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THEORIES OF CRIME

AND DELINQUENCY

RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim


Assoc. Professor, Angeles University Foundation
A Brief History of Criminology
DEMONOLOGY Violators (social norms or religious practices): witches or possessed by
Middle Ages (1200-1600) demons.

Utilitarianism : pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain.

Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) – Punishment: public, prompt, necessary, the


least possible in given circumstances, proportionate to crimes, and dictated
by the laws.

CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY
Mid-18th Century
Basic Elements: (1) free will; (2) Criminal solutions: more attractive than
lawful; reasons: less work for greater payoff; crime if not punished:
greater utility than conformity. (3) Choice to commit crime: controlled by
fear of punishment. (4) More severe, certain, & swift punishment, better
able to control criminal behavior.

Let the punishment fit the crime.

RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ 2


A Brief History of Criminology
Could scientific method be applied to study human behavior?

Auguste Comte (1798-1857) – Founder of sociology; Coined Positivism -


branch of social science using scientific method of natural sciences. Human
behavior is product of social, biological, psychological, or economic forces.

POSITIVISM
19th Century

Two Main Parts: (1) Human behavior: function of internal and external
forces. (2) Embracing scientific method to solve problems.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) – Popularized the positivist tradition. His work


encouraged “cult of science” – all human activity could be verified by
scientific principles.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ 3
A Brief History of Criminology
Physiognomist – Studied facial features of criminals: Phrenologists – Studied the shape of skull & bumps on
shape of ears, nose, & eyes & distance between them. head & linked them to criminal behavior. Known
Facial features: associated with antisocial behavior. advocates: Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) & Johann K.
Known advocate is J. K. Lavater (1741-1801). Spurzheim (1776-1832).

Manie Sans Delire – Coined by Philippe Pinel, one of


founders of French psychiatry; denotes Psychopathic
Personality – lack of warmth & feeling, inappropriate
behavior responses, & inability to learn from
experience. View of some psychologists: psychopathy
American – result of childhood trauma; others: result of
Benjamin Rush biological abnormality.
POSITIVIST (1812): patients
CRIMINOLOGY with an “innate
preternatural
moral English physician Henry Maudsley (1835-1918): 1.
depravity.” Crime: outlet to release unsound tendencies; 2.
criminals: committing crime prevents them from going
mad.

Biological Determinism – criminogenic traits acquired


Social Positivism – developed field of sociology
through indirect heredity from degenerate family
to scientifically study major social changes
whose members suffered from such ills as insanity,
taking place in 19th-century society
syphilis, and alcoholism, or through direct heredity –
being related to family of criminals.

RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ 4


A Brief History of Criminology
Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909) believed: (1) serious offenders
inherited criminal traits. These “born criminals” inherited physical
problems that impelled them into a life of crime. This view helped
stimulate the interest in a Criminal Anthropology - early efforts to
discover a biological basis of crime through measurement of physical
and mental processes. (2) Born criminals suffer from Atavistic
Anomalies - the physical characteristics that distinguish born criminals
from the general population and are throwbacks to animals or
primitive people.

Biological Lombrosian Theory: (1) Criminogenic traits acquired through indirect


Determinism heredity, from a degenerate family whose members suffered from such
ills as insanity, syphilis, and alcoholism. (2) Direct heredity – being
related to a family of criminals – is second primary cause of crime.

Modern concept: biological and environmental conditions influence


human behavior. A.k.a. Biosocial Theory – link between physical &
mental traits, social environment, & behavior.

RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ 5


A Brief History of Criminology
Sociological Criminology – traced to Social Positivism Conflict Criminology – Based on
works of pioneering sociologists the writings of Karl Marx: The
L.A.J. (Adolphe) Quetelet (1796- economic system controls all
1874) & (David0 Emile Durkeim Chicago School – Group of urban facets of human life;
(1858-1917). sociologists who studied consequently, people’s lives
relationship between revolve around the means of
environmental conditions & crime production. The exploitation of
L.A.J. (Adolphe) Quetelet – Belgian namely, Robert Ezra ParK (1864 – the working class would
mathematician who began (along 1944), Ernest W. Burgess (1886 – eventually lead to class
with Frenchman, Andre-Michel 1966), Louis Wirth (1897 – 1952) & conflict…
Guerry) Cartographic School – made their colleagues. These sociologists
use of social statistics developed in pioneered research on Social
Europe in early 19th century providing Ecology – environmental forces Important relationship in the
important demographic info on that have direct influence on industrial culture:
population, including density, gender, human behavior
religious affiliations, & wealth.
Bourgeoisie Proletariat
Criminality – Failure of Socialization

Edwin Sutherland – People learn Evolved into a Marxist-based


Emile Durkeim – crime: normal & criminal attitudes from older, more radical criminology: the
necessary social event; described experienced law violators. economic system produce the
Anomie – normlessness; rapid conditions that support a high
shifting of moral values – individual crime rate.
has few guides to what is socially Walter Reckless – Crime occurs
acceptable. when children develop an
inadequate self-image, which
renders them incapable of
controlling their own
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ misbehavior. 6
CLASSICAL/ Situational Forces
CHOICE Crime: function of free will & personal choice,
PERSPECTIVE Punishment : deterrent to crime.

