rI based on system readings or previous
quiva ent o.
E .| .
wircuits t
£or
Studies
tuies
J. B. WARD
ASSOCIATE AIEE
PRESENT-DAY extensive intercon-
nection between power systems com-
plicates the analysis of steady-state net-
work performance in the study of plan- -
ning and operating problems. This com-
plication of analysis is increasing con-
tinually with system expansion and addi-
tional interconnections. Network ana-
lvzer studies of power-flow conditions on
- .
large systems frequentlv require pre-
liminary simplification and reduction of
the network, because of limitations im-
posed by the number of analvzer circuits
and generator units available.
In studies for determining the distri-
bution of power flow over the lines of a
system under various emergenev operat-
ing conditions, or with proposed future
developments, interconnections mav have
an important effect, particularly if ,two
or more ties exist forming parallel paths
through the adjoining system. The total
interchange of power between separate
companies usually is established bv in-
terchange contracts, but in order to de-
termine the proper division of this power
flow over several tie lines under various
operating conditions, it^ mav be necessary
to set up the adjoining svstem or an
equivalent circuit representation of it.
The problem of network reduction in
power-flow studies is not related solely to
inter-company ties. Some individual
svstems have grown to such an extent that
the complete network of major lines,
stations, and substations exceeds the
capacity of the largest existing network
analyzers. Even on smaller systems,
simplification of the network by- means
of equivalent circuits can be employed
advantageously, to speed up the progress
of studies when interest is focused on a
certain section.
This paper outlines briefly the existing
194I9, VOLUME 68 Word-Equivalent Circuits for Power-Flow Studies
n
Power-Flow
commonly-used methods of network sim-
plification, and presents additional
methods for devising simple equivalent
-,,
. >. , ., , .,
circuits which reproduce with reasonable
. .
accuracy the terminal performance of the
actual system under conditions prevailing
in the usual tvpe of power-flow study. Bv
these new methods an extensive power
network,' containing numerous loads and
. , . . .
generators, is reduced to an equivalent
circuit, as viewed from several selected
terminals, requiring few network analyzer
circuits and sources for its representation.
Changes in generation or loads within
the reduced system can be reproduced
readilv in the equivalent circuit. Al-
though the methods are described, for
the most part, in terms of the necessary
tests and measurements on an a-c network
analyzer set-up
. .
of the system to be re-
^ . . .
duced, derivation of the equivalent cir
cuit analytically or by use of a d-c board
is feasible. Based on constant-current
representation of system loads and genera-
tion, the new methods will accomplish in
many instances a greater simplification
than previously-used equivalent circuits.
Limitations of this treatment of loads and
* - ' to load-
generation restrict
I
application
flow studies, but in studies of this type
acetal acurc
acceptable accuracy ca athebanheafihnedutngeqla
can be attained,
Present Practice
Present practice in reducing the size
of a network for analyzer power-floxr
studies is confined largely to two methods.
Method A. The network to be studied
. .. .. . .
in detail is terminated at interconnecting
points, and the adjacent system is rep-
resented by aload or generator attached
at each of these terminals. Connections
through the reduced system are omitted
entirely, and an estimated tie line flow,
studies, is reproduced in the stub loads
and generators at the interconnection
terminals. In system planning studies
involving proposed future transmission
development or location of new generating
stations, the system changes are fre-
quently so radical that it is not possible to
predict, with sufficient accuracy, the load-
ings on the stub loads and generators used
to represent multiple ties to an adjoining
system.
M~~~~Aethod B. The system to be simplified
l~~~~~~~~~~~s
replaced by an equivalent circuit in
which the identity of the tie-line ter-
minals and generator busses is retained,
I
and the line network iS represented by
transfer impedances between these van-
ous busses. Equivalent load impedances
appear as transfer impedances from each
retained bus to neutral. The process of
evolving this type of equivalent circuit
from a network analyzer set-up of the
syse ispovtine h for d the p
pnew methods
o and of explaining certain
steps in obtaining the new type of equiva-
lent circuit.
A 1-line diagram of the system to be
. ~~~~~~~~~replacedbyin an equivalent c
circuit iSi rep-
resented Figure 1. This diagram
shows the loads, generators, and inter-
connection points, but the internal line
connections are omitted. It is assumed
that be
must symp ined
te simplified in Figestudy1
before a detailed
of the adjoining network can be carried
oout. If I t
tie-line tertminals, generator
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~busses,
and neutral bus are to be retained,
the branches of the resulting equivalent
circuit, shown in Figure 2, can be ob-
tained as follows.
Disconnect the generators and repre-
sent loads as constant impedances cor-
responding to the load real and reactive
power at normal bus voltage. Connect an
analyzer source from one of the terminals
~~~Paper 49-96, recommended by the AIEE system
engineering committee and approved by the AWEE
pIEwitrogeram cmmittete for presentation at
tehnia
January 3i-February 4, i949. Manuscript snb-
mitedctober 4, i948; aeaalbefrpitn
J.BWADSwihtecolofEcrcaEn-
neering at Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind.
373
 a branches is equal to n(n - 1)/2, where n is
b 2 TIES TO
NETWORK } ADJOINING
SYSTEM
C
A 30J
LOADS
NEUTRAL
Figure 1. Typical system to be replaced by
an equivalent circuit
to be retained, terminal I for example, to
a new junction established at x, as shown
in Figure 3. Connect zero-impedance
metering circuits from junction x to all
other terminals which are retained, in-
cluding the neutral bus. Adjust tEe
source at terminal 1 to an arbitrary value
of voltage and read the current in each
metering circuit. The impedance of tle
branch between terminals 1 and 2, in the
equivalent circuit of Figure 2, is obtained
by dividing the source voltage by tlhe
current in the metering circuit coiinected
to terminal 2. It should be emphasized
th all metering
a t
circuits are closed and
carrying current simultaneously during
this test. Similarly, the impedance of the
equivalent branch between terminal 1
and neutral is the voltage at terminal I
divided by the current in the metering
circuit connected to neutral.
This process is repeated with the source
connected successively to each retained
terminal. At each step, all other ter-
minals are connected to x through meter-
ing circuits. Thus, two measurements
are obtained for each transfer impedance.
The branches from the various generator
and interconnection busses to neutral can
be considered as equivalent loads. How-
ever, in the equivalent circuit derived in
this way, the distinction between actual
loads and line losses is lost.
The equivalent circuit, Figure 2, is
connected at the proper points to the de-
tailed set-up of the adjacent network.
The desired internal generating schedule
in the reduced system is established by
adjusting sources connected to the gen-
erator busses of the equivalent circulit. If
a different condition of loads is required
in the reduced network, it is necessary to
measure a new set of transfer impedances
from the various terminals to the neutral
bus. The transfer impedances, repre-
senting I;ne connections between gen-
erator and interconnection busses, are
modified only slightly by the presence of
load impedances.
Certain branches of the resulting
equivalent circuit are sometimes of such
high impedance that they can be omitted
entirely, but in general the number of
374 Ward-Equivalent Circu4its for Power-Flow Studies
the total number of terminals retained.
The procedure just described is equiva-
lent to applying star-mesh transforma-
tions to remove successivelv all busses
except generator busses, tie-line busses,
and neutral bus. The approximation of
loads as constant impedances is required.
New Equivalent-Circuit Representa-
tion
The basis for the new equivalent circuit
representation presented herein is the
treatment of generation and loads, in the
network being reduced, as constant-cur-
rent quantities. By means of this ap-
proach, the internal generator busses as
well as load busses in the reduced system
can be eliminated, and the identity of
only the tie-line terminals retained. The
effects of suppressed generation and load
are reproduced by an equivalent gen-
erator or load at each tie-line terminal,
and the actual network of line connections
is replaced by an equivalent mesh network
interconnecting these terminals. The
equivalent circuit of this type for the
system of Figure 1 is shown in Figure 4
In principle the methods are rigorous for a
hypothetical network in which all loads
and sources are fixed impressed currents.
