Air Index

The Generation of Compressed Air(1)..................................................................................... 3

Objective................................................................................................................................ 3

Some definitions ................................................................................................................... 3

Air pressure............................................................................................................................................................................ 3

Temperature ........................................................................................................................................................................... 3

Pressure ratio......................................................................................................................................................................... 3

Volume.................................................................................................................................................................................... 4

Gases and their properties................................................................................................... 4

Energy and air compression ................................................................................................ 4

Control of compressors......................................................................................................................................................... 7

Water in compressed air........................................................................................................................................................ 7

Dew point............................................................................................................................................................................ 8

The Generation of Compressed Air (2).................................................................................... 9

Objective................................................................................................................................ 9

Reciprocating compressors. ................................................................................................ 9

Lubrication. .......................................................................................................................................................................... 12

Screw Compressors ........................................................................................................... 12

Air Receivers ........................................................................................................................................................................ 15

Air Drying ............................................................................................................................................................................. 15

Refrigeration Drying .......................................................................................................................................................... 16

Desiccant Drying............................................................................................................................................................... 17

Other aspects of air production .......................................................................................................................................... 18

System separation ............................................................................................................................................................ 18

Saving energy................................................................................................................................................................... 20

Power and compressor output............................................................................................................................................ 20

Uses of compressed air.......................................................................................................... 22

Objective.............................................................................................................................. 22
Valve actuation..................................................................................................................................................................... 22

Pumping liquids and slurries. ............................................................................................................................................. 23

Instrument air ....................................................................................................................................................................... 24

Emptying product /keg cleaning. ........................................................................................................................................ 24

Page 1 of 36
 Transporting Spent Grains .................................................................................................................................................. 25

Conveying Malt, Grain and Flour ........................................................................................................................................ 26

Wort Aeration. ...................................................................................................................................................................... 26

Air operated devices in Packaging equipment................................................................................................................... 26

Air blast ................................................................................................................................................................................ 27

Quality of compressed air ...................................................................................................... 28

Objective.............................................................................................................................. 28
Dew Point ............................................................................................................................................................................. 29

Oil.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 30

Dust....................................................................................................................................................................................... 30

Sterility.................................................................................................................................................................................. 30

Odours .................................................................................................................................................................................. 31

Safety....................................................................................................................................... 32

Objective.............................................................................................................................. 32

Compressed Air Safety....................................................................................................... 32

General safety requirements for compressed air .............................................................................................................. 32

Safety Requirements for Operating & Maintaining Compressed Air Machinery: ........... 33
Air receivers: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 33

Air Distribution Lines:.......................................................................................................................................................... 34

Pressure regulation Devices: .............................................................................................................................................. 34

Air Compressor Operation: ................................................................................................................................................. 35

Compressed Air Equipment Maintenance:......................................................................................................................... 35

Page 2 of 36
The Generation of Compressed Air (1)

Objective

To understand the properties of gases, the fundamental gas laws and the physical effects
of compression and how to control them.

Some definitions

Air pressure
Air exerts a pressure on its surroundings that gradually reduces with altitude. It also varies
slightly with the weather.

At sea level the Atmospheric Pressure is 1.0 bar abs. A pure vacuum has a pressure of 0
bar.

There are two ways of stating the pressure of a compressed gas: Gauge pressure and
Absolute pressure.

Gauge Pressure is the pressure of a system above atmospheric pressure. The units are
bar gauge (bar g) and are the most commonly used units.

Absolute Pressure is the system pressure above a vacuum as described above. It is also
measured in bar. Absolute pressure is always 1 bar above gauge pressure.

Temperature
The 2 common fixed points for temperature on the Celsius or Centigrade scale are the
freezing point of water = 0 deg. C and the boiling point of water =100 deg. C. Absolute
Zero is the lowest possible attainable temperature and this is minus 273 deg. C (-273
deg. C). Often for calculations, the temperatures are quoted as absolute temperature in
degrees Kelvin (deg. K). These temperatures are obtained by simply adding 273 to the
Celsius scale. For example:

0 deg. C = 273 deg. K

20 deg. C= 293 deg. K

100 deg. C= 373 deg. K

Pressure ratio
This is the ratio of the absolute outlet pressure to the absolute inlet pressure of a
compressor or a compression stage.

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Volume
Air volume is usually quoted as litres or cubic metres. 1 cubic metre contains 1000 litres.
The output from a compressor is usually quoted in litres per second or, for large
installations, cubic metres per second. The volumes quoted are for the input volume, not
the smaller compressed volume from the output side.

Gases and their properties

There are three well-known states of matter

· Solid

· Liquid

· Gas

Solids do not easily change shape and cannot be compressed. Liquids however, can
easily change shape but cannot really be compressed. Gases are completely different.
They are very much lighter, and are easily compressed.

If a gas is compressed, its volume gets smaller but its pressure goes up. There is a direct
relationship between pressure and volume known as Boyle’s Law:

Pressure (P) x volume (V) =constant.

This works if the temperature does not change. The effect of a temperature change is that
the pressure or volume will change in proportion. This is known as Charles’ Law:

Pressure (P) = constant x Temperature (T)

The units of pressure and volume can change depending on how much weight of gas is
being described. The temperature (T) however is defined as the absolute temperature.

The absolute temperature scale starts at absolute zero that is –273 deg. C. This means for
example that water freezes at 0 deg. C or 273 o Absolute, usually written as 273 o K (After
Kelvin, who first described the scale). Water boils at 100 o C, or 373 o K. These
adjustments to the temperature scale need to be made when calculating pressure or
volume changes if a gas is heated. Fortunately, this is a minor factor when describing air
compression.