BIOLOGICAL/ Internal Forces


PSYCHOLOGICAL Crime: function of chemical, neurological, genetic,
PERSPECTIVE personality, intelligence, or mental traits.

Ecological Forces
STRUCTURAL Crime rates: function of neighborhood conditions,
Contemporary PERSPECTIVE cultural forces, & norm conflict.
Criminology
Major perspectives of
Socialization Forces
Criminology
PROCESS Crime: function of upbringing, learning, & control.
PERSPECTIVE Peers, parents, and teachers influence behavior.

Economic and Political Forces


CONFLICT Crime: function of competition for limited
PERSPECTIVE resources & power. Class conflict produces crime.

Multiple Forces
DEVELOPMENTAL Biological, social-psychological, economic, &
PERSPECTIVE political forces may combine to produce crime.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ 7
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 8

CHOICE THEORY OR CLASSICAL


CRIMINOLOGY (Juristic)
• Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham.
• Classical criminology- holds that decisions to
violate the law are weighed against possible
punishments and to deter crime the pain of
punishment must outweigh the benefit of illegal
gain.
• Element of Free will
• Utilitarianism- a concept which argues that
people weigh the benefits and consequences of
their future actions before deciding on a course
of behavior.
Proponents of the Classical Theory

Cesare Becarria Jeremy Bentham


RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 10

Purpose of punishment (Classical)


 GENERAL DETERRENCE – punishment of
delinquents and criminal offenders will strike fear in
the hearts of other people.
 SPECIFIC DETERRENCE – punishment will strike
fear in the hearts of wrongdoers thus making them
less likely to offend others again.
 INCAPACITATION – the simples form of justification;
wrongdoers should be locked up in jail since while
they are imprisoned in an institution.
 RETRIBUTION - Criminals should be punished
because they deserve it; a punishment is morally right
and just in light of the harm and damage caused by
the offense.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 11

Elements of deterrence
Celerity. Celerity refers to how quickly an
individual is punished after committing a
crime.
Certainty. Certainty refers to how likely it
is that an individual will be caught and
punished for a crime that he or she has
committed.
Severity. Severity refers to how harsh the
punishment for a crime will be.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 12

Rational choice theory


• Cesare Beccaria, this version adds a
new dimension that emphasizes the
expanding role of the economist in
criminological thought. The emphasis
is placed on the expected reward
for committing a crime, and other
associated costs and benefits
surrounding criminal activity.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 13

Routine activities theory


• Routine Activities Theory. This
theory states that for crime to be
committed, three elements must be
present: an available target, a
motivated offender, and a lack of
guardians.
• Cohen, Lawrence E. & Felson,
Marcus
Routine Activities Theory
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 15

Neo- classical school


• A group of intellectuals headed by Sir
William Blackstone recognized the
existence of free will but argues that
certain individuals cannot exercise
free will intelligently by reason of age,
mental condition, or circumstances
such as minority, insanity, or duress.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 16

BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Atavism. Part of the theory developed by
Lombroso in which a person is a “born
criminal.” Atavistic or primitive man is a
throwback to an earlier stage of human
evolution, and will commit crimes against
society unless specifically restrained from
doing so.
Biological School. A view of crime, also
referred to as biological positivism, that claims
that criminal behavior is the result of
biological or inborn defects or abnormalities.
Born Criminals
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BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Born Criminal. This type of criminal is the most
dangerous, and can be identified through their
stigmata or identifying characteristics.
Insane Criminal. The insane criminal type
includes idiots, imbeciles, epileptics, psychotics,
and the mentally unstable. These criminals are
unable to control their actions; however, they do
not possess the stigmata or identifying
characteristics of the born criminal.
Criminaloid. The criminaloid is motivated by
passion, and will commit criminal acts under the
proper circumstances.
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BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
 Determinism. In considering biological theories,
determinism refers to the view that an individual’s
criminal lifestyle or actions is the direct result of
genetic inheritance or biological predisposition.
 Concordance. This examines the degree to which
criminal or law-abiding behavior of siblings, identical
twins, or fraternal twins is similar to one another.
 Evolutionary Theory. A broad-based view that
certain types of criminal behavior are genetic and
passed down from one generation to the next
through evolutionary processes of natural selection
and survival.
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BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
 Gene-Based Evolutionary Theory. A general approach that
suggests that the process of natural selection has resulted in
criminal genetic tendencies that are passed down from
generation to generation.
 Klinefelter Syndrome. A man with an extra female X
chromosome (XXY).
 Stigmata. Characteristics claimed by Lombroso that could be
used to identify the “born criminal.” They include things such
as extra fingers or toes, large lips, receding chins, excessive
skin wrinkles, and large monkey-like ears.
 XYY: The Super-Male Criminal. This theory of crime claims
that men born with an extra Y chromosome (XYY), “super-
males,” are more likely to commit criminal acts. It is believed
that the presence of this extra chromosome provides the
individuals with extra testosterone, making them more
aggressive and violent. There is little, if any, empirical support
for this theory.
Supermale
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BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
 Giambattista della Porta (1535 – 1615), Italy
 A polymath who pioneered the study of human PHYSIOGNOMY –
facial features and their relations to human behavior. His writings on
the subject later influenced Johann Kaspar Lavater. Physiognomy
is the earliest positivist approach in the study of crime.
 Franz Joseph Gall ( 1758 – 1828) and Johann Kaspar
Spurzheim (1776 – 1828), Germany
 Founded the science of PHRENOLOGY – bumps in the head are
indications of “psychological propensities”.
 Auguste Compte (18th Century), France
 French Sociologist who applied the modern methods of the physical
sciences to the social sciences in his book Cours de Philosophie
Positive. He argued that there could be no real knowledge of social
phenomena unless it was based on positive (scientific) approach.
Phrenology
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
• Charles Buckman Goring – “Craniology” –
the study of the external formation of the skull,
in relation to behavior. He found out that
criminals are physically inferior to normal
individuals in the sense that they tend to be
shorter and have less weight than non-
criminals.
• He refuted Lombrosian theory of
anthropological criminal type. His evaluation
stands as the most cogent critical analysis of
the theory of Born Criminals..
Craniology
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BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Enrico Ferri
 One of Lombroso’s students, he accepted the
existence of a criminal type but also focused
on factors other than inherited physical
characteristics as predictors of crime. He
considered social factors such as:
population trends,
religion, and
the nature of the family.
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BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Rafael Garofalo
Italian lawyer, major contribution to modern
criminology is the concept of natural crime,
which he argued was the principal concern of
criminologists. The true criminal is one who
lacks the basic altruistic sentiments of pity and
honesty. Garofalo believed that the true
criminal is a distinct biological or psychic type
and that the altruistic deficiencies were organic
or inherited.
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BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
ERNST KRETCHMER (1888 – 1964), Germany
Distinguished three principal types of
physiques (European SOMATOTYPE SCHOOL
OF CRIMINOLOGY):
aesthetic (lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders)
athletic (medium to tall, strong, muscular,
coarse bones)
pyknic (medium height, rounded figure,
massive neck, broad face)
European Somatotype
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
• William Sheldon
• Endomorphy is centered on the abdomen,
and the whole digestive system. (round and
fat)
• Mesomorphy is focused on the muscles
and the circulatory system. (muscular)
• Ectomorphy is related to the brain and the
nervous system. (thin and tall)
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
• Temperaments (Sheldon)
• Endotonia (Viscerotonic) is seen in the
love of relaxation, comfort, food and
people.
• Mesotonia (Somatotonic) is centered on
assertiveness and a love of action.
• Ectotonia (Cerebrotonic) focuses on
privacy, restraint and a highly developed
self-awareness.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 37

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
 Freudian. This view of behavior focuses on early childhood
development. It claims that criminal activity is the result of a
conflict between the id, ego, and superego, which can be
traced back to a conflict in early childhood.
 Ego. One of the three components of Freudian personality
development. The ego is referred to as the executive or
rational part of the personality, and it acts to keep the id in
check.
 Id. One of the three components of Freudian personality
development. The id contains basic instincts and drives, such
as the need for food, water, sex, and pleasure.
 Superego. One of the three components of Freudian
personality development. This part of the personality contains
the conscience of the individual.
Parts of the Human Psyche
Psychosexual Stages
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PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
 Oedipus Complex. This occurs at the beginning of the
phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6) in which a boy
develops a desire to possess his mother and a hatred
and fear of his father.
 Electra Complex. This occurs at the beginning of the
phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6) in which a girl develops
a desire to possess her father and a hatred and fear of
her mother.
 Personality Theory. This theory believes that criminal
activity is the result of a defective, deviant, or inadequate
personality. Examples of deviant personality traits include
hostility, impulsiveness, aggression, and sensation-
seeking.
Oedipus and Electra Complex
Psychological theories
• August Aichhorn – In his book “Waywad
Youth” (1925) mentioned that the cause of
crime and delinquency is the faulty
development of child during the first few
years of his life. Most delinquency is a
result of relationship difficulties.
• The cause of delinquency is different for
every delinquent.
• The relationship between the worker and
the delinquent is central to treatment.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
• David Abrahamsen – In his book “Crime
and the Human Mind” (1945), explained the
causes of crime by this formula (CB = CT +
S / PMRT).
• Cyrill Burt – In his book “Young Delinquent”
(1938) discussed the theory of general
emotionality. He posits that crime can be traced
to either in excess or a deficiency of a particular
instinct account for the tendency of many
criminals to be weak willed or easily led.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
• David Healy – He claimed that crime is an
expression of the mental content of the individual.
He has also said that pharmaceutical companies
sell drugs by marketing diseases and co-opting
academic opinion-leaders. In his 2012
book Pharmageddon he argues that
pharmaceutical companies have dominated
healthcare in America, often with life-threatening
results for patients. Healy is a founder and chief
executive officer of Data Based Medicine Limited,
which aims to make medicines safer through
"online direct patient reporting of drug effects"
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
• Bromberg (Crime and Mind, 1946) –
He claimed that criminality is the result
of immaturity. Person emotionally
matured when he has learned to
control his emotion effectively and who
lives at peace with himself and in
harmony with standards of conduct
which are acceptable to society.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
• Erik Erickson – He used the term Identity Crisis.
Adolescent undergoing an identity crisis might
exhibit out of control behavior and experiment
with drugs and other forms of deviance.
• Carl Gustav Jung - He developed and
popularized the concept of extrovert and introvert.
Extroverts are those that derive satisfaction from
the external world and material things. Introverts
are individuals with strongly self-centered
patterns of emotion.
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Psychological theories
Psychological Counseling. The assumptions
are that only by treating an individual who has
committed a criminal act as someone who is sick
and in need of treatment can the problem truly be
addressed; punishing the criminal act without
addressing the root mental cause is of little or no
value; and counseling is the only way in which
the root mental cause can be dealt with
adequately..
Psychopathic. A general term referring to a
variety of antisocial personality disorders.
Introvert vs Extrovert
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 49