The analysis of such a system is outlined
in Appendix I, and, in the following
paragraphs, the methods are adapted to
the practical determination of simplified
equivalent circuits for sections of power-
system networks. Some of the important
assumptions and approximations involved
in this adaptation are listed briefly:
1. It is assumed that system loads
can be considered as constant-current
quantities. Usually loads are treated as
constant impedances in analytical solu-
tions of power-flow problems, and as con-
stant-power loads in network analyzer
studies. Differences in the three view-
points become of major importance onlv
under extreme voltage variations, as may
occur during short circuits, for example.
2. Generators are usually held to a
fixed power and voltage schedule, except
for certain regulating machines. Reac-
tive power generation may vary appre-
ciably, but, as a rule, large blocks of
reactive power cannot be transmitted
economically over long distances. Fur-
thermore, a large proportion of system
studies are made at peak-load conditions,
with generators operating at or near their
maximum excitation. Hence, limited
variation of power, reactive power, and
voltage corresponds essentially to con-
stant-current loading, in magnitude at
least, on generators.
3. Angular displacements between bus
voltages in a system usually are not large.
Initial angles between various load and
generator busses can be taken into ac-
count accurately, and then the assump-
tion can be made that effects of subse-
quent variations in these angles can be
neglected.
4. Synchronous condensers, static ca-
pacitors, and line charging capacitance
can be treated as separate sources of re-
active power or combined with nearby
loads and generation.
5. Although the derivation of the
equivalent circuit is based on the con-
stant-current approach, it is assumed that
_,
a r-
A
I
b 2-
c _ - 3
| - -' -. -J
75 ,
Figthed 2B. Equtivalenstircuit obtfained
the equivalent soturces and loads, once
determined, can be held at a fixed power
schedule, for convenience in manipulation
during studies.
6. Initially, transformer turn ratios
are assumed to be the same as ratios of
the nominal voltages of the sections con-
nected to the respective windings.
Methods of handling transformer tap
settings which result in other than nomi-
nal ratios are discussed in a later section.
7. It is assumed that, when a section
of a power system is to be replaced by an
equivalent circuit, detailed information
on the performance of this section, with
various line outages, for example, is not
of immediate interest. Rather, the effect
of this section during detailed study of
the adjoining network is desired.
Determination of the Equivalent
Line Network
After the section of the system to be
reduced and the interconnecting ter-
minals are decided upon, this section is
set up in detail on a network analyzer,
with all loads, generators, and capacitors
open. The transfer impedances between
the terminals to be retained are measured
in the manner described under method B
in "Present Practice," with the exception
that, in the present method, only the
points of interconnection are retained.
AIEE TRANSACTIONS
Equivalent Generators and Loads:
Method I
Regardless of the number of internal
busses suppressed in the reduced network,
an equivalent generator and load can be
established at each terminal of the equiva-
lent circuit, corresponding to a given
schedule of generation and loads at the
actual stations. This can be accom-
plished through the medium of a set of
distribution factors, determined as de-
scribed in the following paragraphs.
This description is given in terms of
generation. The loads can be considered
as negative generation and can be treated
in exactly the same way.
1. In a detailed set-up of the network
being reduced, with load and generator
circuits disconnected, connect each in-
terconnection bus to the analyzer neutral
bus through a metering circuit. In the
system of Figure 1, for example, connect
points 1, 2, and 3 to the neutral bus.
2. Connect an analyzer source be-
tween one generator bus, such as ter-
minal a in Figure 1, and the analyzer
neutral bus. Adjust this source so that
its output current is equal to one ampere
or unit current. Measure the currents in
the several metering circuits connecting
the terminals to neutral.
These metering-circuit current readings
are the distribution factors associated
ANALYZER
LSOURCE
SOUE
b 22.
*NETWORK
c 3
_~~ ~ ~~~~e
' |
| ~~~~suming
.-,,METERING CIRCUITS--_
i _JUNCTION (X) J_
Figure 3. Network analyzer circuit connec-
tions for measuring transfer impedances
with the bus which is energized. If one
of the interconnection terminals happens
to be also one of the generator or load
busses, it is not necessary to carry out the
test for this bus. Unit-current input to
this bus all would return to neutral
through the metering circuit connected to
the same bus. In this case, the one dis-
tribution factor is unity; the others are
zero. Writh this exception, distribution
factors are measured with unit current
impressed successively at each bus.
Usually, the metering circuit currents
will be nearly in phase with each other
1949, VOLUME 68
and with the source current, if the ratio tion of these equivalent source loadings is
r/x of the major lines is reasonably uni- indicated in equations 1
forn. If appreciable angular displace- I1 =Dall+Db1I+Dc1Ic+
ment appears, these currents or distribu- 12=Da2ia+Db2Ib+DC2I+ +(1)
tion factors can be measured as complex
quantities, with the source current as ref- and so on.
a +D2sD
on
.
The equivalent per unit
(1)
erence, by means of the analyzer vector- source currents can be converted back
metering equipment. into power and reactive loadings, using
3. In order to establish a convenient known or estimated tie-line terminal
notation for the distribution factors, let voltages.
the internal busses be indicated by letters, 5. The system generation and load
and let the points of interconnection can be reflected separately to the tie-line
which are retained in measuring the terminals in this manner, to appear as an
equivalent line network be indicated by equivalent generator and an equivalent
numbers. Use the first letters of the load at each terminal, or the two can be
alphabet to indentify generator busses, combinedinto.anethloadornet generation
and assign the remaining letters to load at each terminal. If the currents
Iae ub,
busses. If a load or generator appears at
tion. on the right hand side of equa-
one of the retained busses, assign both a tions 1 include all busses, with the proper
suitable letter and a number to this bus algebraic signs to distinguish between
When station a is energized by impressing generation and load, these equations give
unit current, denote the currents in the equivalent net current sources. The
metering circuits connected to terminals distribution factors, once determined, per-
1, 2, 3, . ., by the symbols Dai, Da2,Da", mit representation of any desired schedule
. , respectively. Similarly, when unit of generation and load.
current is impressed at station b, label 6. In reducing a large system contain-
the corresponding distribution factors ing many loads, this method may become
as: Dbl, Db2, Dbs, . . .
quite lengthy and cumbersome. An
4. The distribution factors are used approximate apportionment of the total
to obtain an equivalent generation at system load at the terminals of the
each terminal of the equivalent line net- equivalent circuit can be carried out more
work, from known or specified power and rapidly as follows,
reactive generation and bus voltages at In the detailed set-up of the network
generators in the reduced system. Ac- being reduced, disconnect all generators,
cording to the usual practice in analyzer but represent all loads in the usual fashion
studies, voltages are expressed in per cent as constant impedances to neutral, ad-
orsperunit of a nominal base voltage, and justed to consume the correct scheduled
power
___0 quantities are
powr quntiies recorded either
re rcored etlie inin real and reactive power at normnal bus
terms of actual svstem value or in per voltage. Connect all the terminals re-
unit. tained in the equivalent line network
.
Express the powcr and reactive loading
. through metering circuits to one terminal
. a single analyzer source, which
of each station as a complex number in of in turn
per uni of th
unit of chsnpwr1ae
tTe base.d
NEUTRAL power s-
s S connected
c
minal. Adjust
to neutral
this
at the other ter-
source to deliver unit
that normal angular displace-
suming tha noZ,/,z,,,,z,rmal,,,7,/,,/ o
angular current to the system. Read the currents
ments between bus voltages are known, in the metering circuits and label these
either from previous studies or from a
__
- special analyzer test made for this pur- circuits to terminals 1, 2,
express each bus voltage in per unit tivelv. These are treated as total-load
, respec-
pose,
as a vector quantity, with one of the re- ttion t
taed terminals as reference. For each factors.
bus, the per unit current loading, corre- The equivalent load at terinal 1 is
sponding to the scheduled power and
reactive loading, is obtained by dividing } IL
the per unit vector power by the conjugate EQOUvACLENT
of the corresponding per unit bus voltage. OR LOADS
If the bus angles are not known, the use, { ~T2
either of estimated angles or of only\ :
voltage magnitude may give sufficiently\\
accurate results. I3
Represent the resulting per unit current
loadings of stations a, b, c,...,by
Ia Ib, h, ,respectively. Denote by
Il, '2, Ih,...,the equivalent generator
per-unit-current loadings at terminals 1, Figure 4. New simplified equivalent circuit
2, 3,...,respectively. The determina- for the system of Figure 1
Ward-Equi7valent Circuits for Power-Flow Studies 375
taken as the product of di and the total
system load current. The equivalent
load at terminal 2 is the product of d2 and
the total system load. The equivalent
load at each of the other tenninals is
calculated in a similar fashion.
