Running head DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING 1

Development and Learning in the Classroom

By

Megan Heathman

Master’s Portfolio ED 698

Dr. Katherine Spangler, Ph. D

May 30, 2017

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Abstract

Creating a learning environment that caters to the developmental needs of students should be the

first goal of any educator. The following paper will discuss ways that I have taken student

developmental theories into account in my own classroom and teaching practices. I will also

address the learning theories that define my pedagogy as well as how student motivation and

engagement play an integral part in the learning process. This paper will outline various theories

as well as give anecdotal accounts of how I have applied specific theories in my classroom.

Development and Learning in the Classroom

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Goal 2: Development

A teacher understands how students learn and develop and applies that knowledge in the

teacher’s practice. Candidates know, understand and use the major concepts, principles, theories

and research related to development of children and young adolescents to construct learning

opportunities that support individual students’ development, acquisition of knowledge, and

motivation.

Development

A Sorting Game

“Jeremiah, please come stand to the right of me up front and Natasha, you can come

stand up front to my left. Does anyone want to guess where they would stand?” Hands shoot up

around the room as I have just begun one of the students’ favorite sorting games.

“Ben, where would you like to stand?” I call on one of the students to see if he can

discover the pattern.

“On your right with Jeremiah?” Ben replies.

“I’m sorry, but you cannot stand to my right. However, you can come up and stand on

my left with Natasha.” As Ben comes up to the front of the room next to Natasha I can almost

see the wheels turning in students heads as they are trying to decipher the pattern in how they are

being sorted. During the game, I decide on a specific characteristic that students could be sorted

by: hair length, shoes with or without laces, boy or girl, short or long sleeves, etc. As I move

them to the appropriate side of the room, they slowly begin to discover the secret code to the

sorting game.

This game is an example of an activity that caters to my third grade students at their level

of cognitive development. At this age, most students find themselves in the concrete operational
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stage of thinking, according to Piaget’s theory of development (1952). A sorting game such as

this example lets them practice the skills they are developing specifically at this stage of

reasoning.

The Concrete Operational Stage

At the concrete operational stage of thinking, students develop the ability to classify and

divide things into different sets or subsets and then consider their interrelationships (Piaget,

1952). Children at this stage are able to perform concrete operations and reason logically, as

long as the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples. For example, students

who are able to perform concrete operations are able to understand the conservation of matter. If

I presented a child at this developmental stage with two identical glasses filled with the same

amount of water and then poured those two glasses of water into one short, wide container and

one tall, skinny container, they would still say that the amount of water has not changed. A

preoperational child would most likely say that the taller glass now has more water. This is a

critical stage of development, and means that the students are able to take on more complex tasks

and problems, as long as there are concrete and specific examples (Santrock, 2009).

The first example of the sorting game may seem like a silly time-filler in the classroom,

but in actuality it is allowing students the opportunity to practice these very specific skills of

problem solving and ordering in a fun and interactive way. If I were to try this same activity in

a Kindergarten classroom, it would most likely not be met with the same success as it has with

my third graders. The desire to reason, sort and differentiate various items is critical to their

development and learning. This helps them to practice skills that they will encounter later on in

the classroom, such as comparing and contrasting reading passages, differentiating geometric

shapes, and classifying species of animals and their habitats.

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Concrete Operational Thinking in Math

Another example of teaching to the concrete operational stage of development is

evidenced in my approach to math instruction. Math lends itself very well to this frame of mind

and development. Because many of the concepts in math require students to use a certain level

of abstract thought, you must be able to introduce these abstract concepts with the use of

manipulatives and concrete objects with which students can interact and form a basis of

understanding (McNeil & Jarvin, 2007).

Recently, while teaching students the concept of measuring and comparing mass, I found

it extremely beneficial to have manipulatives on hand for students to use. I started the lesson

with a pan balance at the front of the classroom. I put a one gram weight on one side of the pan

balance and asked students, “what would I need to put on the other side of this balance to make it

equal?” Ally responded with, “Something that weighs the same as that weight.” I proceeded to

ask another question, “How will you find something that weighs the same amount as this weight?”

At that, students began to problem solve. One of them asked, “Can I feel how heavy the weight

is?” I suggested that would be a great way to start solving the problem. I passed the weight

around the room, allowing each student to feel its weight in their hand. We then went through

the process of testing different items in the classroom that may have the same mass. A pencil:

too heavy. An eraser: still too heavy. A small earring: too heavy, but very close to being

balanced. A paperclip: right on the money! From that point on, I was able to reference the

weight of one gram to that of a paperclip.

This example works with student thinking for two reasons: it gives them an opportunity

to manipulate and see a concrete object relating to mass, rather than just think of it as an abstract

concept. Also, it allows students to relate their understanding of a gram now to something that
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they are already familiar with. It is relating new learning to a previous understanding or schema.

This way, students are able to incorporate that new knowledge into their previous understanding,

and it allows them to take an abstract concept and relate it to a very concrete example.