Energy and air compression

Air compressors are usually driven by electric motors. The cost of doing this is significant.

Let us look at the pressure of air.

The most common unit of pressure is the bar. Air at sea level has a pressure of one bar.
This drops to around 0.5 bar at an altitude of 5500 metres and only 0.25 bar at 11000
metres. This is why breathing is difficult at high altitudes and why aircraft cabins must be
pressurised.

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The most common units of volume are the litre and cubic metre. There are 1000 litres in a
cubic metre. A big air compressor will have a capacity of about 1000 litres per second, or 1
cubic metre per second. The pressure most commonly used in breweries for general
distribution is 7 bar (absolute). By taking in 1000 litres per second of air, the compressed
volume drops to about 140 litres per second. This capacity requires a very powerful
electric motor. In practice for this rate of production, a compressor with a motor of about
400 K.W. is needed. The graph below shows an example of how much energy is needed
to produce 100 litres per second of air at varying pressures.

The motor size for an air compressor will depend on the friction inside the compressor.
These energy losses are usually about 25%. They can be higher if the machine is badly
maintained or running intermittently. They perform best when fully loaded.

When a gas is compressed, it heats up. This effect is noticeable when you pump up a
bicycle or car tyre. Inside a fast moving air compressor, this effect is much greater. If the
heat is not removed, the air temperature would rise by about 200 deg. C. The graph below
shows how much the temperature of air rises as it is compressed.

Page 5 of 36
(The Diesel Engine makes use of this heating effect. Instead of going up to 7 bar, a Diesel
will compress the air by a factor of about 20. This causes the air to get so hot that fuel will
ignite without needing a spark.)

This heating effect can be reduced by constantly cooling the air and by taking the air up to
7 bar (absolute) pressure in 2 stages. It is not normal for a single stage compression to go
above 5 bar, so that 6 bar needs a second stage of compression. This method is also
more energy efficient.

The equation mentioned above P x V= constant x T shows that temperature has an effect
on pressure and volume. This means that compressors are more efficient at very low
temperatures. Cold air is denser than hot air and occupies a smaller volume. If air is
compressed in several stages and cooled down at the same time, more air can be pushed
through, so the compressor is more efficient.

In summary, the energy consumed by a compressor is controlled by 3 factors:

· The overall pressure achieved (usually 6 bar)

· The temperature of the air entering the compressor

· The design and efficiency of the compressor

In order to achieve this efficient use, a compressor should be operated under the following
conditions:

· Make sure the discharge pressure is only slightly above the pressure needed in
the system.

· Use the coolest air available, i.e. from outside the compressor room and at an
elevated level above the roof. Compressor rooms are usually hot.

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 · Avoid pressure drops going into the compressor. In practice this means wide
pipework

· Regularly clean air filters before the compressors, so that they do not block.

Control of compressors
The demand for compressed air will vary continuously in a brewery.

A pressure sensor in the system will indicate when air is needed or not. Usually there are
several compressors and these can be started up or stopped as required.

It is not desirable for large motors to frequently stop and start. Small machines can do this
more easily.

If a brewery has a mixture of large and small compressors then the large compressors
usually run continuously. The small compressors are used to meet variations in demand.

The manufacturers of air compressors now usually supply complete control systems. This
can involve the use of variable speed drives on the compressor motors. This meets small
variations in demand. Only larger variations lead to a machine being stopped or started.
This means that there is less wear and tear on the machines. There is also a saving in
running costs.

Water in compressed air

Air can contain quite a lot of water vapour. In cold dry climates, the amount is small,
maybe only 2 gms in a cubic metre.

In tropical maritime climates with a temperature of 30oC or more, this rises to about 30
gms in a cubic metre. In hot countries, a change in temperature leads to heavy rain. In
contrast, at the South Pole it is so cold that it hardly ever snows because the air is so dry.
The graph below gives you an idea of how much moisture is held in air as its temperature
rises.

Page 7 of 36
When air is compressed, this water vapour is also compressed but the temperature rises.

Once the air is cooled down, it is over-saturated with water vapour and condensation
occurs.

This water has to be removed; otherwise it will gradually fill up the system. It will also
cause corrosion, and may freeze and cause blockages. Some applications need very dry
air. It is important to dry air for powder and grain conveying so that malt or flour is kept dry
and does not stick and form lumps, or go mouldy. Machinery and controls need dry air so
that corrosion does not take place.

Dew point
When describing the amount of water held in air, we often refer to the Dew Point. The Dew
Point of air is defined as the temperature at which air becomes saturated and moisture
starts to condense at a given pressure. For example, air may feel dry during the day but
will contain quite a lot of water. When night comes the temperature drops and dew forms.
The air outside feels damp, but the total water content is still the same. It is important to
install a dew point meter at the air dryer to contain the moisture in the air.

Page 8 of 36
The Generation of Compressed Air (2)

Objective

To understand the operation of different types of compressor.

There are several types of air compressor but the two most commonly seen in breweries
are reciprocating compressors and screw compressors. In size, they can range from
25 to 1000 litres per second.

Screw compressors are usually more energy efficient than reciprocating machines. They
do not have however such a good range of output as reciprocating machines. This is
known as the turndown, and describes how much the speed of a machine can be lowered
without losing efficiency.

Reciprocating compressors.

These are the most widely used machines. Compression of the air takes place in a
cylinder by means of a piston moving up and down. Air is drawn in through a valve on the
down stroke and compressed on the upstroke before being let out through a second valve.
This is very similar to an internal combustion engine.