In the event that large loads, that is,
low-impedance load circuits, appear at
some of the terminals being retained, the
accuracy of the equivalent loads deter-
mined in this way can be improved bv
modifying the procedure slightly. Dis-
connect large loads at any of the terminals
before measuring the distribution factors.
Apply the resulting factors to the total
load, reduced by the total amount of load
disconnected in the tests. Then, at each
of the terminals where load was removed,
increase the resulting partial equivalent
load by the amount which was discon-
nected from that terminal during the
measurements.
7. Another method for reducing all
loads simultaneously to equivalent loads
at the terminals suggests itself if the
system loads are viewed as constant-
impedance quantities.
Set up in detail the network to he re-
duced, leaving open all generator circuits,
but representing loads by the proper im-
pedance in the usual manner. Measure
the transfer impedance, between the
several retained interconnection points
and neutral bus, as described under
method B, and use these as the equivalent
loads. If desired, the load real and reac-
tivre power can becomputed, using known
or estimated terminal voltages, and then
these loadings can be combined at each
terminal.
loadings.
with the equivalent generator
50
OfW NRK (0) TO ETORK
TEDUCE
REDUCEDD 2 .1.. BESET UP
IN DETAIL
v3Le3 0
-(4)
A. NORMAL FLOW
40 i4i'" 50
((5) (10)
o16
(110)(5)
20+ t
5 p fo'9"1
t03) ()given terminal contains the real and
AND SOURCESreactive power components required to
C. NETLOAOS
Figure 5. Numerical example illustrating the attain a balance with the normal-flow
determination of net equivalent loads and interchange and with the normal cir-
generators by' method 11
Direction and mdgnitude of real and reactive -venience in calculating the net load or
power flows are shown. Reactive power is generator at each terminal, the normal
enclosed in parentheses
376
Equivalent Generators and Loads:
Method II
The method outlined here resolves
directly the equivalent net generation or
net load, as the case may be, at each ter-
minal, and can be employed if the system
to be reduced is set up in detail, together
with the adjoining network with which it
is interconnected. It may not be neces-
sary to represent the entire adjoining
network if a portion adjacent to the
interconnecting ties is sufficient to es-
tablish normal power flow and voltage at
the points of interconnection. Some
particular power-flow condition, here
termed normal flow, serves as the basis
for determining the equivalent net loads
and generators.
1. First, establish the normal-flow
condition on the analyzer set-up and
measure carefully the voltage and angle
at each interconnection bus. Measure
also the normal power and reactive flow
over the interconnecting ties.
2. Set up the equivalent line network,
with only tie-line terminals retained, and
connect an analyzer source to each ter-
minal. Adjust these sources to reproduce
the normal-flow values of voltage and
angle at each terminal, and record the
magnitude and direction of the resulting
power and reactive loading of each source.
Since loads are not represented in this
test, the loadings of the sources consist of
real and reactive power circulated be-
tween sources by the normal-flow ter-
minal voltage and angle differences.
3. The measured circulating flow at
each terminalinterchange
normnal-flow
can be combined with the
at the same ter-
minal, to determine the equivalent net
load or generator which should be placed
VLBI, so , at each terminal of the equivalent circuit.
This process of combination is described
A 4
(5)
best by example.
Figure 5(A) shows the normal-flow
\vY3Le3 5 interchange and terminal voltages in a
(9) system with three ties between the two
B. CIRCULATING FLOW sections. Figure 5(B) gives the flow
circulated between the terminals by the
same normal-flow terminal voltage con-
ditions. Figure 5(C) illustrates how the
equivalent load or generator at each
terminal deduced5(A)
given in isFigures the information
fromand 5(B). The
equivalent net load or generator at a
culating flow at that terminal. For con-
circulating flowr is indicated by dotted
Ward-Equivalent Circuits for Power-Flow Studies
X
C
z3\
I3
3
Figure 6. Typical equivalent circuit which is
to be reduced further to one requiring a single
source
sources in Figure 5(C. In realitv, these
work, but it is not necessary to determine
their distribution in the various branches.
4. When these tests are made, it is
desirable to establish two or three addi-
tional conditions in the detailed portion of
the set-up which represent extreme de-
partures from normal flow, involving line
outages or other emergency operating
situations. The equivalent loads and
generators, derived in the same way from
these extreme conditions, will serve as an
indication of the range of applicability of
the normal-flow values, and also will
serve as a guide for adjusting the equiva-
lent reactive generation.
a. If it is desired to separate the
equivalent net generation or net load at
each terminal into the component parts
contributed by the load and bv the gen-
eration in the reduced network, distribu-
tion factors can be measured for each
generator bus as described under method
I. For the particular generating schedule
within the reduced network, which was
used in the normal-flow condition, the
equivalent generation can be determined
at each terminal, and then the value of
each equivalent load can be separated
from the corresponding net generation
or net load.
Reducing the Number of Equivalent
Generators
In cases where normal power inter-
change is from the reduced section to the
rest of the system, the equivalent circuit
probablyofwill
several the require a net Ifgeneration
terminals. at
a sufficient
number of power source units is not avail-
able on the analyzer to set up the equiva-
lent circuit together with the adjacent
detailed system, the method given here
can be used to combine the generators
appearing at several terminals of the
equivalent circuit into a single source.
The reduction to a single source intro-
duces additional line circuits in the final
AJEE TRANSACTIONS
equivalent network, but the shortage of
analyzer sources often is more severe than
that of line units.
The procedure is described in terms of
an example involving a 3-terminal equiva-
lent circuit, shown in Figure 6, with net
generation appearing at each terminal.
It can be extended, by analogy, to any
number of terminals. In the following, all
quantities are retained in literal form. A
numerical example is given in Appendix
II.
1. Figure 6 represents the equivalent
circuit only, with connections to the ad-
joining detailed system not shown. The
equivalent generator loadings in per unit
current, complex or vector values, are
indicated as Ii, 12, I3at terminals 1, 2, and
3 respectively. Several intermediate
steps are necessary in deriving the single-
source circuit. Consider a star network,
Figure 7(A), connecting three current
sources equal to those shown in Figure 6.
Arbitrarily assign a value of (1.O+jO) to
the impedance of the branch connected to
terminal 1. If the other branches, Z2' and
Z3 are chosen ' to satisfy the relation
1.-1.O=12 Z2'=13.Z3', see equation 4,
Appendix I, then the three source cur-
rents can be added together and impressed
at the common junction of the star net-
work without disturbing the terminal con-
ditions.
2. Convert this star network to an
equivalent mesh network, equation 2 of
Appendix I, as indicated in Figure 7(B).
Comparing the impedance values of this
mesh network with those of Figure 6,
multiply the impedances of Figure 7(B)
by a complex constant, /kO, which is
chosen so that one branch of the resulting
network is equal to the corresponding
branch of Figure 6; at the same timecthe
other branches (those of Figure 7(B)
multiplied by k/I) are greater in magni-
tude than the corresponding branches of
Figure 6. In this example, assume that
.tional I R andInt12X losses incurred in the. approximately, the effects of transformer
the relation Z12'-k/4=Z32 satisfies this
condition.
