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Satavahanas

After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, the history of the Andhras, as a continuous account of
political and cultural events, commences with the rise of the Satavahanas as a political power.
According to Matsya Purana there were 29 rulers of this dynasty. They ruled over the
Andhradesa including Deccan for about 400 years from the 2nd century B.C. to beyond the 2nd
century A.D. Satavahanas were also called Salivahanas and Satakarnis. In the 3rd century B.C.,
Simukha, the founder of the Satavahana dynasty, unified the various Andhra principalities into
one kingdom and became its ruler (271 B.C. -- 248 B.C.). Dharanikota near Amaravati in Guntur
district was the first capital of Simukha, but later he shifted his capital to Pratishtana (Paithan in
Aurangabad district).

Satakarni II, the sixth ruler of the dynasty (184 B.C.) was an able ruler who extended his
kingdom to the west by conquering Malwa. According to inscriptional evidence, he extended the
boundaries of his realm far into central India across the Vindhyas, perhaps up to the river
Ganges. He ruled for a long period of 56 years. The long reign of Satakarni II was followed
successively by eight rulers of whom none can be credited with any notable achievement. It was
the accession of Pulumavi I that brought renewed strength and glory to their kingdom. He struck
down the last of the Kanva rulers, Susarman, in 28 B.C. and occupied Magadha. The
Satavahanas thus assumed an all-India significance as imperial rulers in succession to the
Nandas, Mauryas, Sungas and Kanvas. The kings, who succeeded him, appear to have been
driven, by the Sakas, out of Maharashtra back to their home land in Andhra. The only silver
lining in that murky atmosphere was the excellent literary work, Gathasaptasati, of Hala, the
17th Satavahana king.

It was during the time of Gautamiputra Satakarni, the 23rd ruler of this dynasty, who ascended
the throne in A.D.62, their kingdom made a sharp recovery of the lost territories from the
western Kshatrapas. A Nasik record describes him as the restorer of the glory of the Satavahanas.
His kingdom included the territories of Asika, Assaka, Mulaka, Saurashtra, Kukura, Aparanta,
Anupa, Vidarbha, Akara and Avanti, and the mountainous regions of Vindhya, Achavata,
Pariyatra, Sahya, Kanhagiri, Siritana, Malaya, Mahendra, Sata and Chakora, and extended as far
as seas on either side. Though some of the mountains mentioned in the inscription cannot be
identified at present, it is clear that Gautamiputra's kingdom covered not only the peninsular
India, but also the southern parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. He passed
away in A.D.86, and his successors witnessed the dismemberment of their far flung empire.
Pulumavi II succeeded Gautamiputra and ruled for 28 years. In spite of serious efforts put forth
by him to safeguard the frontiers of his vast empire, the closing years of his reign witnessed the
decline of the Satavahana authority. Yajnasri Satakarni's accession to the throne in A.D.128
brought matters to a crisis. He came into conflict with the Saka Satrap, Rudradamana, and
suffered defeat, and consequently, lost all his western possessions. However, he continued to rule
till A.D.157 over a truncated dominion. His ship-marked coins suggest extensive maritime trade
during his days. With him passed away the age of the great Satavahanas and by the end of the
2nd century A.D., the rule of the Satavahanas was a matter of past history.

There were different opinions about their capital. Some argue that Srikakulam in Krishna district
was their capital. Evidences show that Dharanikota in Guntur district, Dharmapuri in Karimnagar
district and Paithan in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra State were used as capitals at various
periods.

The Deccan, during this period, was an emporium of inland and maritime trade. The region
between the rivers of Godavari and Krishna was full of ports and throbbing with activity. There
was plentiful currency to facilitate trade and the Telugus entered upon a period of great
industrial, commercial and maritime activity.

Buddhism flourished throughout the period and at the same time the rulers were devoted to
Vedic ritualism. They constructed several Buddhist Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas. The Stupa at
Amaravati is known for its architecture par excellence. Satavahanas were not only the able rulers
but were also lovers of literacy and architecture. The 17th ruler of this dynasty, Hala was himself
a great poet and his ``Gathasaptasati'' in Prakrit was well received by all. Gunadhya, the minister
of Hala was the author of ``Brihatkadha''.

The decline and fall of the Satavahana empire left the Andhra country in a political chaos. Local
rulers as well as invaders tried to carve out small kingdoms for themselves and to establish
dynasties. During the period from A.D.180 to A.D.624, Ikshvakus, Brihatphalayanas,
Salankayanas, Vishnukundins, Vakatakas, Pallavas, Anandagotras, Kalingas and others ruled
over the Andhra area with their small kingdoms. Such instability continued to prevail until the
rise of the Eastern Chalukyas.

Important among them were the Ikshvakus. The Puranas mention them as the Sriparvatiyas. The
present Nagarjunakonda was then known as Sriparvata and Vijayapuri, near it, was their capital.
They patronised Buddhism, though they followed the vedic ritualism. After the Ikshvakus, a part
of the Andhra region north of the river Krishna was ruled over by Jayavarma of Brihatphalayana
gotra. Salankayanas ruled over a part of the East Coast with Vengi as their capital. Next to rule
were the Vishnukundins who occupied the territory between the Krishna and Godavari. It is
believed that their capital was Indrapura, which can be identified with the modern Indrapalagutta
in Ramannapet taluk of Nalgonda district. By A.D.514, the land north of the Godavari, known,
as Kalinga became independent. The area south of the Krishna fell to the share of the Pallavas,
who ruled from Kanchi. The Vakatakas occupied the present Telangana. This state of affairs
continued with few changes up to the beginning of the 7th century A.D.

Buddhism continued, though in a decadent form during this period. Mahayanism gave wide
currency to the belief that the installation and worship of Buddha and Bodhisattva images, and
the erection of stupas conferred great merit. The Madhyamika School of thought in Mahayana
was propounded by Nagarjuna. Sanskrit came to occupy the place of Prakrit as the language of
inscriptions. The Vishnukundins extended patronage to architecture and sculpture. The cave
temples at Mogalrajapuram and Undavalli near Vijayawada bear testimony to their artistic taste.

The period of Andhra history, between A.D.624 and A.D.1323, spanning over seven centuries, is
significant for the sea-change it brought in all spheres of the human activity; social, religious,
linguistic and literary. During this period, Desi, the indigenous Telugu language, emerged as a
literary medium overthrowing the domination of Prakrit and Sanskrit. As a result, Andhradesa
achieved an identity and a distinction of its own as an important constituent of Indian Cultural
set-up.

This change was brought by strong historical forces, namely, the Eastern and Western
Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas and the early Cholas. Kakatiyas came to power during the later half
of this period and extended their rule over the entire Telugu land with the exception of a small
land in the northeast. Arts, crafts, language and literature flourished under their benevolent
patronage.

Eastern Chalukyas
This dynasty was a branch of the Chalukyas of Badami. Pulakesin II, the renowned ruler of
Chalukyas conquered Vengi (near Eluru) in A.D.624 and installed his brother Kubja
Vishnuvardhana (A.D.624--641) as its ruler. His dynasty, known as the Eastern Chalukyas, ruled
for nearly four centuries. Vishnuvardhana extended his dominions up to Srikakulam in the north
and Nellore in the south. He was succeeded by his son Jayasimha I (A.D.641--673). Between
A.D.641 and A.D.705 some kings, except Jayasimha I and Mangi Yuvaraju, (A.D.681--705)
ruled for short duration. Then followed a period of unrest characterised by family feuds and
weak rulers. In the meanwhile, the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed ousted Chalukyas of Badami. The
weak rulers of Vengi had to meet the challenge of the Rashtrakutas, who overran their kingdom
more than once. There was no Eastern Chalukya ruler who could check them until Gunaga
Vijayaditya came to power in A.D.848. He also failed to face the Rashtrakutas, and the then
Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha treated him as his ally. After Amoghavarsha's death,
Vijayaditya proclaimed independence. He started on a campaign to the south and achieved some
notable success. He ruled for 44 years and passed away in A.D.892. He was succeeded by his
brother's son, Chalukya Bhima (A.D.892--921). Rashtrakutas again attacked the Vengi kingdom
during this period but were repulsed effectively by Vengi and came to an understanding with
Rashtrakutas and treated them as his allies. They were able to maintain their independence till
the Chalukyas of Kalyani in A.D.973 overthrew the Rashtrakutas.

