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Flow Enhancement of Medium-Viscosity Crude Oil

a b
Mamdouh T. Ghannam & Nabil Esmail
a
Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, College of Engineering, United Arab
Emirates University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Published online: 24 Feb 2007.

To cite this article: Mamdouh T. Ghannam & Nabil Esmail (2006): Flow Enhancement of Medium-Viscosity Crude Oil,
Petroleum Science and Technology, 24:8, 985-999

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 Petroleum Science and Technology, 24:985–999, 2006
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1091-6466 print/1532-2459 online
DOI: 10.1081/LFT-200048166

Flow Enhancement of Medium-Viscosity

Crude Oil

Mamdouh T. Ghannam
Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, College of Engineering,
United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates
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Nabil Esmail
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Concordia University,
Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Abstract: This study investigated the different alternatives to enhance the flowability
of crude oil with medium viscosity. These alternatives include the addition of water
into crude oil to form water-in-oil emulsion, the addition of light petroleum product,
the addition of flow improver, and a preheating technique. Temperature range of 10–
50◦ C, water concentration range of 0–50% by volume, flow improver concentration
range of 0–5000 ppm, and kerosene concentration range of 0–50% by volume were
investigated in the flowability enhancement study of crude oil with medium viscosity.
The flowability enhancement in terms of viscosity reduction was investigated using
RheoStress RS100 from Haake. A cone–plate sensor was used with a cone angle of
◦ 4, cone diameter of 35 mm, and 0.137-mm gap at the cone tip. The addition of
kerosene to crude oil improves the flowability much better than any other investigated
technique.

Keywords: viscosity reduction, water/oil emulsion, flow improver, storage modulus,

loss modulus

1. INTRODUCTION

Crude oil touches our lives in countless ways every day. Crude oil, including
natural gas, supplies 65% of the world’s energy. There are several important
domestic and industrial applications for oil such as fuel for our cars, power
generation, heat for our homes, etc. Pipeline transportation is an efficient

Address correspondence to Mamdouh T. Ghannam, Department of Chemical and

Petroleum Engineering, College of Engineering, United Arab Emirates University,
Al-Ain 17555, United Arab Emirates. E-mail: mamdouh.ghannam@uaeu.ac.ae

985
 986 M. T. Ghannam and N. Esmail

method of crude oil transportation from the production location to either

refineries or exportation centers. However, the pipeline transportation of heavy
crude oil is costly due to the mobility problems and high viscosity of crude
oil. Because the light crude oils, i.e., low-viscosity crude oil, are consumed
over time, the world consumption of heavy crude oil is expected to rise
severely in the future (Williams, 1984).
To improve the flowability of heavy crude oil, several techniques have
been investigated for pipeline transportation. These techniques include emul-
sion of heavy crude oil in water (Marsden et al., 1988; Pal, 1993; Pal et al.,
1986; Pilehvari et al., 1988; Simon and Poynter, 1968; Rimmer et al., 1992;
Al-Asmi et al., 1997; Urdahl et al., 1997; Aomari et al., 1998) and the addi-
tion of flow improver materials to heavy crude oil (Qian et al., 1996a, 1996b;
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Gamal 1998; Chandu et al., 1998; Machado et al., 2001). Another suggested
alternative is to preheat the crude oil.
From the literature review, it was found that most of the investigated stud-
ies on crude oil flowability enhancement were carried out on heavy crude
oil with very high viscosity. The focus of the current study is to investi-
gate the behavior of different alternatives for the flowability enhancement of
medium-viscosity crude oil. Several factors are investigated in each technique
to understand the viscosity reduction behavior for each case.

2. EXPERIMENTAL

To improve the flowability of crude oil with medium viscosity, several ap-
proaches can be employed. These approaches are the formation of water-in-oil
(W/O) emulsion, the addition of light petroleum fraction as kerosene, the ad-
dition of flow improver, and preheating techniques. Each approach will be
studied extensively through several measurements of rheological parameters.
The crude oil from Petro-Canada Laboratory, Montreal, Canada, was
employed throughout this study. The physical properties of the crude oil are
measured and can be summarized as follows: specific gravity is 0.929, wax
content is 4.51% by weight, asphaltine is 6.28% by weight, and acid number
is 1.44 mg KOH/g.
Water/oil emulsions were prepared by gradual addition of a certain amount
of water into the crude oil. One percent by weight of Triton X-100 from
Sigma-Aldrich, Canada Ltd., was employed as an emulsifying agent. A vari-
able-speed mixer was used to obtain the necessary stable homogenized W/O
emulsion. Kerosene from Recochem Inc., Montreal, Canada, and flow im-
prover (FI-64) from Oil Chem. Technologies Inc., Texas, USA, were used as
viscosity reduction agents.
The flowability enhancement of crude oil with medium viscosity in terms
of different rheological parameters was investigated using RheoStress RS100
from Haake. A cone–plate sensor was employed with a cone angle of 4◦ , cone
diameter of 35 mm, and a 0.137-mm gap at the cone tip. The Haake software
 Flow Enhancement of Medium-Viscosity Crude Oil 987