The diagram below shows you how a simple reciprocating piston works.

Page 9 of 36
Like a vehicle engine, they usually have several cylinders to give a smooth output.
Occasionally the pistons are double acting so that air is compressed on both the upstroke
and the down stroke. An example of this design is shown on the next diagram below.

Page 10 of 36
Inlet valve Outlet valve

Suction Delivery

Piston with
PTFE/graphite rings

Inlet valve Outlet valve

Piston rod Gland packing

Crosshead

Connecting rod

Crankshaft

Double acting non-lubricated compressor

Simple, single cylinder machines are also made for low pressure air supply.

For the pressure needed in a brewery (7 bar), a 2- stage compressor is usually used. The
partly compressed air from the first cylinder is fed across into a second cylinder to take the
pressure higher.

The air heats up at both stages and is cooled down after each stage. The first stage is
called the intercooler and the second stage is called the aftercooler. Cooling is achieved
by blowing the air over cold water pipes.

It then goes into a separator, which is just a small tank fitted with a drain. Some
condensation takes place here, and in the cooler, so this water needs to be drained off
continuously. The most effective way is to use an auto purging device. The diagram below
shows you a reciprocating compressor with several cylinders in the shape of a V. These

Page 11 of 36
are often called V-block compressors. This diagram also shows you the inlet filter, the
intercooler, the aftercooler and the air receiver, or buffer tank.

Lubrication.
Compressors, like most machines, are normally lubricated with mineral oil. Some of this oil
will be mixed with the discharged air. This can appear as a fine mist and is difficult to
remove.

If the air is being used in workshops or on machinery this is not a problem. If the air is
being used for food contact then oil (even food grade lubrication) is not acceptable As a
result, “non-lubricated” or “oil-free” compressors are used instead. These machines do not
use any oil in the compression cylinders. Moving surfaces such as the piston rings or rod
glands are made from PTFE or graphite. Only the machine parts outside the air cylinders
are lubricated with oil.

Screw Compressors

Screw compressors consist of two large interlocking screws that rotate inside a casing.
Gas is trapped between the threads on the screws and the casing end plate.

This type of compressor is very similar to those used in refrigeration plant. For air
compression it is possible to have non-lubricated machines. These produce oil-free air.
This is done by driving the two rotors with timed gears. These are outside the air
compression space. This means that the two compression screws do not touch each other
but there is a very small, precise gap. This enables the compressors to be run at very high
speeds without any rotor wear.

In a similar way to the reciprocating compressors, two stage compression with intercooling
is used. The diagrams below show you what the inside of a screw compressor looks like.
The two rotors turn in opposite directions in order to push the air forward.

Page 12 of 36
 A screw
compressor

Because of their very high speed, screw compressors are much smaller than reciprocating
machines.

Often these machines are sold as complete units on a solid skid mounting. This consists of
the compressor, motor, gearbox, coolers, separators and controls. These are usually in a
soundproof enclosure to cut down on noise. Screw compressors emit a high pitched noise.

Cooling Water

A complete assembly like this only needs very simple connections. These are air off take,
power and cooling water. The cooling water is shown on the diagram above of the
reciprocating compressor.

This water warms up as it passes through the intercooler and aftercooler. It is not sensible
to put this water down the drain, so it needs to be cooled down and then reused. This is
done in a similar way to a refrigeration plant. The water is circulated through a cooling
tower. There are 2 types commonly in use. These are shown in the diagrams below.

The first type is very simple and circulates the water through a series of coils. Air is blown
over the coils to cool them down. Fins are usually installed on the tubes to spread the
Page 13 of 36
heat. These coolers are suitable for small compressors where the amount of reject heat is
modest. They also do not require any water treatment.

The second type of water cooler relies on the latent heat of evaporating water to help the
cooling process. These are more complex systems but they have much greater capacities.
They are therefore used more where there is a large central compressor installation. This
type is shown in the diagram below.

Page 14 of 36
Air Receivers
An air receiver is simply a large tank filled with compressed
air. There is usually a receiver sited immediately
downstream from the compressors. Receivers are used for
the following:

· To provide a buffer for a sudden surge in demand

which is more than the capacity of the
compressors

· To act as a water separator

· To reduce the frequency of compressors

switching on and off

The size of a receiver is not fixed but should be at least equivalent to 10 seconds of
compressor output. Most are much larger.

If there is a central air compressor plant with long connections to all parts of the brewery,
it helps to have extra remote receivers. This smoothes the flow of air in the connecting
pipelines.

Having the receiver close to the compressors helps to remove water by getting rid of
droplets that have not settled in the separators. It also cools down the air further if situated
outside in a cold climate.

Receivers should always be fitted with a drain. These usually act automatically to
discharge water. Receivers should have an inspection hatch for periodic internal
examination. They should also have a pressure relief device to guard against a system
failure.

Further removal of water from an air distribution system should also be used. This is done
by identifying the low points on the pipelines and installing drain valves. If water
accumulates it will run down to these points.

Air Drying
The use of air coolers and separators on the compressors helps to remove a large amount
of water in the compressed air. The air receiver can remove some more but the air is still
too damp to be used for instruments or for flour conveying. Because of this, most
breweries dry most or all of the air they generate. The coolers situated on the compressors
can only cool the air down to about 30o C. There will still be a lot of water in the air and in
cold climates this will certainly come out as condensate as the air cools.