3. Next, calculate values of imped-
ances Z23" and Z31, which, after being
paralleled with Z23'.k/4 and Z31'.k/4 re-
spectively, will be equal to the corre-
sponding branches Z23 and Z31 of the
original network, Figure 6. The network'
, <
of Figure 8 then will have the same trans-
fer impedances between terminals as that
of Figure 6.
4. The mesh network composed of
branche Zii
Z-'k// and3 Z3/i
Figure 8, is equivalent to the original star
network of Figure 7(A), with each branch
multiplied by k/4;. This star originally
was established in such a way that the
1949, VOLUME 68 Ward-Equzivalent Circuits for Power-Flow Studies
terminal current sources could be com- tion to supply losses can be estimated, in
bined at the star point without changing order to facilitate establishing the initial
terminal performance, and the constant terminal conditions of the study. Then,
factor k/l does not disturb this condition. in the course of the study, the single
The final equivalent circuit with a single source is adjusted to produce the same
source is shown in Figure 9. total power and reactive input to the
If the source currents, representing terminals as calculated for the original
either equivalent generation or net gen- equivalent network from which the
eration, have relatively large phase dis- single-source circuit was derived.
placements with respect to each other, the If a change of internal generating
procedure just outlined may produce schedule in the reduced system is to be
negative resistance terms in the branches simulated, a new single-source network
of the final equivalent circuit. It may be must be computed, unless it can be as-
possible to avoid negative resistance by sumed that all generation which has been
changing the angle 4. If this is done, one shifted to the star point changes loading
additional branch Z12'will appear between in the same proportion.
terminals 1 and 2.
Another way to avoid negative re- Transformer Taps
sistance is to divide each original source In network analyzer studies, convenient
current into two parts, one a quadrature base voltages are chosen for the various
} which can be represented by a
component ~~~~~~~~~~~transmission and subtransmission levels,
capacitor at each terminal, and chosen and the analyzer voltage measurements
so that the remaining parts of all source
currents are in phase. This can be stated of these atkina
usually nominal values. ofperentage
termVery frequently,
v of power quantities.
more clearlv in terms
~~~~~~~transformers represented in a study bave
Assume that the terminal voltages in the actual turn ratios deviating from the
present example are nearlv in phase. r o t
> ~
Then, if the three generator loadings are
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
ratios of the arbitrary nominal vralues
at widely different power factors, negative gnect by the tagnsfor ers Althoug
resistance may appear. To avoid this, all nominal tae transformais douno
of the real power generation is transferred appear in the analyzer set-up, any such
from each terminal, at some convenient deatin fro nnal ratio are rere
uniform power factor for all sources in- sented at points of transformation by
volved, to the star point; the balance of adjustable autotransformers provided for
the reactive power is generated locally at the purpose. The occumrrence
of off-
each terminal by means of capacitors. If nominal turn ratios within a system
an equivalent source consumes reactive should be considered in devising an
power, a shunt reactor can be used at equlent
considere sysing
an
that terminal instead of a capacitor. these ratios may have an important
This method of reducing the equivalent effect onntria
efc terminal voltages and the dis-
otgsadteds
p e sources to a single source is based
power
asoureto tas sue isubased tribution of reactive power. Since the
on the assumption that. the equivalent possible situations in regard to off-
gend kown urrents. In terms of nominal transformer tap settings are so
numerous, a general treatment is not
power quantities the single source
power tarnt mustgnee tuelocated laddi- fered to assistSeveral
attempted. suggestions are of-
at sar must gnere th e in reproducing, at least
flow of current from the single source to
the terminals of the equivalent circuit. turn ratios.
This effec
This effect appears higher sstar-point
appars as a hg A residual, off-nominal turn ratio, en-
countered in tracing from one tie line
voltage and as a shift in its angular posi- terminal to another through the system
tion ahead of the terminal voltages. The being reduced, can be represented in the
star-point voltage and additional genera- e c b c
ecquivalentautotransf.orer
circuit by connectingy an
analyzer in series with
oria n o Fw one of the terminals. n If terminals are
\ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~retained,
and a different residual ftrturn
\1.0 rai aper bewe2ahpi
2 2 mias ths2a erpeetdb
/ Z~ 2 - autotransformers at any (nt-1)
(i(n1)
,3 Z23 terminals. This assumes that the product
A. AU ULARY STAR B. EQUIVALENT MESH
of turn ratios around any closed ioops in
the reduced system is unity. If this is not
Figure 7. Auxiliary star network and its the case, it is possible to encounter differ-
equivalent mesh, used in the derivation of the ent residual ratios in tracing through
single-source circuit different paths between two givren ter-
377
minals. Normally these differences will
be small, or the paths invrolved will be of / 9 <>
high impedance and an average ratio can
be used. < tem. The equivalent loads may be
A simple test on a network analyzer can
be used to determine the net turn ratio , Z: 2 correct total power interchange.
between retained terminals in a complex Z31 k. Z
network. A voltage of 100 per cent is
impressed at one terminal on an analyzer LCV
set-up of the complete line netwvork, with
capacitors, loads, and generators open,
andanwith autotransformer aduse
all auornsomr
wit al adjste tot
represent normal transformer tap set- 3 sufcinl relsi rpeetaint
/ ~~~~sufficientlv realistic representation to
tings. The voltages measured at the
other terminals can be used to compute otherFigureter-ininals be used
network
8. Mesh can equivalent
to to computewarrant
the net turn ratios between terminals. Figure 6
Transfer-impedance~~~~~~~~
Transfer-impedance measurementsmesurent
shouldemfresiuade wthr ratas setwt norml the equivalent loads are held at constant
tamned terminals are small or zero. If a values of real and reactive power.
Assuming that generators in the re-
relatively large turn ratio exists between
one terminal and the rest, it mav be duced system are operated at a scheduled
to rede tpower output and fixed terminal voltage,
mossibleasurement bydaltis ringpossible
t apsetings the real power loading of the equivalent
ofmransoremersbyalteorine taserminal
the i generators is held constant. The reactive
quetranston.Then,at thea teratio in-
if tun loading of the actual generators, par-
tuedtion. her,ies wthe thrnratitermi
troduced in series with that terminal of of ticularly those near the tie-line terminals
the equivalent circuit, the transfer-im- might vary during studies of different
pedance representation will be aroxi- conditions in the adjoining system. This
mately correct. introduces a serious deviation from the
The sum of the distribution factors basic assumption of constant-current
sources, and gives rise to the problem of
'described under method I may not be
adjusting the reactive generation in the
ecual to unity in the presence of off-
equivalent circuit. For the purpose of
simplifying this
factors as read wi.th normal tap settings choose, as pointsproblem,
it is desirable to
retained in the equia-
choeaspitrtindnteeqv-
should be applied to the source and load lent network, busses where, in normal
shouldent. applyiedt mthesourceIandold
currinents. vapplying mhoads Idtden- system operation, the voltage is held at a
termines, thes quialernatiloas
erators, residual aetwend ter-'
turn ratios between
gen- definite, known value. Then, only the
power component of equivalent loads and
minals should be represented during the
deternination of normal-voltage circti- generation need be determnined. Equiva-
lating flow tlent
reactive generation is adjusted to hold
network voltage. It may be helpful to calculate
the equivalent generation at each ter-
minal corresponding to the scheduled
Using the Equivalent Circuit real power loading of all suppressed gen-
erators and the maximum reactive power
After the desired equivalent circuit has capability of all generators and other
been derived, it is set up, connected at sources of reactive power. This informa-
the proper points to the detailed repre- tion can be used as a guide to avoid ob-
sentation of the adjoining system, and the taining an unreasonable amount of reac-
desired tests are carried out on this de- tive support from the equivalent circuit
tailed portion. Some additional sugges- when some particularly severe emergency
tions are given here on using the equiva- condition is being studied on the ad-
lent circuit during these tests. joining detailed network.