Contemporaries to the Eastern Chalukyas were the Eastern Gangas in the northeast and the
Pallavas in the south.

The Eastern Gangas appeared in the political scene towards the close of the 5th century A.D. as
rulers of Orissa. The first known ruler of this dynasty was Indravarma (6th century A.D.). He had
his capital at Dantapura, but later shifted to Kalinganagara (Mukhalingam in Srikakulam
district). The Gangas ruled with their capital in Andhra for nearly five centuries, until it was
shifted to Cuttack at the end of the 11th century A.D. The early Eastern Gangas were ruling a
small territory in Srikakulam district in the Telugu land.

The Pallava rule, which was earlier eclipsed by the onslaught of the Kalabhras, was revived
during the last quarter of the 6th century A.D. by Simhavishnu, a scion of the Pallava ruling
family and was firmly established at Kanchi. This new dynasty of the Pallavas is known as the
`Greater Pallavas' or the `Later Pallavas' dynasty. The earliest Pallava ruler was Virakurcha and
the most famous of them was Trilochana Pallava. An inscription noticed at Manchikallu, near
Macherla in Guntur district is the earliest epigraphical record of the Pallava family. The entire
territory south of the Krishna held sway over by Mahendravarman (A.D.600--630), son of
Simhavishnu of the Later Pallavas. From the 7th century A.D. onwards, the Pallavas has to face
the expanding Chalukya power. The conflict continued for a long time with varying degrees of
success. But the extermination of the Chalukyas of Badami by the Rashtrakutas gave respite to
the Pallavas to consolidate their power. The Pallavas continued till the end of the 9th century
A.D., when a new power, the Cholas of Tanjore, displaced them and occupied Kanchipuram.

Among the minor Chalukya families that ruled parts of Andhra, those of Vemulavada (presently
in Karimnagar district) are the most important. Their rule extended over the present-day
Karimnagar and Nizamabad districts. As subordinate rulers loyal to the Rashtrakutas, they ruled
with semi-independent status for about two centuries (A.D.755--968). The rule of the
Vemulavada Chalukyas coincided with that of the Rashtrakutas. One peculiarity with this family
is that it traced its descent from the Sun, while many other Chalukya families considered
themselves as of lunar descent.

The Cholas attained the status of a major power in south India under the valiant leadership of
Rajaraja I (A.D.985--1016). Two rebel princes of the Eastern Chalukya family sought refuge in
his court. Rajaraja I utilised the claim of one of these princes, Saktivarma, as a pretext for
intervening in the affairs of Vengi. He was successful in seating Saktivarma on the throne of
Vengi and, from that time, the Eastern Chalukyas played a role subservient to the Cholas. But the
Telugu country became a cockpit of battles between the Cholas and the Chalukyas of Kalyani
who supported a rival claimant to the throne of the Vengi each time. An Eastern Chalukya
Prince, Rajendra, occupied the Chola throne in A.D. 1070 under the name of Kulottunga I.
Nevertheless, Vijayaditya VII, a cousin of Rajaraja, continued to rule over Vengi till his death in
A.D.1076 when the Eastern Chalukya dynasty came to an end.

The Eastern Chalukyas occupied a prominent place in the history of Andhra Pradesh. Though
they were originally of Kannada stock, they patronised Telugu and gave fillip to it. Since the
time of Gunaga Vijayaditya, inscriptions show Telugu stanzas, culminating in the production of
literary works. Later on, in the 11th century under the patronage of the then Eastern Chalukya
king, Rajaraja, the great epic, `Mahabharata' was translated partly by his court poet, Nannaya.

At the time of Chalukya conquest three religions, Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism, were
prevalent. Of these, Buddhism was on the wane. The Buddhist Aramas were transformed into
pilgrim centres by the resurgent Hinduism. Jainism lingered on, and an appreciable section of the
people paid homage to the Tirthankaras. Hinduism enjoyed the status of a national religion
throughout the kingdom. Temples were built which played an important role in the religious life
of the people and the temples of Siva at Chalukya Bhimavaram and Draksharama are among
them.

The 12th century A.D. was a period of chaos. The Western Chalukyas of Kalyani, who were at
first successful in overthrowing the Eastern Chalukyas, were driven out after 17 years by the
Imperial Cholas with the help of local chiefs. But the latter did not rule directly and thought it
prudent to leave the kingdom to the feudatories themselves in lieu of nominal allegiance. The
Velanati Cholas of Tsandavolu (Guntur district) were the foremost among the feudatories.
Between A.D.1135 and 1206, several minor dynasties ruled over parts of Andhra Pradesh
recognising the authority of the Velanati Cholas nominally. The chiefs of these dynasties fought
amongst themselves, and one such struggle among them was the `Palnati Yuddham'.

Medieval Period

Kakatiyas
The 12th and the 13th centuries saw the emergence of the Kakatiyas. They were at first the
feudatories of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyana, ruling over a small territory near Warangal. A
ruler of this dynasty, Prola II, who ruled from A.D.1110 to 1158, extended his sway to the south
and declared his independence. His successor Rudra (A.D.1158--1195) pushed the kingdom to
the north up to the Godavari delta. He built a fort at Warangal to serve as a second capital and
faced the invasions of the Yadavas of Devagiri. The next ruler Mahadeva extended the kingdom
to the coastal area. In A.D.1199, Ganapati succeeded him. He was the greatest of the Kakatiyas
and the first after the Satavahanas to bring the entire Telugu area under one rule. He put an end
to the rule of the Velanati Cholas in A.D.1210. He forced the Telugu Cholas of
Vikramasimhapura to accept his suzerainty. He established order in his vast dominion and
encouraged trade.

As Ganapati Deva had no sons, his daughter Rudramba succeeded him in A.D.1262 and carried
on the administration. Some generals, who did not like to be ruled by her, rebelled. She could,
however, suppress the internal rebellions and external invasions with the help of loyal
subordinates. The Cholas and the Yadavas suffered such set backs at her hands that they did not
think of troubling her for the rest of her rule.

Prataparudra succeeded his grandmother Rudramba in A.D.1295 and ruled till A.D.1323. He
pushed the western border of his kingdom up to Raichur. He introduced many administrative
reforms. He divided the kingdom into 75 Nayakships, which was later adopted and developed by
the Rayas of Vijayanagara. In his time the territory constituting Andhra Pradesh had the first
experience of a Muslim invasion. In A.D.1303, the Delhi Sultan Ala-ud-din Khilji sent an army
to plunder the kingdom. But Prataparudra defeated them at Upparapalli in Karimnagar district. In
A.D. 1310, when another army under Malik Kafur invaded Warangal, Prataparudra yielded and
agreed to pay a large tribute. In A.D.1318, when Ala-ud-din Khilji died, Prataparudra withheld
the tribute. It provoked another invasion of the Muslims. In A.D.1321, Ghiaz-ud-din Tughlaq
sent a large army under Ulugh Khan to conquer the Telugu country then called Tilling. He laid
siege to Warangal, but owing to internal dissensions he called off the siege and returned to Delhi.
Within a short period, he came back with a much bigger army. In spite of unpreparedness,
Prataparudra fought bravely. For want of supplies, he surrendered to the enemy who sent him to
Delhi as a prisoner, and he died on the way. Thus ended the Kakatiya rule, opening the gates of
the Telugu land to anarchy and confusion yielding place to an alien ruler.

The Kakatiya period was rightly called the brightest period of the Telugu history. The entire
Telugu speaking area was under the kings who spoke Telugu and encouraged Telugu. They
established order throughout the strife torn land and the forts built by them played a dominant
role in the defence of the realm. Anumakonda and Gandikota among the `giridurgas', Kandur and
Narayanavanam among the `vanadurgas', Divi and Kolanu among the `jaladurgas', and Warangal
and Dharanikota among the `sthaladurgas' were reckoned as the most famous strongholds in the
Kakatiya period. The administration of the kingdom was organized with accent on the military.