There are 2 main methods of generating dry air apart from using the aftercoolers on the
compressors:

1 Refrigeration Drying

2 Desiccant Drying

Page 15 of 36
Refrigeration Drying

Compressed air is fed into the dryer and is precooled in the air-to-air heat exchanger by
the outgoing cold compressed air. The precooled air then passes through the refrigerant-
to-air heat exchanger where it is further cooled to the required pressure dew point (usually
3°C or 5°C, above which temperature moisture will not form in the compressed air
system). The moisture in the compressed air condenses out and is collected and
discharged automatically.

Finally, the cold discharged air is rewarmed by the incoming compressed air. This saves
energy and prevents any moisture forming beyond the dryer in the compressed air system.
Courtesy: ultrafilter international AG Büssingstraße 1 · D-42781 Haan · Phone + 49 /2129/569 - 0 · Fax + 49 /2129/569 -100

Refrigeration dryers work by simply cooling the compressed air after it leaves the
compressors. Cooling can be carried out using an independent chiller.

Often it is done by using some of the coolant from the brewery refrigeration system.
Condensed water is removed by a separator fitted with a drain trap. These coolers reduce
the temperature of the air to +3o C

If the air is cooled further then there is a risk of the water freezing and causing a blockage.
The cold air generated from the drier can be used to pre-cool the incoming damp air from
the compressor. The use of such a heat exchanger can reduce the cost of cooling by
about 30%.

Page 16 of 36
Even after cooling to 3o C. there is still some water in it. This air is still not suitable for
instrument purposes or cold climates. It is however suitable for general purposes such as
air motors or tools. Refrigeration driers are often combined with dust and oil filtration.

Desiccant Drying
Very dry air suitable for instruments, control systems, conveying and packaging machines
needs to be desiccant dried. A desiccant is a chemical with a strong affinity for water. For
industrial uses the most common ones in use are silica gel and alumina. These two
materials are granular solids that absorb water very easily.

Wet air is passed through a bed of this material and gradually becomes saturated. Once
this happens the bed can no longer produce dry air. The bed can be regenerated either by
heating or by lowering the air pressure. While this is happening a second bed of desiccant
is switched on to continue drying the air. By having two beds in parallel the air can be dried
continuously, with one bed being regenerated while the other one is in use.

The diagram below shows you this 2-column layout for a desiccant dryer.

Column on left is being reactivated while column on right is on line

A heated regeneration system sometimes has an electric heater installed in the bed.
Others have external heaters. The water is driven out of the desiccant by a combination of
effects:

· The bed is hot

· The pressure is lowered

· Hot dry air is passed through the bed

Page 17 of 36
The amount of heated air needed is quite small. It is only about 1% of the total being
produced. The cost of heat energy is much greater. It is around 9% of the total
compression cost. This can be lowered by using steam to indirectly heat the regenerating
air. This steam from the brewery supply is cheaper than electricity.

Regeneration systems that do not use heated air rely only on a drop in pressure and a flow
of dry air. The saturated desiccant material gives up its water more easily if the air
pressure is lowered. More air is needed in this type of drier.

The total airflow needed for this method is between 10 and 15% of the total produced.
Despite heating costs, the heated systems are cheaper to run because they use so little air
for regeneration. The capital cost of the heated systems is higher however, so for small
systems non-heated driers are preferred. Most brewery systems should be large enough
to justify a heated regeneration system.

Desiccant driers do have a weakness and may be unstable. When the desiccant is
regenerated it is highly reactive with water. If very damp air with water droplets passes
over the bed, the desiccant may degrade. This means the particles may split and form a
powder. The desiccant no longer works efficiently and the airflow is inhibited. Fine white
dust may appear downstream in the airlines. This can be prevented by installing a filter
after the driers.

The quality of air produced by desiccant driers is excellent. The Dew Point is down to
– 40o C and such dry air can be used for any application.

Other aspects of air production

The air supply for a compressor installation should be from a cool, clean, dry source.

Using cool air has already been mentioned since it improves the compressor efficiency. Air
compression plants are more efficient in winter than in summer because of this. Air inlets
should incorporate a filter to protect the compressor. The pressure drop across this inlet
filter must be measured. This tells you when it needs cleaning or replacement.

Lubricated compressors produce air with droplets of oil in suspension. If this is a problem
then special filters should be installed to remove the oil. Oil is not acceptable in food grade
air, or for instruments.

System separation
Most breweries have one central air compressor plant with several compressors and one
control system. This is the right solution if the site is compact. Some very large sites may
have more than one compressor system to avoid the cost of installing long pipelines. Long
pipelines may also have excessive pressure drops when demand is high.

Some pieces of equipment such as spent grains discharge (Ponndorf) do not need 6 bar
pressure. It is cheaper to generate low pressure air locally rather than reduce the pressure
from 6 bar. As a result, some breweries have a dedicated low compression compressor for
spent grains.

Another way in which systems may be separated is to have separate pipework for normal
and dry air. Dry air is essential for instruments but not for workshop use. Instruments need
desiccant driers but refrigeration driers are good enough for general purpose air. Two
systems such as these will save on drying costs.

Instrumentation
Page 18 of 36
Like any other utilities system there is a need for control instruments. The typical ones
used for a compressed air system are listed below together with their function:

Instrument type Function

Pressure Inlet Indicates whether filter is blocked or open

Inter stage Pressure after first compression stage

Outlet Final pressure should be 6 bar or less

Oil differential Shows lubrication oil pressure compared with oil in

sump

Time Hours Run Gives total machine running time, both idling and on
load. Helps in planning maintenance

Hours run loaded Gives time on load only (smaller than hrs run)

Motor This gives an instantaneous figure for the current going

Current through the motor

Motor kWh This records the total energy consumed by the

compressor. It can be used as part of an energy
management system.