If the information on equivalent loads Since total tie-line power interchange
and generation has been derived in terms between the equivalent circuit and the
of per unit current, the corresponding adjoining network depends on the dif-
loadings in terms of real and reactive ference between total equivalent genera-
power can be calculated, using known or tion and equivalent load, small errors in
estimated voltages at the tie line ter- these quantities may assume major pro-
minals. portions in reproducing a relatively small
If it is necessary to estimate these power transfer. If inter-company ties
voltages initially, the actual conditions are involved, the total transfer usually is
are established by trial on the first specified. In other cases, it is well to
analyzer study. During subsequent tests, check the initial measured transfer to or
378 Ward Equivalent Circuits for Power-Flowv Studies
from the equivalent circuit, against the
difference between generation and load
plus estimated losses in the reduced sys-
shaded, if necessary, to establish the
r t
Conclusions
In steady-state power-flow studies, the
t o
treatment of system loads and generation
as constant-current quantities gives a
w t
taking advanitage
plification in analysis
of anv sim-
which may result.
This assumption
satisfactory reproduction of actual give
fails, however, to
char-a
acteristics under certain conditions, no-
tably short circuits and power swings.
A general statement on accuracy is not
attempted, because the importance of
various assumptions and the degree of
approximation involved depend on the
nature of the system being reduced. Trial
on several types of power networks, and
in actual system studies, has yielded good
results. The equivalent circuits derived
by these methods are capable, in the
cases tried, of reproducing with accept-
able accuracy the terminal performance
of the reduced network with various
emergency operating conditions repre-
sented in the adjoining system.
Wlhen an equivalent circuit is used to
reproduce power flows over inter-com-
pany ties, accuracy requirements are not
extremely rigid. One company, in the
process of making a planning study of
proposed future developments, usually
has incomplete information on future
plans of its neighbors, yet an approximate
equivalent representation of neighboring
systems may be necessary in the study.
Joint studies of interconnection problems
offer opportunities to obtain equivalent
circuits of the systems involved as viewed
from the inter-company boundaries. The
methods described herein are well suited
to this type of equivalent-circuit applica-
tion.
Additional approximations can be em-
ployed to simplify determination of the
equivalent circuit if the study at hand
allows liberal accuracy limits. For ex-
ample, the distribution factors in method
I might be applied directly to kva load-
ings, neglecting voltage magnitudes and
angles. A d-c board could be used to
determine the distribution factors, if
transformer taps are neglected and uni-
form impedance angles assumed.
In general, the new equivalent circuit
representation occupies an intermediate
position relative to methods A and B
mentioned earlier in the paper. It is a
AJEE TRANSACTIONS
nmiore complete representation tharl
metl:od A, but it may lack some of the
flexibility and accuracy of method B,
I
tLrough suppression of internal gen
erating stations. It is intended to supple-
ment existing methods; in practice, all
three methods might be used simulta- Z \
neously to advantage in some studies.
Appendix 1. Analytical Meth-
ods and Basis for the Simplified
Equivalenit Circuit
The principles employed in methods I and
II of the paper apply rigorously to an ideal-
ized network in which loads and generators
maintain constant-current loadings, that is,
currents fixed in magnitude and relative
phiase position regardless of bus voltage
variationis. Although these conditions are
not realized in practice in a power-system
network, suchschanin iealzednetorkls
netvror, idealized network is con-
on-
sidered here for the purpose of illustrating
the basis for practical applications. An
analytical method iS described for eliminat-
ing all busses, except the tie-line terminals
in the section of the idealized network which
is being reduced, and its equivalence to
methodsmethds Iand III iS
I and isshow. Ths method
shown. This mehod
can be adapted to the analytical determina-
tion of a power-system equivalent circuit if
neither an a-c nor a d-c board is available for
this purpose.
Referring to Figure 1 as an example,
assume that thle generators and loads satisfy
the specified constant-currenit character-
istics. Assume that connections exist to an
adjoining network at the three points as
indicated, and that it is desired to replace
the system of Fi-,ure 1 with an equivalent
0
circuit. Assume further that the neutral
bus is common to both the section to be re-
duced and the adjoining section, and that
the adjoining network contains at least one
point of fixed or controlled voltage to neu-
tral.
Under these conditions, the distinction
between load and generation in Figure 1
is merely a matter of relative phase position
of the current. Both the generators and
loads can be treated alike as known, fixed,
impressed currents. By Kirchhoff's law,
the vector sum of the tie-line currents must
be equal to the vector sum of the loads and
sources (impressed currents). The equiva-
lent circuit must reproduce the division of
this total tie-line interchange among the
several ties in the same manner as the actual
network of Figure 1, when changes are being
studied in the adjoining network. Within
the section to be reduced, any bus or junc-
tion can be eliminated by a star-mesh
transformation of the line impedances
terminating at the junction. If an im-
pressed current exists at the Junction being
eliminated, it can be removed, prior to the
star-mesh transformation, by replacing it
with separate currents at the neighboring
junctions in such proportions that perform-
ance of the network beyond these adjacent
terminals is not disturbed. New branches,
appearing between neighboring junctions as
a result of the star-mesh transformation,
can be combined in parallel with circuits
already existing between these juncetions,
1949, VOLUME 68 Ward-Equivalent Circuits for Power-Flow Studies
I 4-cthe
I + 13)
/I++ 12+ ~~~~~~~1k/Z(+z+
/ taining impressed current accomplishes the
k/6 Za
/
Equivalent Circuit23
3 than numerical expressions, keeping a record
Figure 9. Final single-source circuit
and theii the process repeated to eliminate
another junction. In this way, all busses
e terminals with, in general, a portion of each
except the tie-line
nated, and, in will teriiiinalsallcansource
the process,
be elimi-
and
load currents have been shifted to
to appear as equivalent im-
these terminals to
thessedterminals. app as equivalence im
pressed currents. As long as equivalence is
maintained at each step, the final circuit,
such as that shown in Figure 4 for the system
of Figure 1, will reproduce the performance
of the reduced network as viewed from the
adjoining network. Hence, it is only
necessary to show that this process IS valid in
eliminating the common junction of a
eral n-point star connection of impedances
genw
with a fixed current impressed at this
unction
The general star-mesh transformation is
well-known, and is included here merely for
convenience and consistent notation. Let
Zi, Z2, Zn represent the impedances
tieZsrprsntte.medne
connected from the common junction to
terminals 1, 2, reectiel of n
point star network. tpvym,
flInener
and k denote any two of the n terminals.
an n
Then represents the impedane be-
tween terminals ej and k in the equivalent
mesh network and its value is given by
1 1 1 1 circulating currents residing in the adjoining
Zi7c =Z,Zk - +_ +..
+ + ) (2)
1 2 3 Zn
An impressed current (representing either
a source or a load) existing at the common
junction of an n-point star can be divided
into n parts and relocated at the n remote
terminals of the star. If the total impressed
current remains the same and the voltage
the star
are not disturbed, the performance of the
network beyond the terminals of the star
will be the same. In general terms, let I,
represent the portion of the original im-
pressed current, I, which is shifted to termi-
nal k. The following relations must be
satisfied to preserve equivalence of the
modified network
I =I1+Ii+I3+ .,..+ (3)
JlZl =I.2Z2=IZ3~.. . =InZn (4)
By combining the relations given in equa-
tions 3 and 4, the values of the new im-
pressed currents at the terminals can be
determined. In general terms, this leads to
the following expression for the portion of
ori,inal impressed current to be trans-
ferred to erminal k
(ZkZ Z +
This method of eliminating junctions con-
2 same result as a reduction formula in matrix
or tensor formn discussed by Kron.' In the
case where n is equal to two, equation 5
reduces to the familiar relation for replacing
a tap load on a line section by
loads at the two ends of the line.
