a fixed number of pixels using random sampling of the
entire target area. Then, using the variables of those pixels, one classifies them using cluster analysis into
several classes before seeking the statistical values for these classification classes. Unsupervised
classification is the method of then applying these statistical values to classify the entire target area. For this
method of classification, it is necessary to consider classification results when determining what the
classification classes are.
This type of image processing can easily be performed on a PC using commercially-available remote
sensing analysis software or free open-source software (such as MultiSpec (© Purdue University [1])).
Most software comes equipped with the essential analytical and classification functions which allow one to
obtain classification results simply by setting the parameters.
1.1.3. Vegetation Index and Land Cover
For land-cover classification of continental areas, the principal elements are plants, soil and water. The
reflection characteristic of plants is a weak reflection in the blue and red bands, but a strong reflection in
the near-infrared band. From these characteristics, the use of vegetation indices based upon the brightness
values of the red and near-infrared bands was proposed. In the most commonly-used vegetation index,
called the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index or NDVI, higher index values indicate higher levels of
vegetation activity. Further, NDVI is calculated using the following formula.
NDVI = (NIR – RED)/(NIR + RED)

NIR= the brightness value of the near infrared band.
Figure 1-4 illustrates a false-color image and an NDVI image. False color refers to a method of
transforming information from outside of the visible spectrum into something which is visible. When red is
Figure 1-4 False-color image (a) and NDVI image (b). Ikonos satellite image showing the Kyoto
Prefectural Botanical Garden and the surrounding area
assigned to the brightness value for near-infrared light, green is assigned to that of visible-spectrum red
light and blue is assigned to that of visible-spectrum green light, vegetation appears in red (as illustrated in
Figure 1-4a). Figure 1-4b illustrates an NDVI image. The whiter areas represent higher NDVI values,
indicating more active vegetation.
Some problems with satellite remote sensing include the very high cost of image data, the fact that
imaging is affected by factors such as weather, the uncertainty of being able to obtain images which are not
obscured by clouds, the fact that analysis often varies depending on how it is handled individually and the
existence of several formidable technical obstacles. Because of these problems, the issue of inadequate
development, not only at the research level, but in terms of real business, is becoming an issue which will
require future consideration. Thus, needs-based, value-added information services, as well as the
establishment of a standardized method of analysis, are necessary. Additionally, transmission techniques for
acquiring images in real time, archives of past image data and IT-based services will also become important.
Furthermore, the development of systems allowing decision-making or communications to be conducted
easily through images and video is also important.
1.2 Geographical information systems (GIS)

1.2.1 An Overview of Geographical Information Systems
A geographic information system (GIS) is a system in which map information, along with various
additional information, can be displayed and referenced using computers. GIS was originally developed in
Canada for farmland revival and development in the 1960s. Its use as a familiar information system is
becoming more widespread in all fields which handle space-time information, due to the progress being
made in the processing power and memory capacity of computers and the refinement of computerized
systems. Its utilization covers a wide range of fields: from the planning and management of urban living
infrastructure, such as houses and roads; to the planning and

