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CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY
Mid-18th Century
Basic Elements: (1) free will; (2) Criminal solutions: more attractive than
lawful; reasons: less work for greater payoff; crime if not punished:
greater utility than conformity. (3) Choice to commit crime: controlled by
fear of punishment. (4) More severe, certain, & swift punishment, better
able to control criminal behavior.
POSITIVISM
19th Century
Two Main Parts: (1) Human behavior: function of internal and external
forces. (2) Embracing scientific method to solve problems.
Ecological Forces
STRUCTURAL Crime rates: function of neighborhood conditions,
Contemporary PERSPECTIVE cultural forces, & norm conflict.
Criminology
Major perspectives of
Socialization Forces
Criminology
PROCESS Crime: function of upbringing, learning, & control.
PERSPECTIVE Peers, parents, and teachers influence behavior.
Multiple Forces
DEVELOPMENTAL Biological, social-psychological, economic, &
PERSPECTIVE political forces may combine to produce crime.
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RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 8
Elements of deterrence
Celerity. Celerity refers to how quickly an
individual is punished after committing a
crime.
Certainty. Certainty refers to how likely it
is that an individual will be caught and
punished for a crime that he or she has
committed.
Severity. Severity refers to how harsh the
punishment for a crime will be.
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BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Atavism. Part of the theory developed by
Lombroso in which a person is a “born
criminal.” Atavistic or primitive man is a
throwback to an earlier stage of human
evolution, and will commit crimes against
society unless specifically restrained from
doing so.
Biological School. A view of crime, also
referred to as biological positivism, that claims
that criminal behavior is the result of
biological or inborn defects or abnormalities.
Born Criminals
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BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Born Criminal. This type of criminal is the most
dangerous, and can be identified through their
stigmata or identifying characteristics.
Insane Criminal. The insane criminal type
includes idiots, imbeciles, epileptics, psychotics,
and the mentally unstable. These criminals are
unable to control their actions; however, they do
not possess the stigmata or identifying
characteristics of the born criminal.
Criminaloid. The criminaloid is motivated by
passion, and will commit criminal acts under the
proper circumstances.
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BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Determinism. In considering biological theories,
determinism refers to the view that an individual’s
criminal lifestyle or actions is the direct result of
genetic inheritance or biological predisposition.
Concordance. This examines the degree to which
criminal or law-abiding behavior of siblings, identical
twins, or fraternal twins is similar to one another.
Evolutionary Theory. A broad-based view that
certain types of criminal behavior are genetic and
passed down from one generation to the next
through evolutionary processes of natural selection
and survival.
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BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Gene-Based Evolutionary Theory. A general approach that
suggests that the process of natural selection has resulted in
criminal genetic tendencies that are passed down from
generation to generation.
Klinefelter Syndrome. A man with an extra female X
chromosome (XXY).
Stigmata. Characteristics claimed by Lombroso that could be
used to identify the “born criminal.” They include things such
as extra fingers or toes, large lips, receding chins, excessive
skin wrinkles, and large monkey-like ears.
XYY: The Super-Male Criminal. This theory of crime claims
that men born with an extra Y chromosome (XYY), “super-
males,” are more likely to commit criminal acts. It is believed
that the presence of this extra chromosome provides the
individuals with extra testosterone, making them more
aggressive and violent. There is little, if any, empirical support
for this theory.
Supermale
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BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Giambattista della Porta (1535 – 1615), Italy
A polymath who pioneered the study of human PHYSIOGNOMY –
facial features and their relations to human behavior. His writings on
the subject later influenced Johann Kaspar Lavater. Physiognomy
is the earliest positivist approach in the study of crime.
Franz Joseph Gall ( 1758 – 1828) and Johann Kaspar
Spurzheim (1776 – 1828), Germany
Founded the science of PHRENOLOGY – bumps in the head are
indications of “psychological propensities”.
Auguste Compte (18th Century), France
French Sociologist who applied the modern methods of the physical
sciences to the social sciences in his book Cours de Philosophie
Positive. He argued that there could be no real knowledge of social
phenomena unless it was based on positive (scientific) approach.
Phrenology
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
• Charles Buckman Goring – “Craniology” –
the study of the external formation of the skull,
in relation to behavior. He found out that
criminals are physically inferior to normal
individuals in the sense that they tend to be
shorter and have less weight than non-
criminals.
• He refuted Lombrosian theory of
anthropological criminal type. His evaluation
stands as the most cogent critical analysis of
the theory of Born Criminals..