equivalent
In carrying out successive applications of
this reduction, it is desirable to identify the
original impressed currents by letters or
symbols, and to retain them as literal rather
of the numerical coefficients of these cur-
rents as junctions are eliminated. When
the process is completed, that is, when all
except the tie-line termninals have been
eliminated, all of the original sources and
loads will have been shifted to the retained
apernatactrmalUonolc-
appearing at each terminal. Upon collect-
ing coefficients of like terms in the expression
for the total equivalent impressed current
accumulated at each tie-line terminal, the
distribution factors of equations 1 will be
obtained. Any desired schedule of source
and load currents in the original network
anlodcretinhergnlntwk
can be converted into equivalent currents
impressed at the tie-line terminals by
euations 1
eqaios1
Either metbod I or method II of the paper
can be applied to the idealized constant-
current network to obtain the same result as
that yielded by the analytical method just
described. In the case of method II, the
normal-flow interchange and the normal
cirlculating flow would be expressed in
terms of current rather than power quanti-
The equivalence of these different meth-
ods can be demonstrated by the prin-
ciple of superposition. Any voltage differ-
ences existing between the tie-line terminals
can be considered as arising from currents
circulating through the line network of the
reduced system, with the source of these
system. If the tie-line terminal voltages
are equal, there can be no circulating cur-
rents; in the equivalent circuit, the im-
pressed current at each terminal then will be
equal to the tie-line flow at that terminal.
In other words, the equivalent impressed
currents are equal to the corresponding tie-
line currents in the actual network, when
the circulating currents are suppressed. In
method I, the circulating currents are sup-
pressed by connecting all tie-line terminals
together. The resulting natural distribu-
tion of each internal impressed current in
the tie lines is measured separately, and then
equations 1 accomplish the proper super-
position of the effects of all internal im-
pressed currents.
In method II, any arbitrary "normal"'
operating condition of the complete net-work
is used as a basis. The circulating-current
components of the resulting tie-line flows
are determined by impressing the "normal'"
voltage differences at the terminals of the
equivralent line network, and then the equiva-
lent impressed currents are obtained by
separating the circulating components fro.n
the "Inormal'> tie-line loadings.
3,79
Appendix 11. Sample Calculation
of Single-Source Equivalent
Single-SourceEquivalent
Circuit
It is assumed that the equivalent circuit
<
.r * r r to replace
of Figure 6 has been derived
power-system network, and that an addi-
tional reduction in the number of sources is
necessary before this circuit can be used in
the detailed study of an extensive system,
to which it is interconnected at terminals 1,
2, and 3. The numerical values associated
with the equivalent circuit are:
Impedances in per cent on 100,000 kva
base i p ck
Z12= 1±+j40=41.4/74.6 degrees
Z23= 6 +j24 = 24.8/76 degrees
Zn =6+j24 8=24.8/736_degrees
Z31 = 34.8 +j 1I8 = 123 /73.6 degrees
Source currents in per unit (referred to
voltage at terminal 1)
I = 0.57 -jO.l9 =0.607-18.5 degrees
12 = 1.61 -j.70 = 1.76/ -23.5 degrees
13_A12
I3 = 0.10-jO. 12 = 0.156/15/-50.2
50.2 degrees
aa quadratureand
It is assumed further that the impedance
angles are sufficiently uniform to use scalar
impedance with a constant impedance angle
of 74 degrees, and that normally the inter-
connection terminal voltages are displaced
only a few degrees. These latter assump-
tions are not required by the method, but
they simplify calculations in cases where
they can be made.
In order to avoid negative resistance and
to permit scalar computations, the original
source currents are modified by separating
each of the currents 12 and 13 into two parts:
Discussion
R. D. Goodrich, Jr. (United States Bureau of
Reclamation, Denver, Colo.): Ward's in-
troduction of the constant-current-type
equivalent circuit is a distinct contribution
to the technique of a-c network-analyzer
operation. It provides a quick and simple
method for representing the essential feature
of a secondary network, namely, its ability
to transfer power from one point of inter-
connection with the main network to
another.
If power flow at the points of interconnec-
tion with the main network is the only pur-
pose for which the equivalent circuit is re-
quired, it would appear that the equivalent
generators in Figure 5(C) could be adjusted
by trial rather easily, and thus the labor of
computing the fictitious power outputs of
these units could be avoided. If the
equivalent generator at one point of inter-
connection is omitted, there should be only
one combination of adjustments of the re-
maiming generators which will yield the de-
sired values of interchange power. The
significance of individual generator powers
in the equivalent circuit will, however, be
lost,
Where a more complete equivalent circuit
is required, as in stability studies, for ex-
ample, it has been found convenient to use
the star-type equivalent circuit, shown in
380 Ward-Equivalent Circuits for Power-Flow Studies
19 ty
(2.28-j0.76)
\v9< /t ~ Z2Z8.06, and Z25'= 22.86. By inspectionl,
Xz /
a the corresponding ratios of the other
151/74\ 10.3274°
(o.6I
/ ,
(-jOa16)
base
(-JO,087)
jO.087
Figure 10. Single-source equivalent circuit
derived in the numerical example
Values of current are in per unit impedances
areSince the
component
capacitor,
cobie at
to be generated
the remaining
a
portion to by
new jucto
be
esalse
combtned establwishoe
at a new junction
moved to the new junction is chosen so that
the phase angles of all three currents are the
same. These modified source currentst
used in subsequent calculations,
are
I =0.57 -JO. 19 = 0.6/- 18.5 degrees
12 = 1.61 -jO.54 = 1.77-18.5 degrees
-
I3 =0.10-jO.033 =0.105/-18.5 degrees
In the auxiliary star network of Figure
7(A) the values of Z2' and Z3' are 0.353/0
Figure 1 of the discussion, corresponding to
the mesh equivalent of Figure 2 of Ward's
paper.
It can be proved mathematically that the
two equivalent circuits are interchangeable.
However, the star equivalent has the ad-
vantages that:
a. It requires less impedance units to set up.
b. It permits the elimination of an impedance leg,
if no connection is to be made to it.
c It allows, in some cases, theinalteration of an
line reactance
impedance to simulate a change
generator.reactance, or total system load.
The star equivalent has the disadvantage
that the evaluation of Za, Zb, and so on
requires the solution of a set of simultaneous
equations, one equation for each unknown
impedance. However, the symmetry of the
coefficients of the unknowns simplifies the
labor involved.
To determine the Z's, a reasonable power
flow first is established in the secondary net-
work on the network analyzer. Then the
secondary network iS disconnected from the
main network and from thze generator units,
and a meterable jumper is connected to each
point to be retained, including the ground
bus. In some cases, it is permissible to bus
together all of the points of generation in the
secondary network, so as to retain a single
equivalent generator. The final step of
analyzer operation is to measure the impe-
degrees anid 5.71/0 degrees respectively,
from the relation 0.6-1.0/0 degrees=1.7.
Z2'=0.105 Z2'; thebranchesof theequiva-
lent delta, Figure 7(B) are: Z12'=1.42,
~~~~~~
the ratioZ80u6
ratio larger in mgniuecthan
Z12,/Z12' isiS largern
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~tile magnitude than
branches, hence the value of kla is taken as
(41.4/74 degrehes 74 degres) =29.2/74
degrees.
Whdegrees. imp
mut/lWhen the edances in Figure 7(B) are
minals 1 and 2 in the resulting network is the
menas the corresponding branch in the
same stecrepndn rnhi h
original equivalent circuit of Figure 6.
Additional branches of the proper impe-
dance can be connected between other pairs
of terminals, see Figure 8, to make the re-
sulting network entirely equivalent to that
of Figure 6. This requires, in the present
example: (Z=273-k/74 /(Z23a+k/m-Z23')m =
Z23')
Z Z23=27.7/74 degrees, and, similarly
network of Figure 7(B), with all
branches multiplied by k/l, is contained in
Figure 8, this portion may be replaced bv
tthe sstar from wvhich it was derived, Figure
7(A), with all impedances multiplied by k/l.