management of rural agricultural production facilities, such as
fields; to the management and protection of the natural
environment of forests; to military usage. GIS is a system which
handles information referenced in terms of space-time coordinate
values. The measurement of environmental variables, the
mapping of features, the monitoring of environmental changes
and the modeling of plans or contingency plans are called “4M”
in GIS, and these four Ms plainly state the qualities of GIS.
In GIS, space-time information is managed according to units
called layers. Figure 1-5 illustrates the concept of layers. While
with maps, a wide array of information is simply laid out on a
single sheet, GIS is made up of many separate sheets—called
layers—representing different themes, such as rivers, roads, train
lines and the like, and these layers are managed in unison. The
Figure 1-5 Conceptual Outline of
two representative data structures used in GIS are raster format Layers
and vector format. These data structures are conceptualized in
Figure 1-6. The vector format data structure encodes the
coordinate values of a target object, turning them into a database composed of points, lines and polygons.
Although it is possible to determine coordinates or positions by setting the precision at the user's discretion,
the computational algorithms involved are very complex. Also, data input requires a large amount of time
and effort. By contrast, the raster format data structure distributes a target object’s variables for each factor
into a grid corresponding
Figure 1-6 Conceptual outline of data structuring
with actual space. Although the computations involved are simple, the larger size of a raster bitmap
increases the amount of data used. The data structure which one chooses to employ depends on the purpose
for which it is to be used. For example, if one is handling polygonal surface data—such as buildings, rice
paddies or forests—and its attribute data, one will likely use the vector format data structure. Information
related to other factors, such as elevation, is in the form of raster format data. The maps, aerial photography
and remote sensing classification results, etc., which serve as the background for GIS displays, take the
form of raster format data, which also includes RGB color information as part of its image data. At present,
the points, lines and polygons of the vector format data structure, which is most commonly used in GIS, are
managed as relational databases. With attention given to the fact that lines are what connect one point with
another and polygons are what those lines encompass, these databases are constructed by relating data
about points, lines and polygons. Further, in order to take full advantage of the characteristics of both
vector format data and raster format data, many types of GIS software are compatible with both data
structures.
1.2.2 Acquisition of Positioning Information
In order to handle space information in GIS, positioning information is needed. For example, when
establishing a plot (investigation division) for field surveys, the shape of the plot is measured from points
of reference called benchmarks. However, in order to use these plots in GIS, accurate positioning
information about the benchmarks is needed. Until recently, such positioning information was calculated on
maps using a compass or measured from clearly-established locations (such as bridges, crossroads,
benchmarks) on maps. In addition, it was difficult to obtain positioning information due to the sheer
number of places in which photographs had been taken or information gathered. However, nowadays, with
satellite positioning systems, such as GPS, becoming more widespread, positioning information has
become much easier to obtain.
There are two types of satellite positioning systems: GPS (Global Positioning System), which is
managed by the United States Department of Defense, and GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite
System), which is managed by Russia. These satellite positioning systems were developed for military use
in the 1960s, and have since come into common use as one of the many instances of civilian usage of
military technology. The civilian usage of GPS began in 1993 as a navigational aid for shipping. In the year
2000, scrambling “noise,” which had been intentionally inserted into GPS signals to maintain the
superiority of military systems, was lifted, greatly improving the accuracy of positioning and allowing for
progress in the civilian usage of GPS.
Table 1-1. Methods of GPS positioning
The positioning methods used in GPS, which is the most widely-used satellite positioning system in the
world, are shown in Table 1-1. These methods are generally divided, based upon the number of receivers
used for positioning, into the following two categories: the independent positioning method and the
differential positioning method. Differential positioning is further divided into two methods: one which
uses the distance between a satellite and an observation point, which is called “false distance,” and one
which uses the frequency phases of the carrier (radio) waves. The positioning method to be used is selected
appropriately according to the purpose and desired accuracy of observation.
The independent positioning method (single-point positioning) uses only one receiver for positioning,
and is most commonly used for navigation or simple surveying. This method seeks the position of the point
of observation, which is an unknown value, by measuring the false distance between that point and the
positions of GPS satellites, which are known values. The distance between a satellite and the point of
observation is calculated based upon the time differential between the time of transmission of a signal from