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
• Freud, Sigmund: (1856-1939)
Psychologist, pioneer of psychoanalysis
and psychological theory; theorized the
Oedipus complex, and the Electra complex;
and coined the terms id, superego, ego,
sex drive, and libido.
Process theories
• Gabriel Tarde (1880s) – A French
sociologist whose basic theory on the
causes of crime was founded on laws
of imitation. Persons predisposed to
crime are attracted to criminal activity
by the example of other criminals. The
particular crimes committed and the
methods of committing those crimes
are the products of imitation.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 51

BEHAVIORISM
Social Learning Theory. In general,
social learning theory proposes that both
criminal and conforming behavior are
acquired, maintained, or changed by the
same process of interaction with others.
The difference lies in the conforming or
deviant direction or balance of the social
influences such as reinforcement, values
and attitudes, and imitation. (Burgess &
Akers)
Behaviorism
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 53

BEHAVIORISM
• Differential Association.
Criminality is basically the result
of engaging in inappropriate
behaviors exhibited by those with
whom we interact. Criminal
behavior can be learned thru
interaction to intimate others.
DAT
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Behaviorism (expansion of the DAT)

• Differential Reinforcement.. The concept


refers to the potential rewards and
punishments for committing or not
committing a criminal or deviant act. This
process includes a consideration of
punishments and rewards that have been
received in the past, as well as present and
future rewards and punishments (C. Ray
Jeffrey)
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 56

Behaviorism
• Negative Reinforcement. This refers to an individual
escaping something painful such as a punishment or
reprimand by committing a certain act.
• Positive Reinforcement. This refers to an individual
receiving something of value for committing a certain act.
This may include things such as money, food, or approval
• Operant Conditioning. The view that voluntary actions
and decisions made by an individual are influenced and
shaped by punishments and rewards found in the external
world.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism (expansion of the DAT)
• Differential Identification. A
modification of differential
association theory. In this view,
people commit criminal or
delinquent acts if they believe that
it will lead to acceptance by and
approval of these important people
in their lives. (D. Glaser)
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 59

Behaviorism
 Akers, Ronald: Sociologist and criminologist, who, along with
Robert Burgess, developed the differential reinforcement
theory, wrote Deviant Behavior: A Social Learning Approach
(1973, 1977).
 Bandura, Albert: Psychologist and child development expert,
examined stages of development and concluded conduct
develops at particular stages when certain interaction stimuli
are present.
 Burgess, Robert L.: Behavior sociologist, collaborated with
Ronald Akers to develop a “differential association-
reinforcement” theory of criminal behavior.
 Elliot, Delbert: Developed an integrated theory, wrote
Explaining Delinquency and Drug Use (1985).
 Sutherland, Edwin: (1883-1950) Developed the differential
association theory, wrote The Professional Thief (1937) and
Principles of Criminology (1947).
Sociological theories
• Gabriel Tarde (1880s) – A French sociologist whose
basic theory on the causes of crime was founded on laws
of imitation. Persons predisposed to crime are attracted
to criminal activity by the example of other criminals. The
particular crimes committed and the methods of
committing those crimes are the products of imitation.
Durkheim and the Concept of Anomie
• Emile Durkheim (Division of Labor)
• Primitive societies exist as those in which all members
perform the same function (hunting and gathering)
• Collective conscience- the extent to which people in a
society share similarities or likeness; the stronger the
collective conscience the lesser the crime in society.
• Mechanical Societies (Mechanical Solidarity) societies
that are primitive with a simple distribution of labor and
this a high level of agreement regarding social norms and
rules because nearly everyone is engaged in the same
roles.
• Organic Societies (Organic Solidarity)- Industrial
revolution (1750- 1860) those societies that have high
division of labor and this a low level of agreement about
societal norms, largely because everyone has such
different roles in society.
• In organic societies Collective Conscience is weak
because of little agreement on moral beliefs and opinions,
hence solidarity is weakened due to division of labor
• Crime is normal and functional in society as crime serves
role in society.
• Define moral boundaries of societies
• Reinforces rules as people become aware the consequence of
breaking rules.
Mechanical Societies Organic Societies
Industrialization
Primitive Modern
Rural Urban
Simple division of labor Complex division of labor
Law used to enforce conformity Law used to regulate interactions
among divisions
Typically stronger collective Typically weaker collective conscience
conscience
• Common enemy drives social bonding
• Deviation from moral boundaries brings progress (Budha,
Muhammed, Jesus, Gandhi, King, Etc.)
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Anomie/ strain theory