Though Saivism continued to be the religion of the masses, intellectuals favoured revival of
Vedic rituals. They sought to reconcile the Vaishnavites and the Saivites through the worship of
Harihara. Arts and literature found patrons in the Kakatiyas and their feudatories. Tikkana
Somayaji, who adorned the court of the Telugu Chola ruler Manumasiddhi II, wrote the last 15
cantos of the Mahabharata which was lying unfinished. Sanskrit, which could not find a place in
the Muslim-occupied north, received encouragement at the hands of the Kakatiyas. Prataparudra
was himself a writer and he encouraged other literature.

The Kakatiya dynasty expressed itself best through religious art. Kakatiya art preserved the
balance between architecture and sculpture, that is, while valuing sculpture, it laid emphasis on
architecture where due. The Kakatiya temples, dedicated mostly to Siva, reveal in their
construction a happy blending of the styles of North India and South India which influenced the
political life of the Deccan.

The most important of these temples are those at Palampeta, Hanamkonda and the incomplete
one in the Warangal fort. The temple at Palampeta, described as the `brightest gem in the galaxy
of Medieval Deccan temple architecture', was constructed by Recherla Rudra, a general of
Kakatiya Ganapati, in S.1135 (A.D.1213). The figures in the temple are of a heterogeneous
character comprising gods, goddesses, warriors, acrobats, musicians, mithuna pairs in abnormal
attitudes and dancing girls. The sculptures, especially of the dancing girls, possess the suggestion
of movement and pulsating life. A striking peculiarity of this temple is the figure-brackets which
spring from the shoulders of the outer pillars of the temple. The figure-brackets are mere
ornaments and represent the intermediate stage between their earlier analogues at Sanchi and the
later examples at Vijayanagara.

The Thousand-Pillared Temple at Hanamkonda, built by the Kakatiya king Rudra in A.D.1162,
is similar in style and workmanship to the Ramappa temple. This temple, dedicated to Siva,
Vishnu and Surya, is star-shaped. The Nandi pavilion, in which a huge granite bull still stands,
the beautiful entrances to the shrine, the pierced slabs used for screens and windows, and the
elegant open work by which the bracket-shafts are attached to the pillars are the other most
interesting features of this temple.

The temple in the Warangal fort, believed to have been built by Kakatiya Ganapati, was
constructed making use of large slabs. The floor of the shrine is beautifully polished and shines
like a mirror. An interesting feature of this temple is the four gateways called `Kirti Stambhas'
which face the four cardinal points of the compass. In their design the gateways are reminiscent
of the `toranas' of the Great Stupa at Sanchi. The architecture and sculpture of these temples are
thus conventional to a degree but no one can deny their magnificence nor can any one fail to see
the rich imagination, patient industry and skilful workmanship of the builders of the temples of
the Kakatiya period.

After the fall of Kakatiyas, uncertainty prevailed over the region. Several small kingdoms came
into existence, Musunuri Nayakas occupied Warangal from Muslims and ruled between
A.D.1325--1368. The fall of Kakatiya kingdom and its annexation to the Tughlak empire made
the Hindu feudatories to unite themselves to liberate the Andhra country from alien rulers. A
movement was started at Rekapalli on the bank of the Godavari under the leadership of
Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka and his cousin Kapaya Nayaka and succeeded in driving away the
Muslims from the Telugu country in A.D.1328. Kapaya Nayaka became the ruler in A.D.1333,
after the demise of Prolaya Nayaka, and Warangal was once again the capital of the Telugu
Country. They were dethroned by Recherla Chiefs and ruled the entire Telangana from A.D.1325
to 1474 with Rachakonda as their capital. The coastal area was ruled by the Reddis of Kondavidu
between A.D.1325 and 1424. Addanki was their first capital which was later shifted to
Kondavidu. There was also another branch of Reddis at Rajahmundry. In due course, Reddi
kingdom disappeared in the hands of Vijayanagar kings, and Gajapatis of Orissa in the frequent
battles with each other. The Gajapatis of Orissa with Cuttack as their capital extended their
territory far into Telugu land by conquering the Reddis of Rajahmundry in A.D.1448. They also
occupied some parts of the Bahmani kingdom. But, Vijayanagar king, Krishnadevaraya,
occupied the entire Telugu region that was in the possession of Gajapatis.

The Reddis and Recherla chiefs were the patrons of learning. The renowned poet Srinatha, and
one of the three great poets who wrote the Mahabharata in Telugu, Errapraggada lived in that
age.

Bahmanis
The disastrous fall of Warangal in A.D.1323 brought the Andhras, for the first time in their
history, under the yoke of an alien ruler, the Muslims. In A.D.1347 an independent Muslim
State, the Bahmani kingdom was established in south India by Alla-ud-din Hasan Gangu by
revolting against the Delhi Sultanate. To stabilise his position, Hasan waged wars to annexe the
two neighbouring Hindu kingdoms, Warangal, under the Musunuri Nayakas, and Vijayanagar,
which was under the Rayas. He occupied the area up to the river Tungabhadra in A.D.1358, and
shifted his capital from Daulatabad to Gulbarga. The Hindu rulers, however, reoccupied their lost
territory during the period between A.D.1358--75. Harihara Raya II of Vijayanagar conquered
many areas which were under the Bahmanis during the period of Muhammad Shah II (A.D.1378-
1397). The successors of Muhammad Shah II, who were also hostile to Rayas of Vijayanagar,
waged wars against them. But they were defeated by the Vijayanagar armies. During the reign of
Muhammad III (A.D.1463--82), the Bahmanis, for the first time, extended their empire from sea
to sea and thereby got into their possession a large part of the Telugu area, namely, the area north
of the Krishna up to the coast and the present Guntur district. By the end of the 15th century the
Bahmani rule was plagued with faction fights and there came into existence the five Shahi
kingdoms, the Nizamshahis of Ahmadnagar, the Adilshahis of Bijapur, the Imadshahis of Berar,
the Qutbshahis of Golconda and the Baridshahis of Bidar. Thereafter, the rule of the Bahmani
dynasty came to an end in A.D.1527. Of the five Shahi dynasties, it was the Qutbshahi dynasty
that played a significant and notable role in the history of Andhras.

Vijayanagar
The year A.D.1336 saw the emergence of a new power, the kingdom of Vijayanagar in the
south-western part of Andhra on the banks of the Tungabhadra. It was founded by two Sangama
brothers, Harihara and Bukka, with the blessings of a great saint patriot of medieval India,
Vidyaranya, and Harihara became its first ruler. It was that great kingdom which, by resisting the
onslaughts of Muslims, championed the cause of Hindu civilisation and culture in its polity, its
learning and arts.

The two brothers took possession of Kampili from Hoyasala ruler of Karnataka, Ballala III. They
later established a new city on the southern bank of Tungabhadra, opposite Anegondi, and gave a
name to it as Vijayanagar or Vidyanagar. They expanded their territory by occupying the
Udayagiri fort in the Nellore region and Penukonda fort from Hoyasalas. Meanwhile the
Bahmani Kingdom came into existence in the Deccan. In the conflicts between the Bahmanis
and Vijayanagar, Harihara-I lost some territory. After his death in A.D.1355, his brother
Bukkaraya succeeded him. On account of frequent wars with Bahmanis, Bukka could not do
anything in the initial period, however, he conquered Madhura and extended his territory to the
south up to Rameswaram. Harihara II (A.D.1377--1404), who ascended the throne after
Bukkaraya, consolidated and its frontiers further extended. During this time coastal Andhra lying
between Nellore and Kalinga was under the Reddis of Kondavidu. Harihara II carried on
campaign, for gaining control over the territory, against the Reddis and wrested Addanki and
Srisailam areas from the Reddis. This led to clashes with the Velamas of Rachakonda in
Telangana. To counter attack, Rachakonda sought help from Bahmanis and this checkmated
Harihara II from proceeding further into Telangana. The extension of Vijayanagar territory
towards northwest gave it control over the ports of Goa, Chaul, and Dabhol and led to an
expansion of commerce and ensuing prosperity.