Some of the instruments are passive such as the Hours Run timer. This means they do
not shut down the plant since the figure is for information only. Some of the other
instruments need to be part of the plant protection system. This means they are connected
to shut down the plant if an abnormal value is registered. Examples are given below.
Measurement Function
Filter pressure differential If the pressure is high it indicates the filter
is blocked. May be alarmed.

Temperature – interstage and final Shut down automatically if the air

temperature is high at either of the
compression stages. This high
temperature may be caused by a cooling
system fault or a faulty valve.

Low oil differential pressure Shut down if the pressure is low. This
indicates a loss of oil for lubrication.

Cooling water flow Shut down if flow is too low. If the

compressor continues to run, the air will
be too hot.

Air pressure Mechanical pressure relief devices are

usually installed to avoid excess
pressure. This can be on the interstage
cooler and on the outlet.

Page 19 of 36
 Saving energy
The electricity used by a compressed air system may be 6% of the total for the brewery.
Waste occurs where there are leaking pipelines or valves. These can often be heard (and
felt) and should be marked or reported for repair. A good time to hear leaks is when the
plant is quiet at weekends or at night. Even small leaks can cause significant financial loss.
It does not take a very large hole in a pipeline to lose quite a lot of air. The graph below
shows how much power is wasted by holes up to 10 mm in size.

Effects of leakage from a 7 bar g system

Leakage litre per second

0 2 4 6 8 10
Size of hole mm

Power and compressor output.

Below is a table showing the relationship between compressor power, output at 7 bar and
cost. The cost assumes a price of 4p per kilowatt-hour, or unit (a typical UK industrial rate).

Compressor Output (cubic Cost per

power(kw) metres per sec.) hour £

26 0.1 1.04

52 0.2 2.08

130 0.5 5.20

260 1.0 10.40

Page 20 of 36
 Another way of expressing this is in the following simple equation:

100 kw. = 0.4 cubic metres per sec. = £4 per hour.

In practice, the output of the compressor will be slightly lower than 0.4 cubic metres per
sec. Due to the inefficiency of the compressor. Compressor efficiency is usually about 0.7,
so for every 100 kW there would be 0.4 x 0.7 = 0.28 cubic metres per sec. At 7 bar.

Compressed air energy requirements for 100 litre/second

40 o
20 C
Compressor power kW

35 of
re
pe ratu
30 tt em
Inle
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Output pressure bar

Page 21 of 36
Uses of compressed air

Objective

To understand the uses of compressed air in a brewery and how it is generated and
distributed.

Compressed air is a means of transporting energy widely used in a brewery. It is found in

many industrial and process plant applications.

It is easy to use, reliable and relatively safe (when using the right pressure), Air powered
equipment has the big advantage of being safe to use in damp locations where electrical
appliances would be unsafe.

Some of the common applications of compressed air in a brewery are as follows:

· Valve actuation

· Pumping liquids and slurries

· Instrument air

· Emptying product / keg cleaning

· Transporting spent grains

· Conveying malt, flour and dry grain material

· Wort aeration

· Air operated devices in Packaging equipment

· Air blast

Valve actuation.
In the past, breweries only had hand operated valves. This was very labour intensive, and
slow

As breweries became bigger, opening and closing valves became more difficult because
of the force required. A new generation of automatic valves was developed which were
opened and closed using compressed air.

The force that compressed air exerts is easily sufficient to overcome pipeline pressures
when opening or closing valves.

If necessary, the air flow through the valve can be adjusted, so that the valve moves more
slowly to avoid pipeline shocks.

Page 22 of 36
 · Air operated valves can work in damp conditions that would cause problems
with electrical equipment.

· They are cheaper to install.

· They are easy to maintain and operate.

· A simple distribution system using nylon or strong plastic tubing is all that is
needed to supply the valves and air leakage is quite easily detected.

· Failure safe protection can be built-in with air operated valve (valve
automatically assumes safe position in case of electrical power failure).

Another kind of valve that is easily operated using compressed air is the slide valve used
on grain silos and conveyors. These valves operate in dry, dusty conditions, so corrosion
should not be a problem. The danger of dust explosion means that you do not want to use
electrical equipment unless it is essential. In this brewhouse application the valve
actuators are cheap and safe.

Pumping liquids and slurries.

Most pumps in a brewery are electrically powered and the pumps are very efficient and
versatile. There are some liquids however where an electric pump would not be very
suitable.

Consider a yeast slurry that is being pumped into a yeast press for filtration. As the press
fills up with yeast it gets harder and harder to push more slurry into the press. If you use
an electric pump, what happens?

The pump keeps turning even though the pressure rises and the flow rate drops. This does
two things.

· The slurry gets hot

· The slurry is damaged by the rapid spinning of the pump.

Both effects will start to kill off the yeast if it is allowed to run for a period of time. What is
needed is a pump that slows down dramatically as the press fills up.

There is an air operated pump that fits this demand very well and it is known as a
diaphragm pump

Page 23 of 36
 Note that this is an animation. You will not
be able to see it working unless you have
Microsoft movie player or similar installed.
Double click on the picture to see it working.

This pump is quite simple. It has a rubber diaphragm that is pushed in and out by
compressed air, and it has two simple valves that allow liquid to be sucked in or pushed
out. At low pressures the pump acts quickly but as the pressure rises the air pressure
must overcome the liquid pressure on the delivery side. If it cannot do this, the pump
stops. This is ideal in applications such as a yeast filter, because when the pump stops,
you know that the press is full. It also means that the slurry is not overheated or damaged,
and the operating pressure is the same as the air pressure, usually 7 bar.

