Intro

Climate change and biodiversity
Outline
1. What is biodiversity?
2. Climate Change
3. Climate Change as a threat to biodiversity
4. Cimate Change and biodiversity in Norway (and in

mountain and arctic areas in general)
• Species diversity All species on earth, including

single celled bacteria and protists as well as the
species of the multicelluar kingdoms (plants,
fungi, and animals)
• Genetic diversity The genetic variation within

species, both among geographically separate
populations and among individuals within
single populations
• Ecosystem diversity The different biological

communities and their associations with the
chemical and physical environment (the
ecosystem)
3
What is a species?
A species is generally defined in one of three ways:
1. Morphological definition of a species
A species can be defined as a group of individuals that is morphologically,
physiologically, or biochemically distinct from other groups in some
important characteristic
2. Biological definition of a species
A species can be defined as a group of individuals that can potentially breed
among themselves in the wild and that do not breed with individuals of
other groups
3. Evolutionary definition of a species
A group of individuals that share unique similarities of their DNA. 4
What is the problem of having different definitions

of a species?
One species: Within this species Two species: The

there are several varieties that Eurasian beaver and the
have observable morphological North American beaver
differences have no observable
morphological
differences 5
How do we measure species diversity?

At its simplest level, species diversity has been
defined as the number of species found in a
community, a measure often called species
richness
6
Difference between species richness and species diversity
Habitat 1 Habitat 2
7
Species diversity
Species richness  simply a count of species (does not take

into account the abundances)
Species diversity  both species richness and species

evenness (takes abundances into account)
8
Three diversity measurements that are based on species richness:
1. Alpha diversity
2. Beta diversity
3. Gamma diversity
9
Alpha-, beta-, gamma diversity

Within community diversity
Between community diversity

(Gamma / Alpha)
Total diversity
(area, region or globe)
10
11
Outline
2. Climate Change

2. Climate Change
Observed changes in the climate system
• The atmosphere and ocean have warmed

• The amounts of snow and ice have diminished
• Sea level has risen
2. Climate change

(IPCC 2014)
2. Climate change
• Sea level has risen - Glaciers are
retreating (e.g.
Pasterze Glacier
in Austria)
- Northern
Hemisphere Spring
snow cover
decreases
- Permafrost
- Greenland and Antarctic ice temperatures
sheets have been losing mass. increase
2. Climate change

(IPCC 2014)
2. Climate change
Expected changes in
the climate system
(IPCC 2014)
2. Climate change
Expected changes in the climate system
(IPCC 2014)
2. Climate change
Expected changes in the climate system
(IPCC 2014)
2. Climate change
Causes of climate change
Greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide, methane, and laughing gass (the major
anthropogenic greenhouse gases)  transparent to sunshine, but ”prevent”
heat to radiate back into space
2. Climate change
(IPCC 2014)
2. Climate change
(IPCC 2014)
Outline
2. Climate Change

Global climate change

Millions of years
Ice ages
Millions of years
Myhre 2015 after Mangerud 1989
No ice
• Global climate change is not a new phenomenon; during the past 2 million years,
there have been at least 10 cycles of global warming and cooling
• While many species undoubtedly went extinct during these repeated episodes of
changes, the species we have today are survivors of global climate change
If species could adjust to changes in global climate in the past, will species
be able to adjust to the predicted changes in global climate caused by
human alteration of the atmosphere?
How can organisms respond to climate change?
• Change behaviour
• Move
• Adapt
• Extinct

 change behaviour
Walther et al., 2002, Nature


 change behaviour


 move
• heading south
• heading north
Sturm et al. 2001, Nature


 move up


 change behaviour and move
Global coherence:
• systematic trend
• range shifts: 6.1 km per decade towards the poles (or meteres upwards)
• spring 2.3 days earlier per decade
• impacts on every continent, every ocean, most taxonomic groups
 climate change is affecting living systems
Parmesan and Yohe 2003, Nature

• Move
So what’s the problem??

If species simply can move or change their

behaviour, what’s the problem?
 Species cant move because of barriers, both natural and human made
● Natural barriers ● Human made

barriers
Habitat
fragmentation
If species simply can move or change their behaviour, what’s the
problem?
Major threats to biological diversity that result
from human activity:
1. Habitat destruction
2. Habitat fragmentation
3. Pollution
Interaction
4. Global climate change
5. Overexploitation of species
6. Introduction of invasive species
7. Disease

 nowhere to go
• no higher mountain summits, no farther south

• habitat destruction
• suitable habitats are remote from current distribution

• Species form webs of interaction

• Not all species respond equally
 Temporal and spatial mismatches
Apropos mismatches:
• Move
 Adaption?
Evolution to the rescue?