a satellite and the time of the signal’s reception by a receiver. Because the accuracy of the receiver’s
internal clock is far below that of a GPS satellite, the margin of error of the receiver’s clock becomes an
unknown value, which, along with the sought-after spatial position (in three dimensions) of the point of
observation, brings the total number of unknown values to four. Thus, four GPS satellites are necessary for
positioning. Although this method can position in real time, the accuracy of the measurements is
comparatively low, with a margin of error of about ten meters.
Differential positioning is a method which uses multiple GPS receivers simultaneously. One receiver is
placed as a benchmark in a fixed position at known coordinates. Another GPS receiver, which is set at the
point of observation, measures signals from the same satellite at the same time as the benchmark receiver.
This eliminates the primary cause of error, which is shared by both receivers, thus making this a
highly-accurate method of positioning.
In differential GPS, positioning information is measured at a base point whose position is
clearly-established and the margin of error involved in the observation is calculated. The positioning
information which is observed by a GPS receiver at an unknown position is then corrected using the error
information from a receiver at a known positioning point, making it possible to increase the accuracy of
measurements to within several meters. This method is used for positioning ships in shallow waters and
harbors.
Carrier phase positioning is a method which measures the wave phases of the carrier (radio) waves
which are transmitted by GPS satellites and the baseline vector between the known position of a benchmark
and a point of measurement. Static method positioning (static surveying) is a method of collecting and
analyzing data using static antennae affixed at measurement points. Because the accuracy of these
measurements is very high, this method is used for scientific research activities such as measuring the
movement of the earth’s crust. Although the accuracy of positioning using kinematic measurement is
inferior to that of static surveying, one advantage of kinematic surveying is the ability to make observations
of multiple locations in a relatively short amount of time. Thus, it is commonly used for topographical
surveying or for large scale public works surveying.
Here in Japan, the Tokyo Datum geographic coordinate system, which had been in use since the Meiji
Period, was revised in 2002 to incorporate the ITRF (International Terrestrial Reference Frame), becoming
the “Japanese Geodetic Datum 2000.” Two factors set the background for this revision: the development of
GPS and other methods of satellite surveying which allow for the acquisition of both precise and
readily-available spatial coordinates and the increasing need, as evidenced by the expanding use of
commercial airplanes or by the applications of GIS, for a universally shared geographical coordinate
system to standardize spatial coordinate data, which had previously varied diversely from country to
country. GPS uses a geographical coordinate system called WGS 84, which is virtually identical to the
current ITRF reference system. Also, the types of positioning information sought in GPS positioning are
latitude, longitude and “height.” However, “height” is different from elevation, and thus requires
conversion. Here in Japan, such a conversion program is also available. Also, when verifying positioning
using GIS or using GPS in conjunction with maps, it is necessary to determine whether the maps being
used are ITRF or WGS84 geographical coordinate system maps. The margin of error between these new
maps and the older Tokyo Datum maps runs into the hundreds of meters.
The methods for obtaining information using GPS are generally divided into two categories. The first
method is to obtain positioning information directly by reading the indicator display of a GPS receiver. This
method is useful for verifying one's location in the field or for obtaining positioning data. The other method
is to record GPS positioning information continuously. This method is used to analyze the movement and
behavior of bodies in motion, such as animals or vehicles. GPS information (NMEA data) from a GPS
receiver is output directly to information recording equipment. For the analysis of a body in motion, NMEA
data is recorded at fixed time intervals and this data is then analyzed. These devices are called the GPS data
logger. The utilization of such data loggers for the purpose of analyzing the behavior of living things will
be covered in greater depth in Chapter 2: “Bio-Logging.” In addition, if one wants to obtain positioning
data for photographs taken, one can very easily obtain such information in post-processing if the internal
clock of a digital camera and that of a GPS data logger have been synchronized.
1.2.3 The Processing of Space-Time Data
The processing of space-time data can be roughly divided into the following five processes: data collection,
pre-processing and data input, database management, information analysis processing, and information
output. “Data collection” is the collection of space information in relation to the target and purpose of
analysis. In many cases, existing and relevant resources, such as maps, statistical information, field reports
and aerial or satellite photography surveying a target area, are collected. Recently, there is also a wealth of
information made available on the Internet by related organizations, making a simple Internet search an
effective means of collecting information prior to conducting field work. Also, it is necessary to collect data
independently in accordance with a theme. Therefore, it is necessary to plan and carry out sampling or
census surveys.