Instrument air
Compressed air was widely used for instruments around a brewery long before
microelectronics appeared. It is commonly used in some applications such as DP cells
(Differential Pressure), air operated control valves and some other applications. These
instruments are operated in the low pressure range 0.2-1 bar.

Emptying product /keg cleaning.

Using compressed air to push beer or another liquid from one tank to another is not very
common these days. It was used quite often in the past where flexible rubber hoses could
quickly be connected to two tanks. Compressed air was then applied to the top of one tank
to push it into the other one. This method was often used where blending of beers was
being carried out. Today compressed air is seldom used on beer tanks in order to prevent
beer oxidation, so CO2 is used instead. In modern automated breweries such manual
practices are rarely used.

The other use of compressed air to move liquids from containers is in the cleaning of beer
kegs. Compressed air is used to blow out the first rinse water and then the detergent. Air is
used because it is cheaper than steam or CO2. If steam is used at the start of washing the
keg will get too hot. If CO2 is used it will partly neutralise caustic detergents if these are
being used. Quality is not affected at this stage because the keg is purged afterwards with
steam then CO2 before refilling with beer. These later stages in the cleaning cycle remove
all air.

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Transporting Spent Grains
The spent grains are produced as the by-product in the brewhouse from a lauter tun or
mash filter and are difficult to transport. They contain 75-80% water and are hot, abrasive
and corrosive. The most common method of transporting them away from the brewhouse
is by wet air conveying.

Courtesy of Ponndorf Maschinenfabrik GmbH

A Ponndorf screw
mounted below a
Lauter Tun

This is a screw conveyor underneath the spent grains tank or filter which has
compressed air fed into it as shown in the picture. The mixture of wet air and spent
grain is then blown down a wide pipe into a silo. In the silo, the wet air is vented off and
the spent grains are held until they can be disposed of. The silo may be some distance
outside the brewhouse. This makes the conveying distance quite long but wet air
conveying works well over this distance. The cost of installing the wide pipe is not high
compared with the other possible methods. The system is reliable provided the pipeline
is flushed completely or cleaned out at intervals.

Note that dried air is expensive and not required for this application.

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Conveying Malt, Grain and Flour
Compressed air can be used for conveying dry grain or flour around a brewhouse. (See
Brewhouse Module for more details) Many brewhouses have a system of elevators and
conveyors for transporting grain, but some brewers prefer to use pneumatic conveying.
With crushed malt or flour made from other grains it is quite easy to inject compressed air
and then blow the mixture along a wide pipeline. However, it is importance to control the
moisture in the mixture to be as dry as possible.

Sometimes it is the only way to convey very fine flour because otherwise it would stick
inside normal conveying systems. The silos used for storing flour have steep conical or
angled bases so that the flour slips. If it sticks or “bridges” inside the silo it needs to be
vibrated or air blasted to release it.

Wort Aeration.
When wort is being conveyed from the brewhouse to the fermenter, it is cooled down,
pitched with yeast and sterile oxygen or air is added. Sterile air can be added as the pure
gas, or more cheaply, simply by bubbling compressed sterile air into the wort stream.
However, sterile oxygen is more effective in stimulating the yeast to grow. This is the
ONLY point in the brewing process where sterile oxygen or air is welcome.

The quality of the compressed air or oxygen used for injecting into wort must be very high
indeed. It needs to be oil free, right bubble size, dust free, sterile, odourless and dry The
pressure needs to be high enough to prevent wort from flowing back into the gas line. A
strong flow into the wort is needed. A typical wort system should contain the following:

· Gas injection point

· Pressure gauge

· Sterile filter

· Gas flow meter

· Steam supply for sterilisation

· Isolation valves

The gas injection point is sometimes just a small needle. In other plants it is a porous or
sintered disc so that the air bubbles disperse more easily. A gas flow meter is essential to
give consistent air volumes to the wort. If this does not happen, the yeast will not grow
uniformly and variable fermentations will result.

See the brewing module for more information on wort aeration

Air operated devices in Packaging equipment.

Compressed air gets used in a number of items of machinery in a packaging plant.
Examples are the lift cylinders on bottle fillers and for lifting empty kegs onto washing and
filling stations. The pusher arms or rejecters on packaging lines are usually air operated
because they are fast and powerful. Once again air is preferred to electricity as a power
source because it is simple, reliable and can work in damp conditions.

See the Packaging Module for more information.

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Air blast
The malt or maize silos or hoppers used to store flour have steep conical or angled bases
so that the flour can flow by gravity. If it sticks or “bridges” inside the silo or hopper, an air
blast is needed to be vibrated the “stick” or “bridge” to release it.

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Quality of compressed air

Objective

To identify the quality requirements of compressed air.