• Anomie. A state of normlessness or norm confusion
within a society. The term was coined by Emile Durkheim
to explain suicide in French society, and later applied by
Merton and others to other forms of deviance and crime in
American society.
• This explains the effect of Industrial Revolution with the
increased complexity of society, which leads to weakened
social bonds and disruption of the normative structure.
• Abrupt social change leads to anomie which eventually
leads to deviance. (ie. War, depression, etc.)
Anomie
Anomie
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 68

SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES


• Social Disorganization Theory (Clifford Shaw & Henry
McKay)
• Posits that delinquency is a product of the social forces existing
in inner city, low income areas.
• Transitional neighborhood
• Areas undergoing a shift population and structure, usually from
middle class residential to lower class mixed use.
• Cultural Transmission
• Cultural norms and values that are passed down from generation
to the next.
• Social Control
• Ability of social institutions to influence human behavior; the
justice system is the primary agency of formal social control.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 69

Social disorganization theory


• Gentrified- the process of transforming a lower class area
into a middle class enclave through property
rehabilitation.
• Poverty Concentration effect- (William Julius Wilson)-
the consolidation of poor minority group members in
urban areas.
• Collective efficacy- the ability of communities to regulate
the behavior of their residents through the influence of
community institutions, such as the family and schools.
Residents in these communities share mutual trust and
willingness to intervene in the supervision of children and
the maintenance of public order.
Concentric Zone Theory/ Urban Ecology
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Anomie/ strain theory


• Anomie. A state of normlessness or norm confusion
within a society. The term was coined by Emile Durkheim
to explain suicide in French society, and later applied by
Merton and others to other forms of deviance and crime in
American society.
• This explains the effect of Industrial Revolution with the
increased complexity of society, which leads to weakened
social bonds and disruption of the normative structure.
• Abrupt social change leads to anomie which eventually
leads to deviance. (ie. War, depression, etc.)
Anomie
Anomie
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 74

Merton’s Anomie Theory (strain


theory)
• This version of anomie theory looks at American society,
and what happens when an individual realizes that not
everyone can achieve the American dream of equal
opportunity for economic success. When this
happens, one of five adaptations will occur.
• The conformist accepts the goals of society, and the means for
achieving them: the college student.
• The innovator accepts the goals of society, but rejects the means of
achieving them: the drug dealer.
• The mode of rebellion refers to one who rejects both the goals and
means of society, and wants to replace them with new goals and means:
the militia member.
• The retreatist gives up on both the goals and means, and withdraws
from society: the alcoholic.
• Finally, the ritualist rejects the goals, and accepts the means: this person
has given up on the promotion, nice car, etc., and simply punches the
time clock to keep what they have.
Strain Theory
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 76

Modes of adaptation
Adaptations American Dream Legal Means
to Frustration
Conformity + +

Innovation + -

Ritualism - +

Retreatism - -

Rebellion + +
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 77

Cohen’s anomie theory (strain anomie


theory)
• This version of anomie theory examines juveniles. Though
Cohen is in agreement with Merton that blocked goals
produce strain, his theory looks at status as opposed to
material gain. Under this perspective, juveniles are
measured against the standard of the middle class.
Lower-class kids who cannot meet the middle-class
standards of dress, talk, and manners are, in a sense,
deprived. This ‘status deprivation’ leads to ‘status
frustration,’ which in turn causes deviant and criminal
acts. Instead of five groups like Merton proposes, Cohen
sees only one group—a conflict group which values
toughness, fighting, and respect.
Cohen’s Anomie Strain
• Argued that strained individuals are unlikely
to engage in crime unless they form or join
a delinquent subculture whose values are
conducive to crime.
• Joining criminal subcultures they gain
‘status” but despite such they still cannot
cope up with middle class values which
leads to “status frustration”
Cohen’s Anomie Strain
• Adoptions to “Status Frustration”

TYPE OF GOALS LEGAL MEANS


STATUS
ADJUSTMENT
College boys + +
Corner boys - +
Delinquent - -
boys
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 81

Differential opportunity theory (Miller)


• Differential Opportunity. A theory which draws from
anomie and the work of Merton and Cohen; the social
disorganization theory of Shaw and McKay; and the
differential association theory of Sutherland. This view
says that although one may be denied legitimate
opportunity, that does not mean that one has access to
illegitimate opportunity. Although deprivation and
strain can and do play a role, one learns a
good or bad response to that strain
depending on the available opportunities and
role models, legitimate or illegitimate.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 82

Subculture
• Focal Concerns of the Lower-Class Culture. The list of
focal concerns or values believed to be prevalent among
lower-class males was developed by Walter Miller to
describe the behavior of street corner groups or gangs.
According to Miller, the behavior of these juveniles was an
adaptation to lower-class culture. This culture valued
things such as: trouble, toughness, smartness,
excitement, fatalism, and autonomy.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 83