Using this technique, I have been able to help students understand many different math

concepts. I use manipulatives such as counters, fraction strips, clocks, rulers and scales, arrays,

base-ten blocks, and several others. When students can handle a concrete object and relate it to a

math problem, it gives them another way to see the problem. Because of their concrete

operational way of thinking, it gives them a specific, solid example of a concept. They can

actually touch, feel, move, and change the objects. They are able to interact with the concept in a

way that would never be possible by simply providing practice problems and hypothetical

examples. This is critical to math learning at this stage of development (Santrock, 2009).

Emotional and Moral Development

Any person walking onto an elementary school playground is bound to hear the phrase,

“That’s not fair!” or, “You’re not following the rules!” emphasized by multiple children as they

play various games. This is because students at the middle and upper elementary ages typically

find themselves between two stages of emotional development, as outlined by Kohlberg (1958)

in his research. In the earlier grades, most students occupy the Preconventional reasoning stage

of development. Here, everything is about an equal exchange. Fairness and equality are

essential. Students in this category go by a moral code that states, “if I am nice to others, they

will be nice to me.” Hence, you often hear students responding to conflict by emphasizing the

voice of equality and fairness. If he punches me in the arm, then I should be able to punch him

back.
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This stage also parallels with Dr. Thomas Lickona’s (1983) and his stage 2 of moral

reasoning. He coins this stage as being “tit-for-tat fairness” and it encompasses the idea that you

should “do unto others as they do unto you” (p. 140). When dealing with students in this stage

of moral reasoning and development, it is very important to look at things from their point of

view and try to understand what they are going through. I found that reasoning with students,

and trying to find a compromise that seemed fair to both parties was the most effective method.

If students believe they are being treated fairly, then they are more likely to agree to a

compromise and work together towards a solution.

The interesting part about students’ years in elementary school is that they do not simply

find themselves in one stage of moral development, but are rather moving through the stages as

they develop. The second stage that some students find themselves in as they grow is

Kohlberg’s (1958) stage of Conventional Reasoning. In this stage, students apply standards that

are set by those people in authority, which could be teachers, parents, or the government. This

stage is characterized by valuing trust, caring, and loyalty to others. Children at this stage want

to be thought of as a “good” boy or girl.

Lickona (1983) also parallels this theory with his own stage 3 of moral reasoning. Here

students consider that, “I should be good because, well, that’s what people who know me expect

of me. How are they going to feel about me if I let them down, and how am I going to feel about

myself?” (p. 162). Students in this stage want to be good, so they can think well of themselves

and so that others will think well of them. Students in this stage are often very agreeable and

cooperative. They want to please others, especially those in authority positions.

In the third grade year, I have found that there can be a lot of stage mixing (Lickona,

1983). This means that students will find themselves transitioning from one stage to another.
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There may be a dominant stage of characteristics, but there may still be characteristics of a

previous stage displayed in certain situations. There is also a great deal of variation between

individual children as they develop between moral stages. Some students may never develop

beyond a certain stage due to trauma or some other event that causes a delay to their emotional

and moral development. I have found that it is essential to try and identify what stage students

are working from, so that I can better understand their perspective and try to reason and problem-

solve in a way that makes sense on their level.

Learning Theories

Dewey (1938) developed a theory that he called active learning for students in the

classroom. This theory’s cornerstone rests on the concept that student knowledge is developed

through individual experiences. It emphasizes that learning is constructed knowledge through

these experiences, not from texts or teachers. Teaching is then creating a cohesive environment

in which students can actively participate in new experiences and construct new knowledge.

I am always looking for ways to incorporate experiences and active participation from

students in the learning process. One of the units that we complete each year is a study of

salmon, their life cycle, their importance in our local community, and their connection to the

Tlingit culture here in Sitka. Rather than simply having students read about these things or

lecturing about them in the classroom, we go out and experience them first-hand in the

community. Students go on three major field trips during our study of salmon. We visit a local

fish hatchery where students learn about the life cycle as well as salmon’s importance to the local

economy and fisherman in the area. We also make a trip to the local national park, where

students are able to see the salmon moving upstream and preparing to spawn. They are able to

dissect spawning salmon, study the microorganisms that salmon eat in the river, and also act out
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the salmon life cycle. Finally, we are able to visit the local museum where we learn about the

traditional uses of salmon in the Tlingit culture and the important role that salmon play in their

identity. All of these experiences are then taken back to the classroom where students are able to

reflect, analyze, and show their new knowledge through a variety of projects and outcomes. This

idea of active participation in the learning process creates a much more genuine learning

experience for students (Perrone, 1991).

Piaget also developed a theory of leaning emphasizing that students cannot simply be

given new knowledge, but must have the opportunity to construct new information through

assimilation and accommodation of developed schemas (Powell and Kalina, 2009).

As an instructor, I must be aware that every student is at a different stage and has different

existing schemas. Knowledge of these understandings is essential to be able to present

information in a way that is clear and able to be processed by every student. I must be able to

teach within the ability of each student, otherwise instruction will be wasted in the obscurity of

misunderstanding.