The quality of compressed air is very important and there are a number of impurities in it.
As you can see from the list of uses, these impurities could cause problems. When we
come to look at the methods of producing compressed air, we shall see the different types
of equipment used to achieve this high quality. The main items that must be looked at are
as follows:

· The air must be dry (see dewpoint below)

· The air must have no oil in it

· Dust free

· Sterile

· No odours

Air in a brewery does not always need to be treated to achieve all of the above properties.
For example, air for wort aeration does not need to be dry, but it must have all the other
properties of cleanliness. The same applies to the air used for purging kegs during
cleaning. Instrument air however, must be dry otherwise components will corrode or get
damp and stick. Air for spent grains removal does not need to be dry or sterile. These
properties are listed below together with the various uses.
Use Dry Oil Free Dust Free Sterile Odourless
Valve actuation Yes Yes Yes X X
Pumping slurries Yes X Yes X X
Instrument air Yes Yes Yes X X
If direct in contact with Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
product
Spent grains X Yes X X X
Malt &flour Yes Yes Yes X Yes
Wort aeration Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Wet air (General purpose) X X Yes X X
(X = unimportant)

The main quality parameters looked for in compressed air are:

· Moisture

· Dust

· Oil

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The impurities in air are defined in the International Standard ISO 8573-1. Air quality is
divided into 7 different quality classes depending on the level of purity. The lower the
number, the higher the purity.

Quality Class Solids particle Solids Water dew Oil inclusion

size (micron) concentration point deg. C Vapour
(mg/m3) mg/m3)

1 0.1 0.1 -70 0.01

2 1 1 -40 0.1

3 5 5 -20 1

4 40 10 3 5

5 7 25

6 10

7 No
specification

As an example of the variable quality of air needed for different applications, these 7
classes can be split up as follows:

Air classes for various Industrial applications

Application Oil Solids Water

Air Motors 4 4 5

Powder conveying 2 3 2

Food and 2 3 1
Beverage

Air Tools 4 4 4

Packaging 4 3 3
machines

Pneumatic 3 3 5
cylinders

Pneumatic control 2 2 3

Workshops 4 4 5

Dew Point
Dew point is defined as the temperature at which air becomes saturated and moisture
starts to condense, at a given pressure.

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This can be measured by cooling air down in the presence of a mirror or polished metal
surface and observing the temperature when misting starts to occur.

Desiccant driers produce very low dew points and sometimes have instruments to detect
moisture and indicate when the bed needs regenerating. These can work by measuring
the infrared absorption of water in the air.

Oil
Most brewery compressors are oil-free since they are installed for possible process air
use. They use solid graphite as a lubricant and often have Teflon seals.

Compressors that use oil in contact with the air should have filters downstream. These
filters contain a fibrous material that absorbs oil.

It is unlikely that air will be tested for oil but it could be done by putting a known volume of
air through an absorbing filter and weighing it afterwards. The oil could also be positively
identified by washing it off the filter and putting it through a gas chromatograph. A typical
specification for process air is Class 2, which is 0.1milligrammes/ cubic metre.

Dust
Air should always be filtered before compression to avoid damage to the compressors.
Finer dust particles are also removed after compression and both before and after the
driers. Process air should be Class 3 that means solids smaller than 5 micron in size and a
concentration of under 5 mg./ cubic metre.

Sterility
Air for process use must be sterile. When air is compressed the rise in temperature is
enough to kill off any airborne organisms but the distribution system may hide some
infection. If beer or water is forced back up the air lines then organisms will be present and
have a good supply of nutrients. Breaking open the air line for maintenance will also
introduce organisms.

Process air is sterilised by having an absolute rated air filter close to the point of use and
always downstream from an air receiver.

These filters should be constructed from ceramic or sintered stainless steel material so
that they can be steam sterilised.

These filters will remove all organisms in the air.

It is vital that the section of air pipeline from the filter to the point of use is sterilised. This is
done by steaming through the filter and out at the process end. There should be an
isolation valve in the air pipeline upstream from the filter and a steam injection point
between this valve and the filter. The air supply is closed off and the filter and pipeline are
steamed for at least 30 minutes. The steam is then switched off and the condensate blown
out with sterile air.

The presence of live organisms can be monitored on a routine basis by having a sterile
septum point in the air supply downstream from the filter. This septum is pierced with a
sterile needle and air trickled through a sterile saline solution to trap any organisms. This is
then tested in the laboratory.

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Odours
Odours are not usually a problem in a compressed air supply but an activated carbon filter
could be installed if desired. This is similar to the type of installation used on carbon
dioxide recovery plants where the level of volatile aromas is high. A filter would probably
be needed to protect the air supply from suspended carbon blowing out.

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Safety

Objective

To identify the safety requirements when using compressed air and servicing machinery.

Compressed air is potentially dangerous. All pipe lines and receivers are under pressure.

Never disconnect a pipe line or any tank fitting until you are sure that the system is
decompressed.

If removing fittings or unscrewing pipes, start slowly and check that there is no leakage as
you start to unscrew.

You should always obtain a “permission to work” certificate (or similar) before starting work
on air lines or receivers.

Compressors are driven by electric motors. All switches should be isolated and padlocked
in conformance with your local safety code before starting work on compressors.

Compressors are noisy. Prolonged exposure to noise is harmful

NEVER fool around with compressed air hoses.

NEVER use compressed air to clean clothing or remove dust from your body. If
compressed air gets under the skin, it can “balloon” and rip the skin open, with fatal
results.

The following lists the general standard of safety requirements required by United States
Legislation.

Compressed Air Safety

General safety requirements for compressed air

· The following precautions pertain to the use of compressed air in machine
shops:

· All pipes, hoses, and fittings must have a rating of the maximum pressure of the
compressor. Compressed air pipelines should be identified as to maximum
working pressure.

· Air supply shutoff valves should be located (as near as possible) at the point of
operation.

· Air hoses should be kept free of grease and oil to reduce the possibility of
deterioration.

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 · Hoses should not be strung across floors or aisles where they are liable to
cause personnel to trip and fall. When possible, air supply hoses should be
suspended overhead or otherwise located to afford efficient access and
protection against damage.