In the dispute between sons, after the death of Harihara II, Devaraya I (A.D.1406--422) emerged
victorious and ascended the throne only to wage wars against the Bahmanis, the Velamas of
Telangana and the Reddis of Kondavidu. His reign also saw the commencement of hostilities
between the Gajapatis of Kalinga and the Rayas of Vijayanagar. Devaraya I passed away in
A.D.1422. His sons, Ramachandraraya and Vijayaraya I, who ruled one after the other, did not
do anything significant.

The next ruler, Devaraya II (A.D.1426-1446), son of Vijayaraya, was a great monarch. He
effected the conquest of Kondavidu and carried his arms into Kerala, subjugating the ruler of
Quilon and other chieftains. The writings of Abdul Razzak, the Persian ambassador, who visited
south India during the reign of Devaraya II, bear testimony to the supremacy of the king over
many ports of south India. According to him, the dominions of Devaraya II extended from
Ceylon to Gulbarga and from Orissa to Malbar. The relations between the Vijayanagar and
Bahmani kingdoms continued to be hostile during the reign of Devaraya II also. Devaraya was a
great builder and a patron of poets. Extensive commerce and revenues from various sources
contributed to the prosperity of the Vijayanagar kingdom under him.

But the kings who succeeded Devaraya II were quite incompetent and allowed the empire to
disintegrate. To add to this, there was pressure from Bahmani Sultans. The Portuguese were also
rapidly trying to establish themselves on the west coast and in the ports along it.

The Vijayanagar minister, Saluva Narasimha, who usurped the throne in A.D.1485 could
successfully counter these forces. Thus the Saluva line of kings came to rule Vijayanagar.
However, he had to spend a good deal of his time and energy putting down many rebel
chieftains. He died in A.D.1490 leaving his two sons to the care of Narasanayaka of the Tuluva
family, a trusted general. Narasanayaka assumed himself the power as a regent in A.D.1492
keeping the real rule under tutelage. Narasanayaka died in A.D.1503 and by that time he had
established his authority effectively over the whole of his extensive dominion. His son, Vira
Narasimha, succeeded him as the regent and proclaimed himself as a ruler in A.D.1506, thus
inaugurating the third dynasty. He died in A.D.1509 and his brother, Krishnadevaraya,
succeeded him.

The period of Krishnadevaraya was considered as the golden age of the Vijayanagar history. He
was a great warrior, statesman, administrator and a patron of arts. His first task was to repulse the
Bahmanis. He occupied Raichur doab, carried the war up to Gulbarga and returned successfully.
He extended his dominion in the east and north-east by defeating the Gajapatis of Orissa in
A.D.1518.

Krishna Devaraya died in A.D.1529. After his death, Vijayanagar kingdom started declining
gradually. There was a tussle for power and the rulers spent their time in struggle against internal
revolts. The five Muslim rulers in Deccan kingdom, took this opportunity, united and formed a
league and marched towards Vijayanagar with combined forces. In a decisive battle fought on
the 23rd January, 1565 on the south bank of the Krishna near the village of Rakkasi Tangadi,
Vijayanagar was defeated and Ramaraya, who led the Vijayanagar armies, was killed.
Tirumalaraya, the younger brother of Ramaraya, along with his puppet ruler, Sadasivaraya fled
to Penukonda in Anantapur district with all the treasure. The victorious armies of Muslims then
marched towards Vijayanagar. Uninhibited looting of the city by the Muslim rulers as well as the
ruthless robbers went on for days together. Never perhaps in the history of the world has such
havoc been brought and wrought on such a splendid city teening with a wealthy and industrious
population in prosperity one day and on the next seized, pillaged and reduced to ruins amid
scenes of savage measures and horrors beggaring description.

Tirumalaraya after reaching Penukonda ruled for some time and tried his best to rebuild the
empire but failed. The last ruler of Vijayanagar dynasty was Sriranga (A.D.1642--1681).

The Rayas of Vijayanagar regarded all sects of Hindus alike, built temples to Siva and Vishnu
and patronised them by lavish grants. They patronised even Jains and Muslims. The Vijayanagar
architecture fused various elements of the Chalukya and Chola art, and produced extremely
beautiful gopuras and mantapas. The most typical of them can be found at Tirupati, Tadpatri,
Srikalahasti and Penukonda. The Tadpatri and Lepakshi temples are the notable examples of
Vijayanagar architecture and sculpture.

Telugu language and literature was given a preferential treatment and Telugu was treated as
official language of the empire. Simultaneously, Sanskrit and other languages were encouraged
by the Vijayanagar rulers. The renowned Telugu poet Srinatha was honoured with
Kanakabhisheka by Proudhadevaraya of the first dynasty of the rulers. Particularly, the reign of
Krishnadevaraya marked a new era in the literary history of south India. He was himself a
scholar and authored Amuktamalyada, a celebrated Telugu work. His court known as
Bhuvanavijayam, was adorned by such eminent poets like Allasani Peddana, Nandi Timmana,
Dhurjati, Tenali Ramakrishna, Mallana, Ramarajabhushana, Pingali Surana and Rudra, known as
Ashtadiggajas. The greatest of them was Allasani Peddana whose famous work Manucharitra
heralded the eminence of the native genius of Telugus.

Qutb Shahis
The Qutb Shahi dynasty held sway over the Andhra country for about two hundred years from
the early part of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century. Sultan Quli Qutb Shah, the
founder of the dynasty, served the Bahmanis faithfully and was appointed governor of Telangana
in A.D.1496. He declared independence after the death of his patron king, Mahmud Shah, in
A.D.1518. During his 50-year rule, Sultan Quli extended his kingdom upto Machilipatnam. He
was murdered by his third son, Jamsheed, who succeeded Sultan Quli. Jamsheed reigned for
seven years till A.D.1550 but remained maligned by all for his patricidal crime. His youngest
brother, Ibrahim, who was hardly thirteen at the time of his father's assassination, fled to
Vijayanagar and took refuge there. It afforded him a training ground and he learned the art of
administration.

After Jamsheed's death in A.D.1550, Ibrahim returned to Golconda and ascended the throne.
Ibrahim Qutb Shah, who was known as Malkibharam in the Andhra country, was the real
architect of the Golconda kingdom. He ruled the kingdom for 30 years from A.D.1550 to
A.D.1580. He organised the central and provincial governments and brought them into close
contact. He also introduced an efficient intelligence service which kept him informed on all
affairs. The kingdom was made safe for travel and trade. Ibrahim had also many works of public
utility to his credit. He dug lakes and tanks and laid out towns and gardens. He also encouraged
local language Telugu and patronised Telugu scholars and poets like, Telaganarya and
Gangadhara who dedicated their works to him.

Ibrahim took an active part in the battle of Rakkasi Tangadi in A.D.1565. It immensely benefited
him in cash and territories, and the kingdom was extended to the south as far as Madras and
Gandikota.

The next period of forty years led by Ibrahim's son and grandson was an era of peace and
prosperity. Muhammad Quli, son of Ibrahim, was a great writer and a builder. The city of
Hyderabad was laid in A.D.1591 with magnificent buildings, straight roads and other civic
amenities. For this purpose, he invited many Persians to settle down in Hyderabad and
Machilipatnam. He was a scholar and a poet, composed a large number of poems in the Deccani
language. Muhammad Quli was succeeded by his nephew and son-in-law Sultan Muhammad in
A.D.1612. He was highly religious and a model of virtue and piety. He followed his uncle in
promoting learning and architecture. The great mosque known as Mecca Masjid in Hyderabad
was designed and its foundation laid by him, though the main structure of the Mosque was
completed during the next four generations.

Sultan Muhammad's premature death in A.D.1626 was a sad prelude to the decline and fall of
Golconda. He was succeeded by his minor son, Abdullah Qutb Shah, who was indolent. The fall
of Ahmadnagar in A.D.1633 to the Mughals exposed Golconda. Abdullah Qutb Shah
acknowledged the suzerainty of the Mughals and concluded a treaty in A.D.1636. He was
reduced to vassalage and the Mughal Hajib, a resident officer of the Mughals imposed on him,
interfered in day-to-day administration and encouraged fissiparous tendencies. The traitors of
Golconda found their strength in the Mughals who did not hesitate to invade Golconda.