package was used for all operation procedures, rheological measurements, and
data analyses. Numerous tests were conducted to investigate the rheological
behavior of crude oil in different environments and conditions. Steady flow
behavior and dynamic tests were employed in this investigation.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

There are four different methods that can be applied to improve the flowability
of crude oil. These methods are the effect of high temperature, the formation
of water/oil emulsion, the addition of flow improver material, and the addition
of a light petroleum product such as kerosene. Different rheological tests
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will be applied to understand the flow behavior of crude oil under different
conditions and environments. These tests include shear stress–shear rate study
(i.e., steady flow test) and viscoelastic study (i.e., dynamic test). In each of
these tests, the flowability enhancement of crude oil will be investigated in
terms of viscosity reduction for the four different methods mentioned above.
At the beginning of each test, several measurements were taken to check the
reproducibility of the Haake RS100 rheometer system. The results were very
satisfactory.

3.1. Steady Flow Test

This test provides the flow behavior curve in terms of the viscosity–shear rate
or shear stress–shear rate relationships.

3.1.1. Effect of Temperature

Figure 1 shows the effect of temperature on viscosity–shear rate for pure

crude oil over the range of 10–50◦ C. The crude oil shows non-Newtonian
shear thinning behavior for a shear rate <10 s−1 in which viscosity decreases
with shear rate and Newtonian flow behavior over a shear rate range of 10–
750 s−1 .
An important method that can be used to lower the crude oil viscosity
and, therefore, enhance the flowability is the effect of temperature. Temper-
ature has a strong effect on viscosity and viscous behavior. Figure 1 shows
a significant reduction in the apparent viscosity of the crude oil with tem-
perature. The effect of temperature on the viscosity of the crude oil can be
attributed to the strong influence of heat on the viscosity of the high molecu-
lar weight components in the crude oil. To access the extent of the viscosity
reduction, the degree of viscosity reduction (DVR) is introduced and it can
be calculated using Eq. (1).

DVR % = (ηr − ηc ) ∗ 100/ηr (1)

 988 M. T. Ghannam and N. Esmail
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Figure 1. Effect of temperature on crude oil viscosity.

where ηr is the reference viscosity at 10 s−1 shear rate and 10◦ C, mPa.s.,
and ηc is the corresponding viscosity at 10 s−1 shear rate and corresponding
temperature, mPa.s.
Table 1 reports the DVR % over the temperature range of 10–50◦ C.
Table 1 reports a significant increase in DVR % from 0% to 96% when
the temperature increases from 10 to 50◦ C. This jump in DVR % can be
attributed to two factors. The first factor is the strong effect of temperature
on the viscosity of heavy components in the crude oil, such as wax and
asphaltine, which usually happens at a temperature of 20–30◦ C. At higher
temperatures, the increase in DVR % can be considered due to the effect
of high temperature on the chemical structure of heavy components in the
crude oil. Heating the crude oil to a high temperature can destroy the ordered
structures of the heavy components in the crude oil phase, which will severely
reduce the viscosity (Khan, 1996).
Regression analysis is carried out for all the measurements presented in
Figure 1. The presented data can be best fit using Eq. (2) as:

η = a exp(b/(γ̇ + c)) (2)

where a, b, and c are the regression coefficients of Eq. (2), and γ̇ is the shear
rate, s−1 .
The results of the regression calculations are reported in Table 2 with
regression coefficient r.
At a shear rate higher than 10 s−1 , the crude oil exhibits Newtonian
flow behavior for all temperatures. Generally, it is found that the higher the
viscosity, the stronger the temperature dependence. The viscosity decreases
 Flow Enhancement of Medium-Viscosity Crude Oil 989

Table 1. DVR % of pure oil

versus temperature

Temperature (◦ C) DVR %

10 0
20 40
30 64
40 80
50 96
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dramatically with temperature. This behavior can be described by the Arrhe-

nius relationship, Eq. (3), for shear rate >10 s−1 .