Types of Subculture (L. Ohlin)


Subculture Loci Description
Criminal Stable •Provides children with illegitimate
neighborhood opportunities to be successful
criminals
•Presence of adult role models
•Cooperation between offenders and
legitimate persons
Conflict Disorganized •In and out migration causes
Slums disorganization and cultural conflict
•Absence of both legal and illegal
means to attain goals which leads to
frustration
Retreatist Neutral •Double failures
neighborhood or •They cannot succeed in any line of
a combination of activity they attempt.
the above
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 84

General strain theory (Robert Agnew)


• Criminality is the direct results of negative affective
states- anger, frustration, and adverse emotions that
emerge in the wake of negative and destructive
social relationships.
• The three major types of deviance-producing strain
are: failure to achieve positively valued goals,
removal of positively valued stimuli, and
confrontation with negative stimuli
• Deviance is most likely to occur when the response of
the individual to any of these stressors is anger.
Factors such as peer associations, beliefs, attributions
of causes, self-control, and self-efficacy will affect
each individual’s reaction to stress.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 85

General strain theory


Sources of Negative Anti Social
Strain Affective Behavior
•Failure to States •Drug Abuse
achieve goals
•Anger •Delinquency
•Removal of •Frustration •Violence
positive stimuli •Disappointment •Dropping
•Presentation of •Depression out
negative stimuli •Fear
•Disjunction of
expectations and
achievements
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 86

Institutional anomie (messner and


rosenfeld)
• This theory was created by Messner and Rosenfeld. The
premise of the theory is that American society is set up in
such a way so as to give prestige and priority to economic
institutions.
• This means that the accumulation of wealth and individual
success are people’s highest priorities.
• Prioritizing economic institutions weakens the ability of
other social institutions (family, education, government) to
control crime that occurs in response to the lack of access
to or failure in the economic sphere. Therefore, a high
level of criminal activity is a natural result of the setup of
American society.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 87

Cultural deviance theory


• Links delinquent acts to the formation of
independent subcultures with a unique set of values
that clash with the mainstream culture.
Poverty Socialization Subculture
•Lack of •Inner city youths are •Blocked opportunities
opportunity socialized to value prompt formation of
•Feeling of middle class goals and groups with alternative
oppression ideas lifestyles and values

Criminal Careers Crime and Success Goal


•Some gang members Delinquency •Gangs provide
can parlay their own •New methods of alternative methods of
status into criminal gaining success gaining success for
careers. Others become involve law violating some, venting anger
drug users or violent behavior for others
assaulters
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 88

Social control and bonding theories


• Social Control. Under a control theory perspective,
social control refers to those elements that keep an
individual from committing a criminal or deviant act.
Examples include the family, church, and school.
• Self-Control Theory. A specific type of control theory
developed by Gottfredson and Hirschi in which self-
control is the key factor in understanding criminal and
deviant acts.
• Control Theories. A classification of theories that
claim to ask not why do people commit criminal acts,
but why do they not commit criminal acts? These
theories assume everyone has the desire to commit
criminal and deviant acts, and seeks to answer why
some people refrain from doing so.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 89

Types of control
• External Control. A concept in control theory in which
agents outside the control of the individual are
responsible for keeping that individual from committing
criminal or deviant acts. These agents include parents,
teachers, or law enforcement.
• Internal Control. A concept in control theory which
explains why a person will not commit a criminal act by
reference to the person internally monitoring and
controlling his or her own behavior. This includes such
things as feelings of guilt and not wanting to disappoint
others.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 90

Social bonding
• Social Bonding Theory. A control theory
that states that individuals will commit
criminal or delinquent acts when their ties
(bonds) to society are weakened or have
broken. There are four types of bonds:
attachment, commitment, involvement, and
belief. When the bonds are strong, an
individual will refrain from criminal activity.
Social Control Theory

Conforming Behavior

Belief Involvement
Commitment
Attachment •Honesty •School activities
•Family •Future
•Morality •Sports teams
•Friends •Career
•Fairness •Religious groups
•Community •Success
•Patriotism •Social clubs
•Personal goals
•Responsibility

Criminal Behavior
Attachment, Commitment, Belief, Involvement
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 93

Containment theory
• This theory states that people can ‘drift’ or float back and
forth between obeying and breaking the law. People can
use techniques of neutralization as excuses to break the
law when other forms of social control are weak. When
social control is stronger, the offender will drift or float
back to law-abiding behavior.
• These techniques are rationalization, ways to justify their
behavior. These techniques are justifications and
excuses for committing delinquent acts, which are
essentially inappropriate extensions of commonly
accepted rationalizations found in the general culture.
Containment Theory
Conforming Behavior

Inner Control Outer Control


•Self-concept •Reasonable limits
•Goal orientation •Meaningful roles &
•Frustration tolerance activities
•Norm retention •Supportive
relationships

Criminal Behavior
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 95

Techniques of neutralization

Deny
Blame the
responsibility
Victim

Condemn Deny
condemners Injury
Appeal to
higher
loyalties
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 96