Craniology
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BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Enrico Ferri
One of Lombroso’s students, he accepted the
existence of a criminal type but also focused
on factors other than inherited physical
characteristics as predictors of crime. He
considered social factors such as:
population trends,
religion, and
the nature of the family.
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BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Rafael Garofalo
Italian lawyer, major contribution to modern
criminology is the concept of natural crime,
which he argued was the principal concern of
criminologists. The true criminal is one who
lacks the basic altruistic sentiments of pity and
honesty. Garofalo believed that the true
criminal is a distinct biological or psychic type
and that the altruistic deficiencies were organic
or inherited.
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BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
ERNST KRETCHMER (1888 – 1964), Germany
Distinguished three principal types of
physiques (European SOMATOTYPE SCHOOL
OF CRIMINOLOGY):
aesthetic (lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders)
athletic (medium to tall, strong, muscular,
coarse bones)
pyknic (medium height, rounded figure,
massive neck, broad face)
European Somatotype
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
• William Sheldon
• Endomorphy is centered on the abdomen,
and the whole digestive system. (round and
fat)
• Mesomorphy is focused on the muscles
and the circulatory system. (muscular)
• Ectomorphy is related to the brain and the
nervous system. (thin and tall)
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
• Temperaments (Sheldon)
• Endotonia (Viscerotonic) is seen in the
love of relaxation, comfort, food and
people.
• Mesotonia (Somatotonic) is centered on
assertiveness and a love of action.
• Ectotonia (Cerebrotonic) focuses on
privacy, restraint and a highly developed
self-awareness.
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PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
Freudian. This view of behavior focuses on early childhood
development. It claims that criminal activity is the result of a
conflict between the id, ego, and superego, which can be
traced back to a conflict in early childhood.
Ego. One of the three components of Freudian personality
development. The ego is referred to as the executive or
rational part of the personality, and it acts to keep the id in
check.
Id. One of the three components of Freudian personality
development. The id contains basic instincts and drives, such
as the need for food, water, sex, and pleasure.
Superego. One of the three components of Freudian
personality development. This part of the personality contains
the conscience of the individual.
Parts of the Human Psyche
Psychosexual Stages
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PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
Oedipus Complex. This occurs at the beginning of the
phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6) in which a boy
develops a desire to possess his mother and a hatred
and fear of his father.
Electra Complex. This occurs at the beginning of the
phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6) in which a girl develops
a desire to possess her father and a hatred and fear of
her mother.
Personality Theory. This theory believes that criminal
activity is the result of a defective, deviant, or inadequate
personality. Examples of deviant personality traits include
hostility, impulsiveness, aggression, and sensation-
seeking.
Oedipus and Electra Complex
Psychological theories
• August Aichhorn – In his book “Waywad
Youth” (1925) mentioned that the cause of
crime and delinquency is the faulty
development of child during the first few
years of his life. Most delinquency is a
result of relationship difficulties.
• The cause of delinquency is different for
every delinquent.
• The relationship between the worker and
the delinquent is central to treatment.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
• David Abrahamsen – In his book “Crime
and the Human Mind” (1945), explained the
causes of crime by this formula (CB = CT +
S / PMRT).
• Cyrill Burt – In his book “Young Delinquent”
(1938) discussed the theory of general
emotionality. He posits that crime can be traced
to either in excess or a deficiency of a particular
instinct account for the tendency of many
criminals to be weak willed or easily led.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
• David Healy – He claimed that crime is an
expression of the mental content of the individual.
He has also said that pharmaceutical companies
sell drugs by marketing diseases and co-opting
academic opinion-leaders. In his 2012
book Pharmageddon he argues that
pharmaceutical companies have dominated
healthcare in America, often with life-threatening
results for patients. Healy is a founder and chief
executive officer of Data Based Medicine Limited,
which aims to make medicines safer through
"online direct patient reporting of drug effects"
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
• Bromberg (Crime and Mind, 1946) –
He claimed that criminality is the result
of immaturity. Person emotionally
matured when he has learned to
control his emotion effectively and who
lives at peace with himself and in
harmony with standards of conduct
which are acceptable to society.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
• Erik Erickson – He used the term Identity Crisis.
Adolescent undergoing an identity crisis might
exhibit out of control behavior and experiment
with drugs and other forms of deviance.
• Carl Gustav Jung - He developed and
popularized the concept of extrovert and introvert.
Extroverts are those that derive satisfaction from
the external world and material things. Introverts
are individuals with strongly self-centered
patterns of emotion.