Abdullah Qutb Shah died in A.D.1672 and was succeeded by his third son-in-law, Abul Hassan
Qutb Shah, popularly known as Tana Shah. He had a steady mind, broader vision and
administrative experience of a high order. He handled the domestic and foreign affairs deftly and
put forth all his efforts against the Mughal tide.

Abul Hassan and his kingdom were misrepresented by false propaganda to justify the
interference of the Mughal emperor who contemplated to liquidate the Deccan Sultanates and
incorporate it in the Mughal empire. The emperor came to the Deccan in A.D.1682 and launched
his campaign against both the Marathas and the Deccan Sultanates. His original plan was to put
down the Maratha power, but later on, he suspended the plan and directed his forces against
Bijapur and Golconda in A.D.1685. Bijapur fell in after two months' siege. But Golconda held
out for a long time. It came to an abrupt end owing to the treachery of an Afghan general,
Abdullah Khan, who opened the gate in the dead of night and facilitated the capture of the fort.
The equanimity with which Abul Hassan Tana Shah had faced the Mughal captors and the
unequalled loyalty of Abdul Razak Lari, who remained faithful to his king, Tana Shah, are of
special significance.

The fall of Golconda in A.D.1687 had far reaching consequences. It halted the face of cultural
progress for years and relaxed the administrative grip on the English Company at Machilipatnam
and Madras. So long as the kingdom was powerful in the south, the king Abul Hassan and his
Minister, Madanna, kept their constant vigil on the English merchants.

Qutb Shahi rulers adopted religious tolerance. They treated Hindus equal with Muslims as well
and maintained cordial relations between the two throughout. They encouraged the local
language Telugu besides the Deccani Urdu. They patronised scholars and awarded them titles
and Jagirs. The builder of Hyderabad, Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah was an eminent poet in
Persian and was an author of several Persian works. The fourth king, Ibrahim was a great patron
of Telugu. His court was crowded with Telugu poets besides many others. The rulers adopted the
local customs to a great extent. This tolerance and patronage of the kings were followed by the
nobles as well. Ramadas (Goppanna), a great devotee of Sri Rama who lived in the period of
Abul Hassan, wrote a number of poetical works and songs in praise of his deity.

The Deccani architecture, is a combination of Persian, Hindu and Pathan styles. They mostly
borrowed heavily from Hindu style of architecture. The Bala Hissar gate of the Golconda fort is
remarkable for the figures and emblems of Hindu mythology.

The citadel of Hyderabad, the Charminar is the most remarkable of all the Qutb Shahi
monuments. It is one of the magnificent structures in India.

The socio-cultural life of the people during the rule of the Qutb Shahis was marked by a spirit of
broad-mindedness and catholicity based on sharing and adopting of mutual traditions and
customs.
The Mughal Rule
Aurangazeb, the Mughal emperor, invaded Golconda in A.D.1687 and annexed it to the Mughal
empire. When this was done, Golconda became part of the Deccan Subha and a Nazim was
appointed as an agent of the Mughal emperor. Thus, for about a period of 35 years it was ruled
by Nazims, the last one being Mubariz Khan.

The period between A.D.1687 and A.D.1724 saw several sea changes. Aurangazeb died in
A.D.1707. The administrative machinery of the Mughal imperial regime began to crumble and
the central authority manned by successive feeble rulers gradually lost control over the
provinces. In Deccan, situated far away from the capital, the state of affairs was still worse. This
anarchy contributed much in giving a new turn to Indian history. It enabled two foreign
mercantile companies to consolidate themselves as political powers capable of subsequently
playing decisive roles in shaping the destiny of the nation. They were the East India Company of
England and the Compagnie de Inde Orientale of France. These trading companies had their
headquarters at Madras and Pondicherry respectively and both had trade centres at
Machilipatnam. They were waiting for suitable opportunities to expand their areas of control and
so, did not hesitate to take sides in the local skirmishes.

Modern Period

Asaf Jahis
The founder of this dynasty was one Mir Kamaruddin, a noble and a courtier of the Mughal
Muhammad Shah, who negotiated for a peace treaty with Nadirshah, the Iranian invader; got
disgusted with the intrigues that prevailed in Delhi. He was on his way back to the Deccan,
where, earlier he was a Subedar. But he had to confront Mubariz Khan, as a result of a plot by
the Mughal emperor to kill the former. Mubariz Khan failed in his attempt and he was himself
slain. This took place in A.D.1724, and henceforth Mir Kamaruddin, who assumed the title of
Nizam-ul-Mulk, conducted himself as an independent prince. Earlier, while he was one of the
Ministers of the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah, the latter conferred on him the title of Asaf
Jah. Thus begins the Asaf Jahi rule over Golconda with the capital at Aurangabad. It was only
during Nizam II rule that the capital of the Deccan Subha was shifted to Hyderabad reviving its
importance.

The Asafjahi Nizams are generally counted as seven, though they were ten. Nasir Jung and
Muzaffar Jung, son and grandson of the Nizam I who were killed by the Kurnool and Cuddapah
Nawabs and Salabatjung who also ruled for a decade, were not counted by the historians though
the Mughal emperors at Delhi recognised them as Subedars of the Deccan.

The Nizams of Asafjahi dynasty who ruled the Deccan are the following:

(1) Mir Kamaruddin (Nizam-ul-Mulk - Asaf Jah I) (A.D.1724--1748),

(2) Nasir Jung (A.D. 1748--1751),


(3) Muzaffar Jung (A.D.1750--1751),

(4) Salabat Jung (AD.1751--1761),

(5) Nizam Ali Khan - Asaf Jah II (A.D.1762--1803),

(6) Nizam III Sikandar Jah (A.D.1803--1829),

(7) Nizam IV -- Nasir-ud-Daula (A.D.1829--1857),

(8) Nizam V -- Afzal-ud-Daula (A.D.1857--1869),

(9) Nizam VI -- Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan (A.D.1869--1911),

(10) Nizam VII -- Mir Osman Ali Khan (AD.1911--1948 September).

Though Hyderabad was founded in A.D.1590--91 and built by Muhammad Quli, the fifth king of
the Qutbshahi dynasty, it was a princely capital under them. The pomp and peagantry of the
fabulous Asafjahi Nizams gained an all-India importance as well as World wide recognition. The
rule of the Nizams lasted not only for a much longer period from A.D.1724 to 1948 but also
concerned a large territory with diverse language groups that came under their sway.

The authority of the founder of the State of Hyderabad, Asafjah I, extended from Narmada to
Trichinapally and from Machilipatnam to Bijapur. During the period of Afzal-ud-Daula
(A.D.1857--1869) it was estimated to be 95,337 sq.miles (2,46,922.83 sq.kms.), forming a lateral
square of more than 450 miles (724.17 kms.) each way.

After Nizam I, Asaf Jah, died in A.D.1748, there was tussle for power among his son, Nasar
Jung, and grandson Muzaffar Jung. The English supported Nasar Jung whereas Muzaffar Jung
got support from the French. These two heirs were subsequently killed by Nawabs of Kurnool
and Cuddapah, one after another, in A.D.1750 and AD.1751 respectively. The third son of
Nizam I, Salabat Jung became the ruler as Nizam under the support of the French.

Hostilities recommenced in India between the French and the English in AD.1758 on the
outbreak of Seven Years War in Europe in A.D.1756. As a result, the French lost their power in
India and consequently it also lost influence at Hyderabad. In A.D.1762 Nizam Ali Khan
dislodged Salabat Jung and proclaimed himself as Nizam.

Hyderabad came into focus again when Nizam Ali Khan (Nizam II) in A.D.1763 shifted the
capital of the Deccan from Aurangabad to Hyderabad. Such a move helped rapid economic
growth and expansion of the city, resulting in its importance and prosperity.