The sum of the modified source currents
can be impressed at the common junction of
this star, and the residual quadrature com-n
ponents of source currents can be impressed
at the terminials to obtain the final equiva-
lent circuit, requiring a single power source,
as shown in Figure 10.
Reference
1. TENSOR ANALYSIS OF NETWORKS (book),
GabrielKron. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., N3e7
dance between each pair of jumpers, with the
other jumpers separated electrically.
The series of readings obtained gives
values of Za+ Zb, Za+ Z,... Z2+ Z3. Evi-
dently, for the 7-point network shown in
Figure 1 of the discussion, 21 such equations
can be written, but, since there are only 7
unknowns, 14 of the equations are redundant.
Although it has certain limitations, the
method of least squares often is considered
to yield the most reasonable values for the
unknowns under these conditions. The
least squares procedure is as follows: first,
multiply each of the original observation
equations by its coefficient of the first un-
known, Z5, and add the products. Since
the coefficient of Za is one in six of the equa-
tions, and zero in the rest, six equations will
be added together to yield a normal equation
of the form
6Za+Zb+Zc +ZG+Zs +Z2+Z3 =M
Next, multiply each observation equation
by its coefficient of Zz, and add the products.
Th'eodnra qainwl,teeoe
be
Za+6Zb±ZC+ZG+Zl+Z2+Z3 = M2
This process is repeated until seven nor-
mal equations have been formed; their
solution will yield the impedances desired.
The resulting equivalent circuit will be
AJEE TRANSACTIONS
a e >s O network analyzers, for the type of equiva-
lents introduced by this paper. It is a
H2 Z welcome contribution and should prove use-
b -2i- 2 ful to most utilities that have calculating
boards. Although the Bonneville Power
t3 $ 3Administration's a-c analyzer has 18 board
C X SZG 3, generators, the Northwest Power Pool con-
1 tains more interconnected systems than can
be set up in detail; thus, we require equiva-
lents.
Figure 1. Star type of equivalent circuit In many problems on our board, these
equivalents contain too many impedance
units, since there are generators in the net-
the
t original
i systemv
t both for steady state works we desire to reduce. Ward's method
for supplies an ingenious method for reducing
the number of impedances needed and
allows for changes in loads and generation.
C. E. Parks (Public Service Company of In the majority of our studies, generators
Indiana, Inc., Indianapolis, Ind.): The and loads are maintained at constant power
author is to be congratulated for his novel output, and usually the reactive power
approach to the subject of the setting up of changes very little so that it isn't necessary
equivalent circuits for power-flow studies to be able to alter these. However, to be
on an a-c network analyzer. able to reduce the number of generator
Most electric utility companies are now sources is of much value, and the author
employing the a-c network analyzer in the should be complimented on his neat scheme
solution of present, and future, system for reducing the number of equivalent
operation and development problemns. A generators.
large majority of the systems now being We have attacked the problem of equiva-
analyzed on the calculating board are inter- lents and solved it in another way. It is
connected with at least one other company. based on the fact that generators can be re-
Where these interconnections become nu- placed by negative impedances in analytical
merous, the problem of representing the solutions, assuming constant impedances.
adjacent system's transmission line set-up, To do this on an a-c analyzer, we have de-
taking into account that system's possible veloped an electronic negative impedance
development in the future becomes a very capable of use with the analyzer. This
important factor in the study under con- means that a system to be reduced can have
sideration. If the adjacent system is set up its generators replaced by the negative im-
in detail, it usually requires that a joint pedances, and transfer impedances may be
study be conducted. While such joint measured between the network terminals,
studies are very desirable, they consume the as in method B described in the paper.
time and effort of the operating engineers of Should any of these impedances contain
both companies involved. Such an arrange- negative resistances, one of our negative
ment will result usually in abbreviating the impedances can be used to represent it. In
system set-up for both systems inivolved, this fashion, it is possible to eliminate the
because of the limitations for board facil- use of distribution currents, which, as Ward
ities, and further generally will limit the has pointed out, can be quite "lengthy and
number of studies that can be conducted in a cumbersome. " Incidentally, these nega-
prescribed period. tive resistors can be used as board generators
The author of this paper, since he is in conjunction with the ordinary board gen-
engaged actively in power-flow studies of the erators, as well as provide a representation
numerous systems which employ the Purdue of negative resistor elements. However,
network analyzer, has appreciated this even with negative resistors, it is helpful to
problem, and in his excellent paper, has have a method for obtaining single-source
presented a very sound solution of the equivalent circuits in parts of systems re-
problem. mote from the central portion being in-
The methods that he suggests have been vestigated. In this connection, negative
employed in power-flow studies made by impedances would simplify the procedure
the Public Service Company of Indiana, given by Ward to secure a single-source
Inc. It has been found, by actual practice, equivalent. In those cases where negative
that the results obtained by using the equiva- resistances appear, they easily can be repre-
lent circuits established by these methods sented by the electronic units, thus obviat-
has proved sufficiently accurate in the solu- ing the need for mathematical stratagems,
tion of the study being conducted. Other such as "changing the anglek," to eliminate
methods of representing the adjoining sys- negative resistances.
tems network have been tried out by our The author's pertinent comments on
company, but it has been found that the the effect of transformer taps in obtaining
method presented by the author in this pa- equivalents should be helpful to those who
per produces by far the most accurate re- have had to contend with interconnected sys-
sults. tems. Fewv, if any, articles have mentioned
Again, may I congratulate the author in this subject, and the author deserves praise
his fundamental thinking in the develop- for bringing it to the attention of system
ment of the ideas presented in this paper, engineers,
and express the hope that other operating Now that at least two methods exist for
companies will make use of this time- and obtaining satisfactory steady-state power-
labor-saving tool in their future studies. flow equivalents, it is desirable to obtain one
which would be satisfactory for power-swing
studies. In those cases where the gener-
Glenn W. Bills (Bonneville Power Admin- ators are in an area electrically remote from
istration, Portland, Oreg.): There is a the network upon which are inflicted shocks,
definite need, by those engineers who use a-c such as line faults and line clearances, the
1949, VOLUME 68 Ward-Equivalent Circuits for Power-Flow Studies
generators usually oscillate together as a
unit.
For such cases, equivalents are meas-
ured by means of method B, the generators
in the network being represented by their
transient impedances. The end result is an
equivalent which contains a single equiva-
lent generator. However, the equivalent
rarely satisfies the initial steady-state
conditions at the retained terminals and is
not rigorous. It should be possible, by
means of an extension of Thevenin's theo-
rem to n terminals, or by some other de-
vice, to determine an equivalent
would be much more satisfactory than which
those
used at present in swing studies. If any
system engineers or network specialists
know of such a method, it would be appreci-
ated greatly if they would publish a paper
on the subject.
R. J. Tallent (Ebasco Services, Inc., New
York, N. Y.): Ward has developed equiva-
lent-circuit methods which are quite an
improvement over the old conventional
methods. Power systems have grown so
large, and interconnections have become so
common, that it has become quite difficult to
condense, by the conventional equivalent
methods, some systems sufficiently to get
them on the board. It has been a problem
to set up the critical sections in enough de-
tail so that line loadings and voltages may
be observed, and yet leave enough board
generators and impedance elements to
accurately reproduce the adjoining system.
By using Mr. Ward's method, it is possible
to reduce considerably the number of ele-
ments in the adjoining-system equivalent.
The method in the paper described under
method I, paragraphs 1 through 5, would
give a flexible set of results suitable for read-
ily representing a variety of load and gen-
eration conditions, but, as noted, the work
involved in reducing a large system with
many loads would become lengthy and time
consuming.
The methods described under method II,
paragraphs 1 through 5, are an improvement
on the above insofar as reducing labor and
time, but have the disadvantage of requiring
both systems to be set up simultaneously.
This requirement nullifies one big advantage
of the method, since shortage of analyzer
elements is frequently the motivating reason
for using equivalents. Also, as recognized,
results are not as flexible, since they pertain
only to a given generation and load condi-
tion.