Building off of Piaget’s theory of the individual’s cognitive constructivism, Lev

Vygotsky developed the equally important theory of social constructivism based on the idea that

social interaction is an integral part of learning. A key concept presented in Vygotsky’s theory is

the idea of a child’s zone of proximal development (ZPD). Within this zone are all the tasks that

a student may not be able to complete on their own, but can with the assistance of a peer or adult.

Through this interaction, the child’s ZPD grows to encompass a larger variety of tasks and

concepts (Powell and Kalina, 2009). These ideas of social interaction in the classroom have a

great impact, not only on teacher interaction with students, but also on how students interact with
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each other. Creating a learning environment where students are able to develop and build on

each other’s cognitive abilities is a useful tool to utilize in the classroom.

Motivation

Marzano (2007) stated that one of the most powerful motivators for students is that of

self-esteem. If a person can relate the material being taught to their own self-interests and what

they consider important, they will be more engaged and motivated to do well. One way to

promote this type of engagement is by allowing students to talk about themselves. I like to

provide opportunities for students to relate the material being taught to their personal experiences

and interests. I can also take this opportunity to learn more about my students and adjust my

teaching so that it relates to what they have experienced and are interested in.

For example, when I work with a small reading group, before we begin reading a book,

I always like to have a brief discussion about what we are going to read to introduce the material

and see if I can relate it to the students interests in any way. At one point, we were going to be

reading a short story about the different jobs that dogs have in our society, from service dogs to

search and rescue. Several of the girls and boys in the group were familiar with a family in town

that trains and raises service dogs as well as local search and rescue dogs. They were so excited

to share the experiences they remembered about those dogs and the stories they new about how

they had helped people in our community. From there, we were able to move into the reading

with a new sense of motivation and engagement that would not have been there had we not

related the material to something they were familiar with and interested in.

Perrone (1991) also talks about the importance of getting to know your students and

understanding who they are so that you will be able to better know what their strengths are and

what kinds of questions motivate them to learn. Not only does this benefit the students who have
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a direct personal interest in the material, but it also creates interest in other students in the

classroom. However, in order to create this genuine interest in students, the right material must

be taught. Perrone (1991) states, “Rather than textbooks, workbooks, and worksheets,

classrooms need to be dominated by real text” (p. 35). By this he means text that is found in the

real world, literature, source documents, diaries, newspapers, and magazines. These sources

allow students to react, think, and wonder in new ways. They allow for students to engage in

critical thinking.

This critical thinking is essential for student motivation and engagement in the material.

Halpern (2007) defines this critical thinking as thinking reflectively and productively, and

evaluating evidence. A true deep understanding occurs when students are encouraged to rethink

and reflect on previously held ideas, not simply restate old information. Brooks and Brooks

(2001) argue that few schools actually encourage students to think critically about the material

being taught. Rather, students are encouraged to give a single correct answer instead of

reviewing and reflecting on previously held views. As a teacher, I should be focusing on asking

students to analyze, infer, connect, synthesize, criticize, and create. Only when students are

constructing new knowledge in this unique way does true learning occur.

Conclusion

I have tried to create a classroom that caters to students’ developmental needs, both

mentally and emotionally. A place where students are able to actively participate in the learning

process, construct new knowledge, and interact with others to build on their own learning.

However, none of these things would be effective if I did not first consider the factors that

motivate students to learn and engage in the material being taught. Through personal

experiences and connections as well as creating an environment that emphasizes critical thinking,
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students can be successful and take ownership of their learning process. All of these are aspects

that I continue to adjust and develop as I continue to grow as an educator, with the end goal

being to always put students first in creating an effective learning environment.

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References

Brooks, J.G., & Brooks, M.G. (2001). The case for constructivist classrooms, (2nd ed.). Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Erlbaum.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Collier Books.

Halpern, D. F. (2007). The nature and nurture of critical thinking. In R. J. Sternberg, H. Roediger,

& D. Halpern (Eds.), Critical thinking in psychology. New York: Cambridge University

Press.

Kohlberg, L. (1958). The development of modes of moral thinking and choice in the years 10 to

16, Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Chicago.

Lickona, T. (1983). Raising good children from birth through the teenage years: How to help

your child develop a lifelong sense of honesty, decency, and respect for others. New

York: Bantam Books.

Marzano, R. J. (2007). The art and science of teaching: A comprehensive framework for effective

instruction. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

McNeil, N., & Jarvin, L. (2007). When theories don’t add up: Disentangling the manipulatives

debate. Theory into practice. 46(4), 309-316.

Perrone, V. (1991). A letter to teachers: Refelctions on schooling and the art of teaching. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. (M. Cook, Trans.). New York:

International Universities Press.

Powell, K. C., & Kalina, C. J. (2009). Cognitive and social constructivism: Developing tools for

an effective classroom. Education, 130(2), 241-250.

Santrock, J.W. (2009). Life-span development, (12th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.