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Psychological theories
Psychological Counseling. The assumptions
are that only by treating an individual who has
committed a criminal act as someone who is sick
and in need of treatment can the problem truly be
addressed; punishing the criminal act without
addressing the root mental cause is of little or no
value; and counseling is the only way in which
the root mental cause can be dealt with
adequately..
Psychopathic. A general term referring to a
variety of antisocial personality disorders.
Introvert vs Extrovert
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PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
• Freud, Sigmund: (1856-1939)
Psychologist, pioneer of psychoanalysis
and psychological theory; theorized the
Oedipus complex, and the Electra complex;
and coined the terms id, superego, ego,
sex drive, and libido.
Process theories
• Gabriel Tarde (1880s) – A French
sociologist whose basic theory on the
causes of crime was founded on laws
of imitation. Persons predisposed to
crime are attracted to criminal activity
by the example of other criminals. The
particular crimes committed and the
methods of committing those crimes
are the products of imitation.
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BEHAVIORISM
Social Learning Theory. In general,
social learning theory proposes that both
criminal and conforming behavior are
acquired, maintained, or changed by the
same process of interaction with others.
The difference lies in the conforming or
deviant direction or balance of the social
influences such as reinforcement, values
and attitudes, and imitation. (Burgess &
Akers)
Behaviorism
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BEHAVIORISM
• Differential Association.
Criminality is basically the result
of engaging in inappropriate
behaviors exhibited by those with
whom we interact. Criminal
behavior can be learned thru
interaction to intimate others.
DAT
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Behaviorism
• Negative Reinforcement. This refers to an individual
escaping something painful such as a punishment or
reprimand by committing a certain act.
• Positive Reinforcement. This refers to an individual
receiving something of value for committing a certain act.
This may include things such as money, food, or approval
• Operant Conditioning. The view that voluntary actions
and decisions made by an individual are influenced and
shaped by punishments and rewards found in the external
world.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism (expansion of the DAT)
• Differential Identification. A
modification of differential
association theory. In this view,
people commit criminal or
delinquent acts if they believe that
it will lead to acceptance by and
approval of these important people
in their lives. (D. Glaser)
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Behaviorism
Akers, Ronald: Sociologist and criminologist, who, along with
Robert Burgess, developed the differential reinforcement
theory, wrote Deviant Behavior: A Social Learning Approach
(1973, 1977).
Bandura, Albert: Psychologist and child development expert,
examined stages of development and concluded conduct
develops at particular stages when certain interaction stimuli
are present.
Burgess, Robert L.: Behavior sociologist, collaborated with
Ronald Akers to develop a “differential association-
reinforcement” theory of criminal behavior.
Elliot, Delbert: Developed an integrated theory, wrote
Explaining Delinquency and Drug Use (1985).
Sutherland, Edwin: (1883-1950) Developed the differential
association theory, wrote The Professional Thief (1937) and
Principles of Criminology (1947).
Sociological theories
• Gabriel Tarde (1880s) – A French sociologist whose
basic theory on the causes of crime was founded on laws
of imitation. Persons predisposed to crime are attracted
to criminal activity by the example of other criminals. The
particular crimes committed and the methods of
committing those crimes are the products of imitation.
Durkheim and the Concept of Anomie
• Emile Durkheim (Division of Labor)
• Primitive societies exist as those in which all members
perform the same function (hunting and gathering)
• Collective conscience- the extent to which people in a
society share similarities or likeness; the stronger the
collective conscience the lesser the crime in society.
• Mechanical Societies (Mechanical Solidarity) societies
that are primitive with a simple distribution of labor and
this a high level of agreement regarding social norms and
rules because nearly everyone is engaged in the same
roles.
• Organic Societies (Organic Solidarity)- Industrial
revolution (1750- 1860) those societies that have high
division of labor and this a low level of agreement about
societal norms, largely because everyone has such
different roles in society.
• In organic societies Collective Conscience is weak
because of little agreement on moral beliefs and opinions,
hence solidarity is weakened due to division of labor
• Crime is normal and functional in society as crime serves
role in society.
• Define moral boundaries of societies
• Reinforces rules as people become aware the consequence of
breaking rules.
Mechanical Societies Organic Societies
Industrialization
Primitive Modern
Rural Urban
Simple division of labor Complex division of labor
Law used to enforce conformity Law used to regulate interactions
among divisions
Typically stronger collective Typically weaker collective conscience
conscience
• Common enemy drives social bonding
• Deviation from moral boundaries brings progress (Budha,
Muhammed, Jesus, Gandhi, King, Etc.)