Personalities under social control


• Gottfredson, Michael: Co-authored A General Theory of Crime (1990) with
Travis Hirschi. Hirschi, Travis: Criminologist, developed the social bond
theory, wrote The Causes of Delinquency (1969) and co-authored A General
Theory of Crime (1990) with Travis Hirschi
• Matza, David: Collaborated with Gresham Sykes in 1957 and proposed
“techniques of neutralization,” developed drift theory of delinquency in 1964,
wrote Delinquency and Drift (1964).
• Nye, F. Ivan: Wrote Family Relationships and Delinquent Behavior (1958),
expanding on Reiss’ definitions of social controls.
• Reckless, Walter: Proposed the containment theory of delinquency and
crime.
• Reiss, Albert J.: In 1951, identified delinquency as resulting from the failure
of “personal” and “social” controls.
• Sykes, Gresham: Collaborated with David Matza in 1957 and proposed
“techniques of neutralization.”
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
• Differential Oppression Theory. John D. Hewitt and
Robert Regoli proposed that much serious juvenile
delinquency is a product of the oppression of children by
adults, particularly within the context of family. The
maltreatment of children has been found to be highly
correlated with both serious and moderate delinquency as
well as other problem behaviors. This theory argues that
adult perception of children force youths into socially
defined and controlled inferior roles, including the socially
constructed “juvenile delinquency” role that separates
youthful and adult offenders for treatment and control
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
• Interactional Theory. Originated by Terrence
Thornberry, he viewed that weakening of a
child’s social bond as the fundamental cause of
delinquency. The theory examined the changing
nature of relationships over the life course. It
emphasized the reciprocal nature between many
of the variables used to explain delinquency.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 100

Social reaction theories


• This group of theories explains crime in way society
reacts to individuals and the way the individuals react to
society determines behavior.
• Stigmatized- people who have been negatively labeled
because of their participation or alleged participation in
deviant or outlawed activities.
• Labeling Theory. The theory that the formal and informal
application of stigmatizing and deviant “labels” or tags
applied to an individual by society will not deter, but rather
instigate future deviant or criminal acts.
Labeling Theory
The Labeling Process

Detection by the
Initial criminal act Decision to label
justice system

Deviance Acceptance of Creation of a new


amplification labels identity
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 103

Labeling theory (F. Tannembaum)


• Dualistic Fallacy: Refers to the error in the presumption that the
processes that produces criminal or antisocial behavior is
DIFFERENT from the processes that produces law abiding or
conventional behavior.
• Delinquent activity begins as random play, or adventure, children
certainly do not think of their plays as delinquent behavior. But
despite of its innocent beginnings, a playgroup may later turn into a
delinquent gang, typically because conflicts break out between the
group and the community. The adults in the community who are
annoyed with the group try to subdue or crush it. They refuse to be
pushed around and turn to fellow gang members for support.
• Calling a child a delinquent makes it much more likely that he or she
will accept the description and live up to it.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 104

Labeling theory (e. Lemert)


• Primary Deviation – is deviance that people engage in occasionally.
It is rationalized or otherwise dealt with as part of a socially
acceptable role. They youth will have to choose new roles, which
may be more deviant or less deviant than the old ones.
• Secondary Deviation – an outgrowth of along process, a dynamic
relationship between the person’s deviation and the society reaction
to it. If the individual is eventually stigmatized, efforts at control will
shift from informal to formal, legal and the individual will be redefined
as delinquent.
• Lemert claimed that not all persons labeled criminal or delinquent
accept these roles. How receptive they are to such levels depends
on their social class. Lemerts was also critical of rehabilitation efforts.
He saw them only as promoting recidivism.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 105

Labeling theory
Original Label A Delinquent
Delinquent Applied self image
Act

Future
Delinquency
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 106

Labeling theory (E. Schur)


• Edwin Schur focused on three elements in the labeling process:
stereotyping, retrospective interpretation and negotiation.
• 1. Stereotyping – is a quick mental classification of individuals or
groups and exaggerates the differences among people. It also
involves jumping to conclusions – that is, taking a single cue and
making a sweeping judgment on it.
• 2. Retrospective Interpretation – involves labeling individuals in a
certain way and then viewing them in an entirely new light.
• 3. Negotiation – occurs often in criminal courts, where defense and
prosecution bargain with each other over the charge, plea and
sentence.
• He supported what he called “radical non-intervention” meaning that
children should be left alone whenever possible.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 107

Labeling theory (H. becker)


• Becker focused on how people acquire their labels. He argued
that whether an activity is deviant depends on how other people
react to it, not on the nature of the activity itself.
• Becker considered the process of becoming deviant.
• 1. The first step is to commit a deviant act (even if it is
unintentional). The offenders may have no idea that others see it
as deviant.
• 2. The next crucial step in the process is getting caught, which
put the person in a new light and gives him or her a new status or
label.
• 3. Once labeled, a person is presumed likely to engage in such
behavior again and again.
• The final step in the process of pursuing a deviant career is to join
an organized deviant group where each member learns to
rationalize deviant activities.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 108

Labeling theory (j. braithwhite)