Between A.D.1766 and A.D.1800, Nizam's sovereignty had declined considerably and the
British gained their authority over the Nizams by compelling the latter to sign six treaties.
In A.D.1766, the Nizam signed a treaty with the British, whereby in return for the Northern
Circars, the British agreed to furnish Nizam Ali Khan with a subsidiary force as and when
required and to pay Rs.9 lakhs per annum when the assistance of the troops was not required in
lieu of Northern Circars to be ceded to them. In A.D.1768 he signed another treaty conferring the
Northern Circars to the British and the payment by the British was reduced to Rs.7 lakhs.
According to another treaty, he surrendered the Guntur circar in A.D.1788. In A.D.1779, the
Nizam conspired with Hyder Ali of Mysore and the Peshwa of the Marathas to drive away the
English. When they learnt about his designs, the English marched against the Nizam who had to
sue for peace agreeing to the presence of an English Resident along with army, artillery and
cavalry at Hyderabad. Through another treaty, the Nizam was compelled to disassociate himself
from Hyder Ali. In A.D.1800 yet another treaty was signed by the Nizam with the British
altering the earlier treaties to increase the strength of the English army in Hyderabad. In lieu of
the cost of maintenance of the force, the Nizam had to cede to the company an area comprising
the districts of Rayalaseema and Bellary (now in Karnataka). With this the Nizam lost not only
the territory but also reputation and power.

The East India Company acquired the Nellore region comprising the present Nellore and
Prakasam districts and a part of the Chittoor district from the Nawab of Arcot in A.D.1781.
Together with the other parts of the territories of the Nawab, this area was merged with the then
Madras Presidency of the Company in A.D.1801. Thus, by the beginning of the 19th century, the
Telugu land was divided into major divisions: one that came to be popularly called Telangana
under the feudal rule of the Nizam, accounting approximately one-third of the entire land and the
other, broadly designated as Andhra, in British India.

It was during the period of Nizam III -- Sikandar Jah (A.D.1803--1829), that the English
cantonment, raised on the other side of Hussain Sagar, was named after him as Secunderabad.
This township grew rapidly as the modern town with Railway station and other commercial
establishments. The notable events under the rule (A.D. 1857--1869) of Nizam V, Afzal-ud-
Daula, were the construction of the Afzal Gunj Bridge or the Nayapul, over the river Musi and
the establishment of a General Hospital.

The modern era of the development of the twin cities began soon after the last flood of the river
Musi in A.D.1908 which had shattered the life of the people living in Hyderabad. This
necessitated the planned development of the city in a phased manner. Sri M.Vishweshwarayya,
the great engineer of Mysore, was specially invited for this purpose and was appointed as adviser
to the Nizam's Government to suggest measures for flood control and improvement of the city.
As a result of his suggestion, Osman Sagar and Himayat Sagar were constructed in A.D.1917.
These two dams not only controlled the floods from river Musi, but also supplied drinking water
to the city. These spots have also become recreational centres for many people in Hyderabad.
Another step taken for the development of the city was the formation of the City Improvement
Board in A.D.1912, which paid greater attention to the construction of roads, markets, housing
sites and shopping centres in the city. Nizam VII, Osman Ali Khan, also moved to Kingkothi, the
northern suburb of the city in A.D.1914, which helped in the development of its surroundings.
Several public utility services were commissioned in A.D.1922. Electricity was commissioned in
A.D.1923. In A.D.1928 with the establishment of rail connection to Bangalore, the city was
brought on the metre-gauge map of India. By A.D.1932 bus service was started in the city and in
A.D.1936 the bus routes radiated from the capital to all the district headquarters. In A.D.1935,
the Madras-Karachi Air Service was linked with Hyderabad with Hakimpet as landing ground.

Many buildings of utility like Legislative Assembly, Hyderabad and Secunderabad railway
stations, the High Court, City College, the Asafia Library (present State Central Library), the
Unani Hospital, the Osmania University, were constructed during the reign of Nizam VII.

If Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah was the founder of Hyderabad City, Osman Ali Khan, the Nizam
VII, can be called as the maker of modern Hyderabad, in a variety of ways. The buildings
constructed during his reign are impressive and represent a rich variety of architecture, such as
the magnificent Osmania University, synthesizing the modern, the medieval and the ancient
styles of architecture. The sprawling Osmania General Hospital in the Mughal style, the lofty
High Court in Indo-Saracenic style, the stately well-proportioned Legislative Assembly building
in Saracenic-Rajasthani style, symbolize his desire to build modern and majestic Hyderabad. The
engineers or the architects and craftsmen of the period have to be congratulated for their talent.

A fascinating pretty edifice in the centre of the city is the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly
building, with the lawns of the Public Gardens, to form the needed premises.

The noble buildings during the Asafjahis' period were the Chow Mahalla during Nizam V,
Pancha Mahal, and the Falaknuma Palace. The Falaknuma, built by Nawab Viquar-ul-Umra, a
Paigha Noble in A.D.1892 at a cost of Rs.40 lakhs, has become a land mark like Charminar.

The hereditary Diwans of the Nizams, the Salar Jungs were as colourful and dazzling as their
masters. The Mir Alam Tank, the Mir Alam Mandi, the Salar Jung Museum, their Devdi, the
Aliya School are inalienable parts of Hyderabad.

Under the Company and the Crown


It naturally took some years for the East India Company to consolidate and stabilize its rule in
the Telugu area, which came under its direct rule. In the initial stages, the Company had to
counter strong resistance from the Zamindars in the coastal Andhra and the Palegars in the
Rayalaseema districts, that were in existence from the ancient Hindu rulers or the medieval
Muslim rulers. The Company decided to use the Zamindari system to its best advantage,
entrusting the Zamindars only with collection of land revenue and taking away from them the
executive and judicial powers. The Company also introduced the system of `Permanent
Settlement' in A.D.1802.

In Rayalaseema, the first Principal Collector, Thomas Munro, of the ceded districts suppressed
all the Palegars and established a new mode of collection of land revenue directly from the tiller
of the soil in A.D.1808. This system came to be known as `Ryotwari' system.

The administrative measures taken by the Company in the rest of the Telugu land also led to
similar changes in the Hyderabad State of which Telangana formed a major constituent. The
famine of A.D.1777 and the devastating flood in the succeeding year greatly impoverished the
State of Hyderabad and its economy was badly affected. The unwise policies of the rulers led the
State on the verge of bankruptcy by neck-deep debts and the Nizam was harassed by Arab and
Rohilla bankers. In such situation, the Company, through its Resident, intervened and saved the
Nizam. Thus, the Nizam became a dependable friend of the Company and his support to the
Company in the crucial period of the War of Independence in A.D.1857 (otherwise called Sepoy
Mutiny) turned out to be decisive factor in clinching the issue in favour of the Company's rule in
India. In A.D.1858 the British crown took over the reign in the entire India.

Thus, the British, who entered India in the early 17th century as a trading company, gained
power as its ruler for over a century and a half.

Freedom Struggle
The role of the Andhras in the Freedom Struggle is next to that of none and they had always been
in the forefront along with the rest of the countrymen. The first War of Independence in
A.D.1857 did in no way affect the state of affairs in the south, though ripples were felt in the
State of Hyderabad, in the shape of a raid by Rohilla and Arab soldiers against the Residency and
a rebellion by the Gonds in the Adilabad district under the leadership of Ramji Gond. However,
in A.D.1860, the English suppressed all these rebellions.

The rest of the 19th century passed away without any event of major importance, though
occasional rebellions of the peasants here and there brought out their dissatisfaction to the
forefront. The introduction of English education helped the formation of a strong educated
middle class, which found security of life in the Government jobs. Agriculture became the
mainstay of the people, as the cottage industries, especially the cloth industry, dwindled due to
the deliberate policy of the Government to encourage British industries and trade at the expense
of the indigenous ones. However, construction of dams across the Godavari and the Krishna by
A.D.1852 and 1855 respectively, resulted in increasing agricultural production and helped, for a
time, to cloud the real issues.

The beginning of the twentieth century saw the emergence of the numerically strong, educated,
confident but dissatisfied middle class, seeking equality with the white ruler. The dissatisfaction,
as elsewhere, was voiced in the form of pamphleteering. The foreign government, ever vigilant
in such things, sought to nip it in the bud and as a consequence of it, repressive measures were
introduced. Gadicherla Hari Sarvottama Rao (1883--1960) was the first victim of the move in
Andhra. He was sentenced for his seditious article `Cruel Foreign Tiger'. The young men of
Andhra had their own share in the `Vande Mataram' and `Home Rule' movements also.