• Move
• Adapt
 Extinction
15-37% of species commited to extinction

(mid-range warming scenarios for 2050)
Climate change ecology is still in its infancy

3. Climate Change as a
threat to biodiversity
Outline
2. Climate Change

4. Cimate Change and biodiversity in Norway (and in mountain and arctic areas in general)
Changes in
temperatures (end of
21st century compared
to 1990, for a high
greenhouse gas
emission scenario)
43
4. Cimate Change and biodiversity in Norway
(and in mountain and arctic areas in general)
 Climate change is
predicted to be the most
important driver of change
in alpine and arctic
biodiversity.
Sala et al 2000, Science

Scenarios for future climate in Norway (until 2099)

(compared to the 1961-1990 period):
Mean annual temperature: Increase by 2.3-4.6 oC

Annual precipitation: Increase by 5-30 %
Snow accumulation will start 3-4 weeks later and end 1-7 weeks earlier
(the change gets smaller with increasing altitude and distance from the
coast)
Growing season length (GSL) (5 °C threshold): Increase by 30-60 days 45

(Hanssen-Bauer 2009)
Alpine and arctic plant

species
• Highly adapted species
• Low stature, light demanding
• Low competitive species
• Nowhere to escape.. Too low

mountains in Norway?
Or are there places to hide?

• Lowland species often have to move greater distances (1)

• Mountains may be refugia (2 and 4)
• Traps leading to local extinction (3 and 5)
• Escape climate warming by topography effects (6) 47
 topographically induced mosaics of micro-climatic conditions in an

alpine landscape are associated with local plant species distribution
48
Scherrer and Körner 2011
Climate change
and biodiversity
4. Cimate Change and
biodiversity in Norway (and in
mountain and arctic areas in
general)
49
Steinbauer et al., Nature 2018
exposed ridge
leeside
snowbed snow depth

Changes in winter precipitation

The duration of the snow cover period will be shorter everywhere in Norway (30-80
days shorter)
The date of snow melt: 1 to 7 weeks earlier than at present, with highest changes at
low altitudes
51
SI = snow indicator value

 homogenisation of mountain vegetation?
• Increase in low-land species and dwarf shrubs
 Increased competition from low-land species?
 Less highly adapted species: less snowbed species (mainly), less exposed
ridge species
Shrubbification of alpine and arctic areas?
Meyers-Smith et al. 2011

Sturm et al. 2001, Nature
56
Husbandry and grazing!!! Aftenposten, August 2013 57

Changes in species richness on mountain summits (resampling)
58
Sites with re-surveyed

summit flora-records
across Europe
59
Piz Linard, 3410 m, south-eastern Switzerland, Wipf et al. 2013

4. Cimate Change and biodiversity in Norway
(and in mountain and arctic areas in general)
Pauli et al 1996
GLORIA http://www.gloria.ac.at/?a=2
Global Observation Research Initiative in Alpine Environments

• Long-term observation network (established 2000)
• Focusses on plants in high mountain regions
• Permanent plots: Species (vascular plants) recording in 16 1m x 1m quadrats:
• visual cover estimation
• Soil temperature is measured continously at all sites
63
The International Tundra Experiment (ITEX)
• Network of research sites started in 1990
• Arctic and alpine
• 11 countries (including all the Arctic nations)
Methodology:
• Monitoring
• Large-scale comparison
• Manipulating
Experimental warming with

open top chambers (OTCs)
Short summary
• Topographic effects may exceed global warming effects
• Mountain vegetation becomes more homogenous
• Treeline is climbing up (alpine area is decreasing)
• Vegetation in general is climbing up (Mountain top vegetation is changing)
• Long time monitoring is needed

65
Outline – sum up
2. Climate Change

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Climate change and biodiversity

Climate change and biodiversity

3. Climate Change as a threat to biodiversity

4. Cimate Change and biodiversity in Norway (and in

• Species diversity All species on earth, including

• Genetic diversity The genetic variation within

• Ecosystem diversity The different biological

What is the problem of having different definitions

One species: Within this species Two species: The

How do we measure species diversity?

Difference between species richness and species diversity

Species richness  simply a count of species (does not take

Species diversity  both species richness and species

Three diversity measurements that are based on species richness:

Alpha-, beta-, gamma diversity

Between community diversity

3. Climate Change as a threat to biodiversity

4. Cimate Change and biodiversity in Norway (and in

Observed changes in the climate system

• The atmosphere and ocean have warmed

Observed changes in the climate system

Observed changes in the climate system

Expected changes in the climate system

Expected changes in the climate system

Causes of climate change

Causes of climate change

Causes of climate change

3. Climate Change as a threat to biodiversity

4. Cimate Change and biodiversity in Norway (and in

Global climate change

3. Climate Change as a threat to biodiversity

How can organisms respond to climate change?

How can organisms respond to climate change?

Walther et al., 2002, Nature

How can organisms respond to climate change?

Walther et al., 2002, Nature

How can organisms respond to climate change?

Sturm et al. 2001, Nature

How can organisms respond to climate change?

Walther et al., 2002, Nature

3. Climate Change as a threat to biodiversity

How can organisms respond to climate change?

 climate change is affecting living systems

Parmesan and Yohe 2003, Nature

3. Climate Change as a threat to biodiversity

How can organisms respond to climate change?

So what’s the problem??

If species simply can move or change their

● Natural barriers ● Human made

3. Climate Change as a threat to biodiversity

If species simply can move or change their

• no higher mountain summits, no farther south

If species simply can move or change their

• Species form webs of interaction

3. Climate Change as a threat to biodiversity

How can organisms respond to climate change?

Evolution to the rescue?

3. Climate Change as a threat to biodiversity

How can organisms respond to climate change?

15-37% of species commited to extinction

Climate change ecology is still in its infancy

3. Climate Change as a threat to biodiversity

4. Cimate Change and biodiversity in Norway (and in

Sala et al 2000, Science