“Pre-processing and data input” is the task of inputting collected data into GIS. The digitalization of
maps and other data, formatting, error detection and correction, geometric correction, position adjustment,
data supplementation and other such processing are necessary. Although digital data, such as digital maps,
are coming into more common use, land registries or similar analog data are still quite common and it is
this analog data which requires the greatest expenditures of time and effort to handle in GIS. Data input and
revision is a major issue relating to the normalization and continuation of GIS.
“Database management” is an aspect of processing which depends on systems. The fundamental
elements of a database management system include controlling data values and definitions and ensuring the
preservation, security and synchronization of data. For the average GIS user, this system serves as a kind of
“black box,” meaning that the user does not usually interact directly with the system itself. However, these
systems provide high-level operational functions and form a critical
backbone to support the GIS usage environment.
In “information analysis processing,” various types of data are
analyzed and processed using a database constructed for that purpose.
There are many methods for analysis, such as processing the overlay of
multiple layers to create new layers, re-encoding attributes, spatial
integration, extracting a surrounding area called a buffer, network
analysis and various types of statistical analysis and so on. As illustrated
in Figure 1-7, overlay processing is a process in which layers with
different themes are overlaid to create composite layers. It is not simply
overlaying; it also allows one to define new categories based upon the
combination of two or more different categories, thus creating entirely
new thematic layers. As illustrated in Figure 1-8, buffering is a process
of extracting target objects within a set radius from a specific location Figure 1-7 Overlaying
(point), road (line) or such. In addition to these methods of analysis,
which are made available in GIS software, the user may also write his or
her own program to perform analysis. The data resulting from this
analysis processing can be added or output as new layers, and has many
applications as a new source of information. Generally speaking, the
true value of GIS is in the expression of these methods of data
processing, to the extent that GIS itself can be thought of as nothing less
than “data analysis processing.” Figure 1-8: A buffer
“Information output” is the operation in which the final results of
analysis are output. GIS can output many kinds of maps and diagrams; such as thematic maps, which
illustrates across-the-board features, choropleth maps, which illustrate the relative degree of some
continuous variable, contour maps and various statistical diagrams. In addition, file output for use in
analysis with other systems and network-based transmission are also possible.
GIS is an extremely valuable tool for managing space-time information. However, due to the high cost of
constructing and maintaining these systems, and also due to the high degree of expertise required for their
use, at present, they have not come into very wide use. However, GIS can easily be used with a common
personal computer. Commercial software comes in many varieties, ranging from those with high-level
functionality to those which are simple and easy to use. Furthermore, free, open-source software is also
available. Also, in terms of map data for GIS, Digital National Land Information, digital maps produced by
the Geographical Survey Institute and other such organizations, are also available for use. Thus, progress is
being made in laying the groundwork for the implementation GIS, giving rise to high expectations for its
widespread use in the future.
The Internet is rich in various sources of information, such as map data and travel route data, which are
used by many people. All of this was set into motion in 1998, when Al Gore, then the U.S. Vice President,
proposed the inception of what he called “Digital Earth.” “Digital Earth” is the notion of using information
technology to relate the actual earth to a simulated earth in an attempt to virtually reproduce, and thus better
understand, our planet. Its originally-intended applications were in fields such as education and research,
land use and urban planning and in handling environmental problems. In order to construct and implement
such a system, technical advances such as high-speed networking, high-resolution satellite photography,
and the acquisition of accurate positioning data through GPS were all necessary. Now, “Digital Earth” has
been realized, and its refinement continues to this day. Digital Earth sites on the Internet include “Google
Earth” (Google), “Virtual Earth” (Microsoft), “World Wind” (NASA) and others. Map search engines, such
as “Google Maps” and “Mapion,” are available as well.
The standardization of data formats for data created by various types of GIS software provided the
necessary background for the spread of such Internet-based map data. These formats have been
Figure 1-9 The standardization of and interrelation between data formats related to spatial data
standardized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as ISO19136 (GML3.1). This type
of data format standardization is giving way to new uses for space information. Figure 1- 9 illustrates the
relationships between the data formats used in GPS, GIS and the like, with the arrows in the figure
representing the flow of information. Most GIS software is compatible with the GML format and with the
NMEA and GPX formats, which are the data output formats used in GPS. On the other hand, “Google