But, along with this agitation, a kind of constructive work was also carried on by some fore-
sighted leaders such as Kopalle Hanumantha Rao (1880--1922). Long before Gandhiji thought of
the constructive programme, Hanumantha Rao founded his `Andhra Jateeya Kalasala' (National
College) in Machilipatnam to train young men in techniques of modern production, as he thought
that it was the surest way to win independence from an imperialist rule which cared more for its
markets than anything else.

In 1920, when Gandhiji started his non-co-operation movement, it had an immediate response in
Andhra. Under the leadership of eminent men like Konda Venkatappaiah (1866--1948),
Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu (1872--1957), Bulusu Sambamurti (1886--1958) and Bhogaraju
Pattabhi Seetaramaiah (1880--1959), the Andhra young men made many a sacrifice for the cause
of the Nation. Many practicing lawyers gave up their lucrative practice and many a brilliant
student gave up their studies to respond to the call of the Nation. In November, 1921, the
Congress gave permission to the Provincial Committee to start Civil Disobedience if the
conditions laid down by Mahatma Gandhi were fulfilled.

Three episodes during the Civil Disobedience Movement in Andhra attracted the attention of the
whole country. The first was the Chirala-Perala episode led by Duggirala Gopalakrishnayya. He
served for some time in the Government College at Rajahmundry and the National College at
Machilipatnam. He was, however, not satisfied with the kind of education that was imparted
there. Moreover, after attending the Calcutta Congress in 1920, he was attracted to the
programme of Non-co-operation and resolved to dedicate his life to the achievement of Swaraj.
For this purpose he trained thousand disciplined band of warriors and gave them the name
`Ramadandu'. He put them to test at the All-India Congress Session in Vijayawada to maintain
peace and order and the All-India leaders were immensely pleased with the kind of work they
did.

Chirala and Perala were two contiguous villages in Prakasam (then part of Guntur) district with a
population of 15,000. The Government wanted to combine them into a municipality in 1920. But
the people protested against this move because it meant imposition of additional taxes. These
protests were not headed to and the municipality was constituted. As a protest against this, all
elected councilors resigned. The Government, however, carried on the administration of the
municipality with a paid chairman. In January, 1921, the residents refused to pay the municipal
taxes. Several of them including a woman were prosecuted, tried and sentenced to imprisonment.
This woman was considered to be the first woman in the country to be imprisoned on political
grounds. After the All-India Congress session at Vijayawada, Gandhiji came to Chirala.
Gopalakrishnayya sought his advice on the future course of action to be taken. Gandhiji
suggested two alternatives, (1) to continue the No-Tax Campaign in a non-violent manner and
(2) mass exodus of people to the vacant areas beyond the municipal limits. The second would
automatically end the municipality. But he made it clear that whatever course they chose the
Congress would bear no responsibility and that they must stand on their own legs.
Gopalakrishnayya had enough confidence in himself and the people, and in spite of the warning,
he persuaded the residents to move to the area outside the municipal limits and raise temporary
tenements which he called `Ramanagar'.

It was an unprecedented step in the history of the country. For eleven months people lived there
in thatched huts braving the severity of weather. Gopalakrishnayya and his Ramadandu kept up
the morale of the people. Their aim was to establish a parallel government and demonstrate to
the outside world how Swarajya, as conceived by him, would be like. He constituted an
Assembly comprising members elected from each caste and established an arbitration court.
Sankirtans and Bhajans kept up the morale of the people. He, however, faced financial
difficulties and he went to Berhampore in 1921, when the Andhra Conference was in session to
collect some money. There he was prohibited to address the public meetings but he defied the
orders. He was arrested and sentenced to one year's imprisonment and sent to Trichinapally.
There was no other person who could occupy his place. The Government also took repressive
measures against those who built sheds on government lands. People returned to their homes in
the municipality at the end of eleven months and reconciled themselves to its constitution.
Though the movement failed, the qualities of courage and fearlessness they developed stood
them in good stead in the subsequent stages of the freedom movement.

There were similar movements, though not of the same scale or character, in Repalle and
Vijayawada municipalities. The Government was not obdurate and yielded to popular pressure
and took steps to redress their grievances.

The next episode was the `Forest Satyagraha' of the ryots of Palnad in Guntur district in 1921.
The peasants of this place had to pay heavy tax for permission to graze their cattle in forests.
When the crops failed that year, they decided to send their cattle into the forests without paying
the fee and suffer the penalties. They resorted to social boycott of all government officials and
refused supply of even the bare necessaries of life to them. It did not produce the desired change
in the attitude of the officials. They took the cattle forcibly, confined them in cattle-pounds and
refused to free them unless the fee was paid. There was, therefore, clash between the cattle
owners and the armed police that was brought on the scene. In the firing that took place one
Kannuganti Hanumanthu was killed. Meanwhile, Gandhiji called off the Non-Co-operation
Movement due to some untoward incidents at Chowri Chowra and with this the Palnad
Satyagraha also came to an end.

The No-Tax Campaign at Pedanandipadu in Bapatla taluk of Guntur district was the third famous
landmark. There was considerable difference of opinion between leaders like Konda
Venkatappayya and Mahatma Gandhi with regard to this campaign. Gandhiji wanted to try the
experiment first in Bardoli in Gujarat. The local leaders, however, tried to convince him that the
conditions laid down for starting such a campaign were fulfilled by the people of this place and
they were very keen on starting it. Gandhiji reluctantly gave permission to proceed with it. In
January, 1922, when the first instalment of land revenue fell due, a non-payment campaign was
started under the leadership of Parvataneni Virayya Chowdery. As a first step the village officers
were persuaded to resign so that no land revenue could be collected. The Revenue officials could
not collect even five per cent of the demand of land revenue. Repressive measures were resorted
to movables, cattle and even lands were attached for non-payment of land tax, but none was
present to bid them in the auctions. Military was moved into the area to terrorise them. These did
not produce any result. The volunteers worked day in and day out to maintain order and see that
no untoward incident took place. Before they proceeded on further action, the movement was
called off and the local leaders gave up the No-Tax Campaign, and the taxes were paid.

When the movement was called off, it left the minds of many young men sore and the
disappointment took a violent turn in one instance. A rebellion broke out in the agency areas of
the Northern Circars under the leadership of Alluri Sitaramaraju (1897--1923). He was a simple
and unostentatious young man given to studies of spiritual importance. He was keen on the
welfare of the lowly and the innocent. He contributed his mite in the days of the non-co-
operation movement and later settled down among the hill tribes of the Visakhapatnam district,
spending his time in spiritual practices. The misdeeds of a British contractor, who took pleasure
in under-paying the workers drawn from the hill tribes, brought him into a tussle with the police
who supported the contractor. This led to encounters between the police and Sitaramaraju, who
was supported by the hill tribes under the leadership of the Gamu brothers. Sitaramaraju raided
many police stations and carried off guns and powder. The alien Government then made use of
all its resources to quell the rebellion. A company of the Assam rifles under the leadership of
Saunders was sent there. The campaign lasted nearly for one year from December 1922 and, in
the end, many of the followers of Raju, especially the Gamu brothers, were overpowered in an
encounter. The rebellion petered off by October 1923. Raju surrendered himself, so it was said,
and was shot dead without any trial.

In 1930 when Gandhiji started his salt-campaign, the broad east coast of Andhra became the
venue of memorable deeds of many a young man and woman, who in spite of the severe blows
of lathis, prepared salt and courted imprisonment. The tremendous awakening, which was an
outcome of this movement, resulted in the rout of the parties other than the Congress in the
elections of 1937.

The thirties saw the emergence of leftist organisations in Andhra which gave a fillip to the
progressive trends. Meanwhile, in 1939, the British Government dragged India into World War
II and the Congress ministries resigned.

From 1942, history moved with a quick and vigorous pace. The arrest of the leaders at Bombay
on August 9, 1942, provoked the masses. The `Do or Die' message of the National Congress
inspired the people of Andhra, who under the leadership of young but devoted workers, brought
the functioning of the Government to a stand still for a few days. Many young students and
workers faced the bullets cheerfully, to swell the number of those unknown, unwept, and unsung
heroes of India who died to make their country live.