• Reintegrative Shaming. The process by which an
individual is punished, labeled, and made to feel shame
for committing a deviant act, but done in a way that the
individual who is shamed is brought back into the larger
community and restored to a position of respectability.
• Disintegrative Shaming. The process by which an
individual is punished, labeled, and made to feel shame
for committing a deviant act in a manner that degrades
and devalues the individual. This occurs without an
attempt after the offenders have been punished to
reconcile them with or restore them to the larger
community.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 109

Reactions to labeling theory (social


policies)
• Deinstitutionalization. The removal of juveniles from
jails, detention centers, and institutions. Removing
juveniles from these facilities, and when possible
removing status and minor offenders from the juvenile
justice system as a whole, is the most basic type of
diversion.
• Diversion Movement. This refers to all those efforts
to divert individuals, primarily youth but also adults
who are suspected of or have been charged with
minor offenses, from the full and formal process of the
juvenile or adult justice system. The intent is to reduce
the stigma of formal delinquent or criminal labels on
the individuals and to reduce or avoid the costs of
formal processing of the crime.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 110

Reactions to labeling theory (social


policies)
• Faith-Based Programs. These are religiously
based programs which can be operated within
the institution or the larger community. They can
be run by inmates or religious leaders, and use
spiritual beliefs and values to change offenders’
attitudes and behavior.
• Netwidening. A problem that occurs when
offenders who would have been released from
the system are placed in a program simply
because a program exists.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 111

Personalities in labeling theories (social


reaction)
• Becker, Howard: Criminologist and social psychologist, primary theorist in
labeling, wrote Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (1963).
• Braithwaite, John: Wrote Restorative Justice and Responsive Regulation
(2002). His concept of reintrogrative shamming remains at the core of
restorative justice.
• Cooley, Charles Horton: (1875-1940) Sociologist who developed the
concept of “looking- lass self.”
• Lemert, Edwin M.: Sociologist, collaborated with Howard Becker to extend
the labeling theory to include both primary and secondary deviance, wrote
Social Pathology (1951) and Human Deviance, Social Problems, and Social
Control (1967).
• Tannenbaum, Frank: Criminologist, coined the phrase “dramatization of
evil,” wrote Crime and the Community (1938).
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 112

Conflict theories
• Conflict Theory. The view that society is divided into two
or more groups with competing ideas and values. The
group(s) with the most power makes the laws and
controls society. Groups lacking the formal power to
make the rules still maintain their own group norms, and
continue in their behavior which is now viewed as criminal
by the larger society. This perspective explains both law
and criminal justice (why some acts are legally defined as
criminal), as well as criminal and deviant behavior (why
some individuals commit acts defined as criminal).
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 113

Conflict theory
• Consensus Theory. In general, this theory states
that laws are a result of, and a reflection of,
general agreement in society. Views of right and
wrong, which can be reflected through folkways
and mores, influence the laws and rules which
govern a society.
• Functionalist Theory. Similar to consensus
theory, but this theory also looks at how the law
acts to resolve everyday disputes in society; and
how it acts to serve everyone, not just the
powerful. The law also serves a symbolic function
and discourages deviant behavior.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 115

THORSTEN SELLIN CRIME VS.


CONDUCT NORMS
• Sellin believes that in any culture, the behavior
of the individuals in that culture comes to be
accepted, and behavior that does not conform
to these social norms is seen as a violation of
them.
• Sellin pointed to the distinction between crime
norms (those found in the criminal law) and
conducts or group norms (those norms
specific to localized groups which may or may
not be consistent with the crime norms).
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 116

Conflicting Group Theory


• George Vold believed that people were
drawn to groups by common interest.
These groups will over time, come into
conflict with one another over competing
vested interests.
• Such conflict become translated into
criminal laws reflecting the desires of those
groups with greater power to control or
regulate weaker competing groups.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 118

Power-Control Theory.
• A theory proposed by Hagan in which patriarchal and egalitarian
families are examined. In patriarchal families, sons are more
likely than daughters to be delinquent because sons receive less
supervision than daughters. In egalitarian families, the delinquent
behavior of sons and daughters becomes more similar.
• Paternalism. This view claims that men act in a manner
designed to keep women and girls in a subservient position in
society. While women and girls may be treated less severely as
indicated under the chivalry hypothesis, they may also be treated
more harshly in an attempt to keep them from achieving equality
with men.
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 119

Power control theory


• Patriarchal Family. Part of Hagan’s power-control theory.
In a patriarchal family, the father is typically in a command
position in the workplace and runs the family. Mothers are
more likely to supervise daughters more closely than sons
and encourage risk-taking in sons, more than in
daughters.
• Egalitarian Family. Part of Hagan’s power-control theory.
A family in which the mother and father occupy similar
roles in the workplace and share power and control in the
family
RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D Crim 120

Feminist theory
• Feminist Theory. This theory attempts to define
criminology and criminal justice based upon the
experiences, understanding, and view of the world as
perceived by women. It tries to counter most theories of
criminology that have been developed, tested, and
applied by men to men, which have only incorporated
women as an afterthought.
• Liberation Hypothesis. This view states that as men and
women become more equal in society in terms of family,
politics, and education, their crime rates will begin to
equalize as well
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