Earth” and “Google Maps” use a data format called KML to describe the points, lines, polygons and images
that make up space information. The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), which aims to establish
worldwide standards and worldwide interoperation of spatial data, designated KML as their standard for
spatial data. There is some difference between the GML and KML data formats, but their compatibility is
high.
It is very important to integrate, using GIS, the results obtained through analysis of remote sensing or
field surveying, and to make those results available to the public, or at least to the persons concerned. One
means of doing so is by using the Internet. Figure 1-10 illustrates an example of space information
managed by GIS which has been transferred onto the Internet-based “Digital Earth.” This example uses
“Google Earth” and “Google Maps” as its “Digital Earth.” The point, line and polygon vector data and its
corresponding attribute data, created using GIS, have been output as KML format data and fed into
“Google Earth” and other sites. Figure 1-10a shows a screenshot of a GIS display, Figure 1-10b shows the
screenshot after being fed into “Google Earth” and Figure 1-10c shows the screenshot after being fed into
“Google Maps.” In this way, it is possible to provide research information about natural resources or the
environment on the Internet. This means the transmission of space information, and indicates the
possibilities for the sharing of, and applications for, information about natural resources and the
environment covering the whole earth.
Figure 1-10 Example of image transfer; GIS image (a), Google Earth (b), Google Maps (c)
1.3 Case Studies of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System
Usage
In order to understand the current state of the natural environment on Ishigaki Island and Iriomote Island,
land-cover (land use) has been analyzed using remote sensing. Remote sensing analysis begins with the
acquisition of satellite image data. Here imagery from the ASTER sensor of the Terra satellite was used.
The ASTER-VNIR sensor has three bands: visible (green and red) and near infrared light, and its resolution
is 15 meters. Figure 1-11 shows the raw image and the same image after geometric correction processing.
The island in the upper left of the Figure is Iriomote Island and that in the upper right is a part of Ishigaki
Island. This picture was rendered using false color, with the near infrared band assigned the color red, the
red band assigned the color green and the green band assigned the color blue. It can be determined, based
upon reflection characteristics, that the red areas are vegetation, the whitish areas are cities or bare fields,
the blue areas are shallow seas, and that the green area is the open sea. The image created by this sensor has
attached positional information for its four corners and for the image's center, and figure 1-11b displays the
result of geometric correction. It has been revised so that it matches the geographical coordinate system of
the map.
Next, the target area for analysis has been selected from the geometrically-corrected image and
unsupervised classification has been performed. Figure 1-12 shows a false-color image of the target area (a)
and the classification result for land cover (b). The variables used were the green band, red band,
near-infrared band and the NDVI vegetation index. In Figure 1-12a, NDVI has been assigned the color red
and near-infrared has been assigned the color green, and the red band has been assigned the color blue.
Thus, high-vegetation areas, in which the NDVI and near-infrared band values are high, are displayed in
yellow. The classification result displayed in Figure 1-12b has classified Iriomotejima into forests (shades
of green), the coral reef around the island (light blue) and urban and farm areas (pink). If one were to use
images spanning different periods of time, one could research changes in land use and land cover, as well.
Next, let us consider the differences in land cover between two drainage basins on Ishigaki Island. Figure
1-13 is the land cover classification result of Figure 1-12b as handled using GIS. The classification map for
land cover is displayed transparently, overlaid onto the Geographical Survey Institute’s map, in the
light-purple square in the center of the image. Also, the two drainage basins for which land cover
differences will be considered are displayed as polygonal data in the center of the image. In GIS, space
information is managed at the layer unit level. In this example, three different layers are being used: the
Geographical Survey Institute’s map (raster format data), the remote sensing classification result (raster
Figure 1-11: Raw image (a) and image after geometric correction (b)
Figure 1-12: False-color image (a) and image after unsupervised classification (b)
format data) and the drainage basin area polygons (vector format data). Also, in GIS, the user can select at
will which layers to display or not display.
The Geographical Survey Institute's map and the drainage basin polygons are indicated as they appear in
GIS in Figure 1-14. Using this polygonal information, the two pictures to the right of Figure 1-14 display
the land cover classification results for each drainage basin. Based upon the differences in coloring, which
indicate different classification classes, it can be seen that land usage differs between the two adjacent
drainage basins, A and B. Because each pixel in a satellite image can be converted to a certain fixed area, it
is possible to calculate the area for each type of land use by counting the number of pixels. These results
can be utilized as fundamental informational resources for understanding, for example, based upon
differences in land cover, the turbidity of rivers or the impact of such.