The method described in paragraph 6
under method I sounds promising and prac-
tical. However, as described, the results
would not include the effect of varying
generation in the neighboring system.
This would limit its usefulness to a degree.
If this method could be extended simply to
include generation effects, it would find
frequent application, since it would be very
easy to carry out, requiring only one system
set up at atime. Results would be accurate
enough for a large variety of studies, pre-
suming, of course, the studies deal with like
load conditions and the same system.
Perhaps, by applying the superposition
principle, it may be possible to extend this
method to include generation effects without
either increasing the work and time appreci-
ably or causing need for major set-up re-
connection, such as disconnecting loads.
381
This might be done in the manner describedl
below.
1. Proceed as described in paragraph 6
and obtain load distribution factors for the
interconnection points.
2. Next alternately and singularly con-
nect, by a metering lead in parallel with the
leads to the interconnection points, the
various generating buses to the board gener-
ator. Adjust loads and record flows in each
metering lead for each generating bus.
3. By application of the superposition
principle, the distribution factor for each
generating plant to the interconnection
points may be obtained by subtracting re-
sults of step 1 from step 2, and dividing by
the flow in the lead to generating bus.
4. The net load at each interconnection
point may be computed by following equa-
tion:
Load, =Di (Load) -Dia(MWa) -
Dib(MllAlTb) * *
where
D= distribution factor for loads as obtained in step separate companies on their individual sys- ent approximations of power-system load
1 for interconnection point 1
Load = total system substation load
Dia, Di = distribution factor for power plants a and the approximate apportionment of load in
b to the interconnection point 1
Loadi =net load or generation at interconnection
point 1
5. Adding these equivalent loads or
generations to the interconnection points,
and connecting these points by the transfer
impedance between them, will give a close same result with loads left connected.
equivalent.
Edward W. Kimbark (Northwestern Uni-
versity, Evanston, Ill.): The representa-
tion of a multiterminal active network by a
mesh of impedances, with a constant-current
source at each terminal, as described by
Ward, is really an extension of Norton's
theorem to a network of more than two paper. The C coefficients of Starr's paper,
terminals.
Thebvenin's theorem, in which a 2-terminal "mutual" constants,2 may be arranged in Two equivalent circuits are shown for a 4-
active n-etwork is replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a constant-voltage
source and an impedance in series, is known
and used now by many power engineers.
Norton's theorem, the dual of Thevenin's
theorem, is not so well known. According
to Norton's theorem, a 2-terminal active net-
work can be replaced by the parallel com-
bination of an impedance and a constant-
current source. The impedance is the same
as that of Thevenin's theorem. The cur-
rent is equal to the short-circuit current of
the original network.
Another fact not generally known is that
Thevenin's and Norton's theorems can be
extended to networks having more than two
terminals. Instead of one impedance
branch, there is now a branch between each
pair of terminals. These impedances can be
found by reduction of the original network
after short-circuiting each constant-voltage
source and open-circuiting each constant-
current source in that netwrork. Thdvenin's
equivalent circuit has a constant-voltage
source in series with each terminal, except
the reference terminal, equal to the open-
circuit voltage between the corresponding
terminal and the reference terminal. Nor-
ton's equivalent circuit has a constant-
current source shunted between the refer-
ence terminlal and each other terminal.
382 Ward-Equivalent Circuits for Power-Flow Studies
The current of each source is equal to the 1 of the papler, this would appear as a star
short-circuit current of the corresponding connection of six legs, wita the common
terminal. junction at the seventh terninal and with
mutual coupling between eacih pair of the six
legs, thus providing the required minimum
J. B. Ward: Tallent points out a disad- of 21 impedances. Goodrich presents an
vantage of method II in the necessity of interesting method for seeking the "best
setting up simultaneously the network to be fit" of impedances in an approximate star
reduced together with the section to be network without mutual coupling. It is
studied in detail. On the surface, if such a noted that the general "normial" equations
set-up were possible, it might seem that the for a given number of points of entry need
equivalent circuit was not required. The be solved only once, since the coefficients are
author had in mind a particular situation in fixed by the number of terminals. Then
proposing method II, namely, the occa- this solution may be applied to any problem
sional necessity of interconnected operating involving the same number of terminals. A
companies making joint studies wherein simple relationship between self and mutual
skeleton representations of the major trans- constants and the "through" impedances
mission networks are used to permit setting used by Goodrich is developed in Starr's
up simultaneously the several systems and paper.
studying interconnection problems of mu- The reduction of a network containing
tual interest. While such a set-up is avail- sources as described by Bills treats both
able on the analyzer, it is a simple matter to generation and loads as constant impedances,
obtain equivalent circuits by method II. while, in the present paper, these quantities
Then these equivalent circuits will be useful are considered primarily as impressed cur-
in subsequent detailed studies made by the rents. The successful use of the two differ-
tems. and generator characteristics seems to indi-
In connection with Tallent's comments on cate that, for the normal power-flow type of
study, there is considerable freedom in de-
paragraph 6 under method I, it was intended signing equivalent circuits, based on com-
that the equivalent generation be obtained binations of the two viewpoints. If it is not
by separately measured distribution factors, necessary to deal with changes in loads, their
with loads disconnected, as described in representation as constant impedances
preceding paragraphs 1 to 5. Tallent's dis- lends itself more readily to wholesale reduc-
cussion outlines an interesting application tion to equivalent loads at the tie-line
of superposition, leading to essentially the terminals.
Kimbark's discussion brings out the close
The star-type equivalent circuit suggested relationship between Norton's theorem and
by Goodrich is not interchangeable with the Thevenin's theorem. Although most
mesh circuit, Figure 2 of the paper, in the power-system networks do not conform ex-
sense of exact general equivalence. For a actly with the idealized network character-
general n-terminal circuit, a minimum of istics on which these theorems are based, it
n(n 1)/2 links is required in an equiva- is felt that there could be more widespread
lent circuit.1 The links of the circuit in and effective application of these principles
Figure 2 of the paper, expressed as admit- in power network analysis. Figure 2 of the
tances, are the D coefficients of Starr's discussion is submitted to supplement Kim-
bark's pertinent comments on extension of
which are commonly known as "self" and these theorems to more than two terminals.
an exact equivalent circuit, in the form of a terminal active network. Terminal n is
star network with mutual coupling between taken as the reference terminal, correspond-
branches. For the sample system of Figure ing to neutral in power networks. Note
that the star-with-mutual circuit mentioned
previously is shown in the generalized
.Thevenin equivalent circuit. This form
_ I yields a close analogy with the familiar 2-
I z12
terminal case.
In the generalized Norton's equivalent,
1
0
2 the links are transfer impedances, and the
Z23 Z13 current sources are equal to the short-circuit
\ . r 3 currents obtained by connecting terminals 1,
Z,, Z2n5Z35 2, and 3 simultaneously to n. The methods
- -10 n of the paper lead to a circuit of this type, and
- - the impedances to neutral will appear if
A. NORTON'S EQUIVALENT loads are retained as constant impedances.
The voltage sources in the generalized
Thevenin equivalent are the open-circuit
r .voltages of the original network, measured
Zj Z;-2Z|~-2j3) with reference to terminal n. It should be
©
@ j -I emrphasized that the self and mutual impe-
| |Z23 (Z22-2l2-Z23)l dances appearing in Figure 2( B)of the discus-
2 sion are not the same as the transfer impe-
l I: (z-z4-z) dances in Figure 2(A) of the discussion.
E3 3
REFERENCES
-s~~ QIAETCRUISI .M tr.AE
L_________ --_______-_- TRANSACTIONS, volume 51, 1932, pages 287-298.
B. THEVENIN'S EQUIVALENT2.ECTIATRNMSONNDITIBIN
REFERENCE BOOR. Westinghouse Electric Corpo-
Figure 2. Generalized equivalent circuits ration (East Pittsburgh, Pa.), 1943, pages 87--96.
ATEE TRANSACSTION.S