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Modes of adaptation
Adaptations American Dream Legal Means
to Frustration
Conformity + +
Innovation + -
Ritualism - +
Retreatism - -
Rebellion + +
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Subculture
• Focal Concerns of the Lower-Class Culture. The list of
focal concerns or values believed to be prevalent among
lower-class males was developed by Walter Miller to
describe the behavior of street corner groups or gangs.
According to Miller, the behavior of these juveniles was an
adaptation to lower-class culture. This culture valued
things such as: trouble, toughness, smartness,
excitement, fatalism, and autonomy.
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Types of control
• External Control. A concept in control theory in which
agents outside the control of the individual are
responsible for keeping that individual from committing
criminal or deviant acts. These agents include parents,
teachers, or law enforcement.
• Internal Control. A concept in control theory which
explains why a person will not commit a criminal act by
reference to the person internally monitoring and
controlling his or her own behavior. This includes such
things as feelings of guilt and not wanting to disappoint
others.
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Social bonding
• Social Bonding Theory. A control theory
that states that individuals will commit
criminal or delinquent acts when their ties
(bonds) to society are weakened or have
broken. There are four types of bonds:
attachment, commitment, involvement, and
belief. When the bonds are strong, an
individual will refrain from criminal activity.
Social Control Theory
Conforming Behavior
Belief Involvement
Commitment
Attachment •Honesty •School activities
•Family •Future
•Morality •Sports teams
•Friends •Career
•Fairness •Religious groups
•Community •Success
•Patriotism •Social clubs
•Personal goals
•Responsibility
Criminal Behavior
Attachment, Commitment, Belief, Involvement
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Containment theory
• This theory states that people can ‘drift’ or float back and
forth between obeying and breaking the law. People can
use techniques of neutralization as excuses to break the
law when other forms of social control are weak. When
social control is stronger, the offender will drift or float
back to law-abiding behavior.
• These techniques are rationalization, ways to justify their
behavior. These techniques are justifications and
excuses for committing delinquent acts, which are
essentially inappropriate extensions of commonly
accepted rationalizations found in the general culture.
Containment Theory
Conforming Behavior
Criminal Behavior
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Techniques of neutralization
Deny
Blame the
responsibility
Victim
Condemn Deny
condemners Injury
Appeal to
higher
loyalties
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Detection by the
Initial criminal act Decision to label
justice system
Labeling theory
Original Label A Delinquent
Delinquent Applied self image
Act
Future
Delinquency
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Conflict theories
• Conflict Theory. The view that society is divided into two
or more groups with competing ideas and values. The
group(s) with the most power makes the laws and
controls society. Groups lacking the formal power to
make the rules still maintain their own group norms, and
continue in their behavior which is now viewed as criminal
by the larger society. This perspective explains both law
and criminal justice (why some acts are legally defined as
criminal), as well as criminal and deviant behavior (why
some individuals commit acts defined as criminal).
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Conflict theory
• Consensus Theory. In general, this theory states
that laws are a result of, and a reflection of,
general agreement in society. Views of right and
wrong, which can be reflected through folkways
and mores, influence the laws and rules which
govern a society.
• Functionalist Theory. Similar to consensus
theory, but this theory also looks at how the law
acts to resolve everyday disputes in society; and
how it acts to serve everyone, not just the
powerful. The law also serves a symbolic function
and discourages deviant behavior.
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Power-Control Theory.
• A theory proposed by Hagan in which patriarchal and egalitarian
families are examined. In patriarchal families, sons are more
likely than daughters to be delinquent because sons receive less
supervision than daughters. In egalitarian families, the delinquent
behavior of sons and daughters becomes more similar.
• Paternalism. This view claims that men act in a manner
designed to keep women and girls in a subservient position in
society. While women and girls may be treated less severely as
indicated under the chivalry hypothesis, they may also be treated
more harshly in an attempt to keep them from achieving equality
with men.
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Feminist theory
• Feminist Theory. This theory attempts to define
criminology and criminal justice based upon the
experiences, understanding, and view of the world as
perceived by women. It tries to counter most theories of
criminology that have been developed, tested, and
applied by men to men, which have only incorporated
women as an afterthought.
• Liberation Hypothesis. This view states that as men and
women become more equal in society in terms of family,
politics, and education, their crime rates will begin to
equalize as well
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