GPS is an invaluable tool for obtaining location data. By utilizing multiple GPS receivers or GPS data
loggers, it is possible to obtain location data continuously. This data is used in GIS as route data or location
data. Figure 1-15 shows an example in which the routes traveled by mountain climbers were recording
using GPS and the distribution of areas traveled to and the frequency of travel have been examined. At the
two entrances (distinguishable as red and blue lines), visiting mountain climbers were asked to carry GPS
data loggers, and information about the routes which they traveled was gathered. The deeper-colored lines
indicate areas through which many mountain climbers passed, providing fundamental data for devising
strategies to protect the natural environment or regulating access to the mountain. By identifying which
areas mountain climbers were visiting, this data also proved useful in considering where guideposts and
other installments were needed. Using these types of methods, GPS and GIS are used to analyze the
behavior of bodies in motion. Recently, these
techniques are also being applied to the
movements of wild animals, such as bears,
deer and monkeys, and are becoming an
important source of information for designing
measures which aim to allow humans and wild
animals to live in harmony. For more detailed
examples of this sort of application, please
refer to Chapter 2: Bio-Logging.
Remote sensing (RS), geographical
information systems (GIS) and satellite
positioning systems (GPS) are referred to as
the “3-S Technologies.” The collecting and
analysis of space information and their
subsequent results are useful “tools” in each of
the areas in which they are applied in the real Figure 1-13 Display in GIS with classification
result
Figure 1-14: Extraction of land cover classification result from drainage basin areas
world. Information systems which make use of space information range from global-level, wide-scale
systems, such as those used for analyzing climate change, to regional-level, small-scale systems, such as
those used for disaster prediction and prevention and those used for environmental mapping. For the
foreseeable future, the role of space information science, which brings real-world applications to
geographic information, and the need for learning about the “3-S Technologies” are expected to continue to
grow in importance. Please refer to the References Section for more detailed information about remote
sensing image processing (2, 3) and for more detailed examples of usage (4, 5).
References
1. MultiSpec: http://dynamo.ecm.purdue.edu/-biehl/MultiSpec
Japanese manual（http://www.affrc.go.jp/rss/2004/colorPPT.pdf）
2. Processing and analysis of images: Japanese remote sensing research group, Kyoritsu publication (in
Japanese)
3. Image analyses handbook: Mikio Takagi & Haruhisa Shimoda supervision, Tokyo University
publication (in Japanese)
4. Forest remote sensing: Masahito Kato writing and editing, Forestry investigation meeting (in
Japanese)
5. Agriculture remote sensing handbook: System agriculture society (in Japanese)
(Tetsuro Sakai)

Punyatoya Patra AM

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Introduction to Field Informatics

1. Remote Sensing and Geographic Information

1.1 Remote Sensing

Figure1-1 Conceptual outline of remote sensing

1.1.2. Methods of Processing Image Data

Figure 1-2: Electromagnetic spectral bands and reflection/radiation characteristics

1.1.3. Vegetation Index and Land Cover

vegetation activity. Further, NDVI is calculated using the following formula.

NDVI = (NIR – RED)/(NIR + RED)

1.2 Geographical information systems (GIS)

infrastructure, such as houses and roads; to the planning and

Figure 1-6 Conceptual outline of data structuring

1.2.2 Acquisition of Positioning Information

1.2.3 The Processing of Space-Time Data

1.3 Case Studies of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System

differences in land cover, the turbidity of rivers or the impact of such.

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