η = A1 exp(−A2 T ) (3)

Regression analysis was carried out to fit the experimental measurements of

viscosity for shear rate >10 s−1 . The results can be given as:

η = 714.1 exp(−0.0539T ) (4)

The units of viscosity and temperature are in mPa.s and ◦ C, respectively.

3.1.2. Water/Oil Emulsion

In general, emulsions are of great interest in many industrial applications

of food and cosmetic technologies. The formation of W/O emulsion is con-
sidered an important alternative to enhance flowability of crude oil. Better
understanding of W/O emulsion internal mechanisms is necessary to an-
ticipate the emulsion mechanical flow behavior. It is established that the
rheological properties of emulsions and their stability are affected by the vol-
ume fraction of the dispersed phase and chemical composition of each phase
(Ghannam, 2004).

Table 2. Regression parameters of Eq. (2)

Temperature (◦ C) a b c r

10 420.6 0.239 0.165 0.99

20 230.4 0.211 0.020 0.98
30 138.4 0.461 0.327 0.99
40 89.8 0.747 0.579 0.99
50 58.9 0.369 0.135 0.99
 990 M. T. Ghannam and N. Esmail

To obtain W/O stable emulsions, it is necessary to add surfactant material

as an emulsifying agent to achieve two functions. The first function is to lower
the interfacial tension between the crude oil–water system. The second action
is to stabilize the presence of the droplets phase within the continuous phase
to prevent the coalescence action of the droplets phase (Sherman, 1983).
From previous work (Ghannam, 2004), it is found that 1% of Triton X-100
is sufficient to provide a stable W/O emulsion.
Figure 2 shows the viscosity behavior of W/O emulsion versus shear rate
for different water concentrations. The water concentration ranges from 0 to
50% by volume. Figure 2 shows a slight increase in viscosity with water con-
centration until 25%, at which point more viscous emulsion is formed. Yaghi
and Al-Bemani (2002) reported that at a ratio of 80:20 crude oil to water, the
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emulsion viscosity reaches higher levels than pure crude oil in the low shear
rate range. This increase in viscosity can be attributed to the droplet–droplet
interaction that will lead to an increase in emulsion viscosity. The overall
viscosity of the emulsified system depends on the viscosity of the continuous
phase, the viscosity of the dispersed droplets phase, and the volume fraction
of the dispersed phase. When the droplets phase is introduced to the system,
the flow field becomes distorted; therefore, the energy dissipation is increased.
This behavior will cause an increase in viscosity. For a water concentration
range of 0–25%, Figure 2 shows non-Newtonian behavior, with a slight shear
thinning effect with shear rate up to 10 s−1 . However, the addition of 50%
water will cause a dramatic viscosity reduction and strong non-Newtonian
shear thinning behavior over the entire examined range of shear rate. Previ-
ous work (Ghannam, 2004) shows that when water concentration increases
to 50% for the same conditions of mixing speed and surfactant concentra-
tion, the stability of W/O emulsion decreases gradually with elapsed time.

Figure 2. Viscosity behavior for W/O emulsions.

 Flow Enhancement of Medium-Viscosity Crude Oil 991

Table 3. W/O emulsion regression parameters

Water concentration
(%) a b c r

0 230.4 0.211 0.020 0.98

10 268.8 0.266 0.094 0.99
25 357.8 1.07 1.442 0.96

This phenomenon can be attributed to the gradual enhancement of the coa-

lescence mechanism between water droplets, which will lead to the observed
viscosity reduction in the W/O emulsion.
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The viscosity–shear rate relationship for a water concentration range of

0–25% is presented by Eq. (2). The results of the fitting analysis are listed in
Table 3. However, for the 50% water concentration, the viscosity–shear rate
relationship can be presented by power law correlation as:

η = mγ̇ n (5)

where m and n are consistency index (mPa.sn ) and flow behavior index
(dimensionless), respectively. From the regression analysis, the values for m
and n are 154.2 mPa.sn and −0.246, respectively.
It is important to notice that from the W/O emulsion investigation, it is
necessary to add a significant amount of water (around 50% for this study) to
lower the crude oil viscosity significantly. This conclusion is crucial, because,
on the one hand, the main objective is to lower the crude oil viscosity. On
the other hand, the W/O emulsion flow rate will be one and half times the
original crude oil rate. Therefore, this approach is not highly recommended
for crude oil pipeline transportation systems.
Figure 3 shows the relative viscosity for W/O emulsions versus shear
rate for different water concentrations. Relative viscosity increases slightly
with water concentration until a water concentration of 25%. However, it
decreases significantly by more addition of water and shear rate. Relative
viscosity is defined as:

η = emulsion viscosity/continuous phase viscosity (6)

3.1.3. Effect of Flow Improver

Flow improvers are quite important for crude oil pipeline transportation. Most
flow improver materials are polymers (Svetgoff, 1984). Polymers such as
vinyl acetate copolymer, acrylate copolymer, and their derivatives (Gilby,
1983; Jordan et al., 1978) are the main materials that can be employed to
enhance the flowability of very waxy crude oil, diesel fuel, and other oils at
low temperature. It is reported that additives are not usually equally effective
 992 M. T. Ghannam and N. Esmail
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Figure 3. Relative viscosity of W/O emulsions.

with the various crude oils and sometimes not effective at all (Schuster and
Magill, 1989).
Figure 4 shows the viscosity flow behavior versus shear rate for different
concentrations of flow improver FI-64. This study covers the concentration
range of 0–5000 ppm. The 100-ppm concentration of FI-64 reduces the crude
oil viscosity only slightly. However, any more addition of FI-64 will gradually
increase the viscosity of crude oil. It is important to mention that the viscosity
of the FI-64 is around 1375 mPa.s at 20◦ C. Therefore, the approach of flow

Figure 4. Effect of FI-64 on viscosity of crude oil.

 Flow Enhancement of Medium-Viscosity Crude Oil 993
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Figure 5. Effect of kerosene on crude oil viscosity.

improver to enhance the crude oil flowability is not recommended for crude
oil with medium viscosity.

3.1.4. Effect of Kerosene

Figure 5 shows the viscosity behavior of crude oil in the presence of different
concentrations of kerosene at room temperature. Kerosene has a strong ability
to dramatically lower the crude oil viscosity. Table 4 reports the viscosity
measurements of crude oil at different concentrations of kerosene and at
three values of shear rate of 0.3, 10, and 750 s−1 , respectively. Table 4 also
reports the viscosity reduction percent for each kerosene concentration at
0.3, 10, and 750 s−1 shear rate. It can be concluded that a reasonable amount
of kerosene addition will cause a huge viscosity reduction. This viscosity
reduction could reach up to around 50% for 10% kerosene addition, around
80% for 25% kerosene addition, and around 90% for 50% kerosene at shear
rate values of 0.3, 10, and 750 s−1 , respectively. Therefore, the addition of

Table 4. Crude oil viscosity for different kerosene concentration

Kerosene conc. Red. Red. Red.

(%) 0.3 s−1 (%) 10 s−1 (%) 750 s−1 (%)

0.0 480 — 235.4 — 224.3 —

10 250 48.0 111.8 52.5 109.7 51.1
25 95 80.2 43.6 81.5 42.2 81.2
50 76.5 84.1 17.3 92.7 17.2 92.3
 994 M. T. Ghannam and N. Esmail

kerosene to crude oil enhances the oil flowability much better than most other
approaches such as W/O emulsion and flow property techniques.

3.2. Dynamic Test

A dynamic test is necessary to investigate the viscoelastic properties of crude

oil samples in different environments and under different conditions. The
dynamic test investigates the effect of oscillating stresses or strains on the
flow behavior of crude oil samples. Under controlled stress mode, the stress
is applied as a sinusoidal time function as:
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τ = τo sin(wt) (7)

where τo is stress amplitude (Pa) and w is frequency (rad/s). The material’s

complex modulus G∗ (Pa) provides the material total resistance against the
applied strain and can be calculated as:

G∗ = τo /γo (8)

where γo is the strain amplitude. The substance complex modulus, G∗ , can

be defined as:

G∗ = G + iG (9)

where G and G are the storage modulus and loss modulus, respectively.
Complex viscosity, η∗ , can be defined as the total resistance against the
applied dynamic shear as:

η∗ = G∗ /w (10)

It is necessary to determine the linear viscoelastic range; a fixed fre-

quency of 1 Hz is applied while a stress sweep is performed. The linear
viscoelastic range is the range where G∗ is constant with stress where the
internal temporary bonds of the sample structure will not be destroyed. The
linear viscoelastic range for the crude oil samples was found to be in the
range of 1.0 Pa.
Figure 6 shows the behavior of storage modulus G and loss modulus
G against frequency at 40◦ C as a typical example for the temperature effect.