· Hose ends must be secured to prevent whipping if an accidental cut or break

occurs.

· Pneumatic impact tools, such as riveting guns, should never be pointed at a

person.

· Before a pneumatic tool is disconnected (unless it has quick disconnect plugs),

the air supply must be turned off at the control valve and the tool bled.

· Compressed air must not be used under any circumstances to clean dirt and
dust from clothing or off a person’ s skin. Shop air used for cleaning should be
regulated to 15 p.s.i. unless equipped with diffuser nozzles to provide less
pressure.

· Goggles, face shields or other eye protection must be worn by personnel using
compressed air for cleaning equipment.

· . Static electricity can be generated by pneumatic tools. This type of equipment

must be grounded or bonded if it is used where fuel, flammable vapours or
explosive atmospheres are present.

Safety Requirements for Operating & Maintaining Compressed Air

Machinery:

All components of compressed air systems should be inspected regularly by qualified and
trained employees. Maintenance superintendents should check with state and/or
insurance companies to determine if they require their own inspection of this equipment.
Operators need to be aware of the following:

Air receivers:
The maximum allowable working pressures of air receivers should never be exceeded
except when being tested. Only hydrostatically tested and approved tanks shall be used as
air receivers.

· Air tanks and receivers should be equipped with inspection openings, and tanks
over 36 inches in diameter should have a manhole. Pipelug openings should be
provided on tanks with volumes of less than five cubic feet.

· The intake and exhaust pipes of small tanks, similar to those used in garages
should be made removable for interior inspections.

· No tank or receiver should be altered or modified by unauthorized persons.

· Air receivers should be fitted with a drain cock that is located at the bottom of
the receiver.

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 · Receivers should be drained frequently to prevent accumulation of liquid inside
the unit. Receivers having automatic drain systems are exempt from this
Requirement.

· Air tanks should be located so that the entire outside surfaces can be easily
inspected. Air tanks should not be buried or placed where they cannot be seen
for frequent inspection.

· Each air receiver shall be equipped with at least one pressure gauge and an
ASME safety valve of the proper design.

· A safety (spring loaded) release valve shall be installed to prevent the receiver
from exceeding the maximum allowable working pressure.

· Only qualified personnel should be permitted to repair air tanks, and all work
must be done according to established safety standards.

· Air receivers must be tested annually and inspected by a qualified professional

engineer.

Air Distribution Lines:

· Air lines should be made of high quality materials, fitted with secure
connections.

· Only standard fittings should be used on air lines.

· Operators should avoid bending or kinking air hoses.

· Air hoses should not be placed where they will create tripping hazards.

· Hoses should be checked to make sure they are properly connected to pipe
outlets before use.

· Air lines should be inspected frequently for defects, and any defective
equipment repaired or replaced immediately.

· Compressed air lines should be identified as to maximum working pressures

(p.s.i.), by tagging or marking pipeline outlets.

· Air manifold must be installed at the “Tee” off from the air distribution with a
proper drainage device to release trapped condensed water in the pipeline.

Pressure regulation Devices:

· Only qualified personnel should be allowed to repair or adjust pressure
regulating equipment.

· Valves, gauges and other regulating devices should be installed on compressor

equipment in such a way that they cannot be made inoperative.

· Air tank safety valves should be set no less than 15 p.s.i. or 10 percent
(whichever is greater) above the operating pressure of the compressor but never
higher than the maximum allowable working pressure of the air receiver.

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 · Air lines between the compressor and receiver should usually not be equipped
with stop valves. Where stop valves are necessary and authorized, ASME safety
valves should be installed between the stop valves and the compressor.

· The Safety valves should be set to blow at pressures slightly above those
necessary to pop the receiver safety valves.

· Blow off valves should be located on the equipment and shielded so sudden
blow offs will not cause personnel injuries or equipment damage.

· Case iron seat or disk safety valves should be ASME approved and stamped for
intended service application.

· If the design of a safety or a relief valve is such that liquid can collect on the
discharge side of the disk, the valve should be equipped with a drain at the
lowest point where liquid can collect.

· Safety valves exposed to freezing temperatures should be located so water

cannot collect in the valves. Frozen valves must be thawed and drained before
operating the compressor.

Air Compressor Operation:

· Air compressor equipment should be operated only by authorized and trained
personnel.

· The air intake should be from a clean, outside, fresh air source. Screens or
filters can be used to clean the air.

· Air compressors should never be operated at speeds faster than the

manufacturers recommendation.

· Equipment should not become overheated.

· Moving parts, such as compressor flywheels, pulleys, and belts that could be
hazardous should be effectively guarded.

Compressed Air Equipment Maintenance:

· Only authorized and trained personnel should service and maintain air
compressor equipment.

· Exposed, non current-carrying, metal parts of compressor should be effectively

grounded.

· High flash point lubricants should not be used on compressors because of its
high operating temperatures that could cause a fine or explosion.

· Equipment should not be over lubricated.

· Gasoline or diesel fuel powered compressors shall not be used indoors.

· Equipment placed outside but near buildings should have the exhausts directed
away from doors, windows and fresh air intakes.

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· Soapy water of lye solutions can be used to clean compressor parts of carbon
deposits, but kerosene or other flammable substances should not be used.
Frequent cleaning is necessary to keep compressors in good working condition.

· The air systems should be completely purged after each cleaning.

· During maintenance work, the switches of electrically operated compressors

should be locked open and tagged to prevent accidental starting.

· Portable electric compressors should be disconnected from the power supply

before performing maintenance.

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