Storage modulus shows a linear relationship for the entire examined range
of frequency; however, the loss modulus displays linear behavior until fre-
quency of 1 s−1 then non-linear behavior. G and G show similar response
with frequency up to the value of 1 s−1 , then the storage modulus provides
a higher value than the loss modulus. The behavior of a complex modulus
of W/O emulsions is shown in Figure 7 for different concentrations of water.
The complex modulus increases gradually with frequency over the range of
 Flow Enhancement of Medium-Viscosity Crude Oil 995
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Figure 6. G and G for crude oil at 40◦ C.

0.06 to 10 s−1 . As can be observed, the complex modulus decreases signifi-

cantly with the volume fraction of water added. Similar results are reported
by Mason (1995) and Aomari et al. (1998). The effect of water added dimin-
ishes with frequency, i.e., the water effect is less pronounced at higher value
of examined frequency of 10 s−1 .
Figures 8 and 9 show the behavior of G and G versus frequency over
the range of 0.06–10 s−1 . These figures show almost similar behavior for the
effect of 50% water and 5000 ppm of flow improver, respectively. As a gen-
eral remark, G is slightly higher than G until the frequency value of 0.5 and

Figure 7. Complex modulus response for W/O emulsions.

 996 M. T. Ghannam and N. Esmail
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Figure 8. G and G for 50% of W/O emulsion.

0.3 s−1 for 50% water effect and 5000 ppm of flow improver, respectively. As
frequency exceeds the reported values, the storage modulus G is gradually
reported higher values than the loss modulus until the end of tested frequency.
For the effect of 50% kerosene, Figure 10 shows that the G increases grad-
ually higher than G over the entire range of the examined frequency. This
phenomenon may be explained through that the sample is experienced struc-
ture rearrangement under frequency effect in which the specimen will provide
more of elastic behavior than viscous response. The dynamic test reveals that
the examined samples, under frequency sweep, showed the ability of the

Figure 9. G and G of crude oil in presence of 5000 ppm FI-64.

 Flow Enhancement of Medium-Viscosity Crude Oil 997
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Figure 10. G and G of crude oil in presence of 50% kerosene.

added materials to interact with the crude oil droplets to form a collection
of a droplet cluster or flocs of different sizes. This formation of cluster will
behave in elastic mode relatively higher than viscous mode with frequency
higher than 0.5, 0.3, and 0.06 s−1 for W/O emulsion, flow improver–crude
oil, and kerosene–crude oil systems, respectively.

4. CONCLUSIONS

The following points can be concluded from the investigation of crude oil
flowability enhancement in terms of viscosity reduction:

1. Crude oil shows non-Newtonian behavior for shear rate <10 s−1 and
Newtonian flow behavior over a shear rate range of 10–750 s−1 .
2. The degree of viscosity reduction increases with temperature.
3. Preheating of crude oil is impractical because subsequent heating is re-
quired.
4. A slight increase in crude oil viscosity occurs with the addition of water
up to a concentration of 25% water due to the interaction of the dispersed
phase with the crude oil phase.
5. The addition of 50% water to crude oil leads to a dramatic viscosity
reduction and strong non-Newtonian shear thinning behavior.
6. The W/O emulsion approach is not highly recommended for crude oil
pipeline transportation systems due to the large amount of water (around
50% by volume for this study) required to lower the crude oil viscosity
to an acceptable level.
 998 M. T. Ghannam and N. Esmail

7. The addition of 100 ppm of flow improver reduces the crude oil viscosity
only slightly; however, any more addition of flow improver will increase
the crude oil viscosity gradually.
8. The approach of flow improver addition to enhance crude oil flowability
is not recommended for medium-viscosity crude oil.
9. Kerosene has a strong ability to lower dramatically crude oil viscosity.
The addition of kerosene to crude oil enhances crude oil flowability much
higher than most of the other investigated approaches.
10. The dynamic test showed the ability of added water, flow improver, and
kerosene to provide elastic behavior relatively higher than viscous one
when frequency is above 0.5, 0.3, and 0.06 s−1 for W/O emulsion, flow
improver–crude oil, and kerosene–crude oil systems, respectively.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author is grateful for financial support from the United Arab Emirates
University under grant # 01-02-7-11/04.

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