Events moved on quickly and, on August 15, 1947, India achieved its Independence. A new
Constitution came into force from the 26th of January, 1950, which envisaged the new set-up of
Government at the Centre as well as at the States by duly elected representatives from the people
on an adult franchise.

The Andhras all along their fight with the British authorities, thought that the exit of the
Britishers would facilitate the early formation of the Telugu areas as a separate State. But the
Constituent Assembly had to decide otherwise and this proved to be a bitter pill for the Andhras
to swallow.

Economic and Social Developments


The period of British rule in India forms a significant chapter in the history of the ancient land.
Many aliens came to this land, conquered some parts of the territory, but were soon absorbed as
natural citizens of the country. For the first time, the British (and the other European nationals)
who conquered and ruled it for a considerable time remained aliens administering a colonial rule
and ultimately had to return. The policy that underlined the various measures the British took in
legislative, judicial and executive fields was only to tighten their grip over the country and to
exploit it to the advantage of their own motherland
However, the very measures they took had, curiously enough, initiated and promoted many
positive factors leading to consolidation of the Indian society and their urge for freedom. The
colonial rule, of course, left the country impoverished economically, but it unified the nation,
which was rudely shocked and, therefore, prepared itself for a searching introspection. This
resulted in ushering in a new order, which almost displaced the old one.

As a constituent of India, Andhra region also received its share of these negative and positive
forces. Andhra was noted, for a long time since the period of the Satavahanas, for its cloth
industry. In spite of several political upheavals, the ports of Andhra had been busy with
incoming and outgoing ships of various countries. Even in the early years of the British rule,
Andhra flourished as an exporter of fine varieties of cloth, chintz, palampores, etc. Handicrafts
and metal crafts also formed a part of the exports along with cloth. Narsapur, in the present-day
West Godavari district, was noted for its ship-building activity and some of the Europeans also
were customers at the place. There used to be a great demand for indigo, an agricultural product,
available only in Andhra and in a few other parts of the country. The over-all exports were far
ahead of imports in value and the region earned a lot of foreign exchange, which enabled it to
withstand the severity of famines that ravaged the country often.

But the Industrial Revolution which started in England in the latter half of the 18th century,
gradually affected the cottage industries of Andhra as well as those in the rest of India. England
then turned out to be a manufacturing country. By the aid of machines, the English factories
could manufacture finished articles at a lesser cost than those from the cottage industries.
Further, the British being the rulers in the country, discouraged the artists and craftsmen by
imposing heavy taxes. As a result of these measures the once flourishing cottage industries and
handicrafts of Andhra languished and gradually vanished. The finished articles that came out of
the factories in England were imported into Andhra and thus began the economic drain which
gradually impoverished the country and enriched Great Britain. The synthetic method of
preparation of indigo by the western scientists, affected the farmers very badly. The unemployed
poor artisans in the villages became agricultural labourers thus swelling the ranks of those that
depended on the land.

A greater harm was caused by the `divide and rule' policy of the British. The communal virus
thus injected into the political body of the country had vitiated the relations between the Hindus
and the Muslims to such an extent that it forced the Indians to agree for the division of India into
two independent states. Though Andhras living in the coastal and Rayalaseema districts managed
to keep away from this communal divide, those living in the State of Hyderabad had to undergo a
lot of suffering in 1946--48 in the wake of a fanatic struggle carried on by Razakars to carve out
the Nizam's dominions as an independent Muslim-dominated State. However, the timely action
by the Union Government of Free India saved the situation.

But, as mentioned earlier, some of the measures introduced by the alien rulers to safeguard their
own interests proved very beneficial to Indians. The political and administrative unity brought in
by the Britishers, helped the various, linguistic groups to come together and take pride in being
the citizens of a great country with common cultural traditions. The rail-road, the telegraph, the
telephone and the newspaper brought all those living in various corners of this vast country come
together and to understand each other. This system of communication also helped the transit of
goods from one place to the other and was of immense help during the times of famine.

The Britishers, wanted to keep India as a producer of raw materials and as such harnessed the
rivers by constructing dams. The dam on the Godavari at Dowleswaram was constructed in 1852
and the one on the Krishna at Vijayawada in 1855. These naturally helped the farmers of the
delta areas, though they could not solve the problem of poverty that tormented the people at
large.

It must, however, be conceded that the foreigner's rule had resulted in a renaissance that yielded
fruitful results in social and cultural fields. The introduction of English as a medium of teaching
in schools is the main factor that contributed to this transformation, though it was mainly
intended to train Indians for ministerial jobs. This new system of education, unlike the old
traditional one, threw open the gates of the schools to all Indians irrespective of caste or creed. A
certificate from such a school served as a passport for a job in the service of the Government.
The Christian missionaries from England and America also played a notable part in spreading the
system.

The introduction of printing press in the State in or about 1810 helped in bringing knowledge to
the door-steps of the ordinary readers. As a result, educational activity in Andhra as well as in
the rest of India, was influenced by European literatures, modern sciences and democratic ideas
that sprung from the knowledge. This knowledge brought out many revolutionary changes in the
religious and cultural fields.

This contact with European thought enabled many Hindu leaders to reinterpret Hinduism to
strengthen it to withstand the threat from the proselytisation carried on by the Christian
missionaries. The reaction to it resulted in the founding of the Brahma Samaj and the Arya
Samaj. At the same time, Europeans such as Anne Besant, captivated by the merits of the ancient
Hindu and Buddhist thoughts, founded the Theosophical Society. All these gained some
following in Andhra, especially among the educated classes.

Telugu literature also underwent a sea-change under the influence of the English writings. The
credit for pioneering such a change goes to Kandukuri Veeresalingam Pantulu. He was also
responsible for bringing in many social reforms, the main thrust of which was the upliftment of
the women's status.

All these revolutionary changes in social and cultural fields found their expression in the urge for
freedom among people.

Post-Independence Era

Struggle for Andhra State


The Andhras were struggling for the formation of a separate Andhra Province since the period of
British, but could not succeed. When India attained Independence on the 15th of August, 1947,
Andhras hoped that their long-cherished desire would be realised soon. Inspite of several
renewed efforts put forth by the Andhra leaders before the Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and
the Deputy Prime Minister Sardar Vallabhai Patel, the desire for a separate Andhra State
remained as a dream itself.

The Dar Commission, appointed by the Government of India under the Chairmanship of S.K.Dar
did not recommend for the creation of States on the linguistic consideration. This report of the
Commission created such an adverse reaction in Andhra that the Congress leaders felt it prudent
to assuage the ruffled feelings of the Telugus. An unofficial Committee, consisting of Jawaharlal
Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramaiah, popularly known as the J.V.P. Committee,
was constituted by the Congress. The Committee in its report submitted to the Working
Committee of the Indian National Congress in April, 1949 recommended that the creation of
linguistic provinces be postponed by few years. However, it suggested that Andhra Province
could be formed provided the Andhras gave up their claim to the city of Madras (now Chennai).
This report provoked violent reaction in Andhra as the Telugus were not prepared to forego their
claims to the city of Madras.

Under the prevailing situation, a Partition Committee was formed under the Chairmanship of
Kumaraswami Raja, the then Chief Minister of Madras. Andhra was represented by Tanguturi
Prakasam, B.Gopala Reddi, Kala Venkata Rao and N.Sanjiva Reddy. The Partition Committee
could not arrive at an agreed settlement. Prakasam disagreed with the views of other members
and gave a dissenting note. The Government of India, took advantage of the dissenting note of
Prakasam and shelved the issue. To express the resentment of the Andhras, Swami Sitaram
(Gollapudi Sitarama Sastry), a Gandhian, undertook a fast unto death, which created an
explosive situation in Andhra. However, Swami gave up his 35-day fast on the 20th of
September, 1951, on the appeal made by Vinoba Bhave. Nothing came out of this fast except the
increasing distrust of the people of Andhra towards their own leaders and the Government of
India.

In the First General Elections of 1952, Andhras expressed their resentment towards the Congress
leaders by defeating them at the polls. Out of the 140 seats from Andhra in the Madras
Legislative Assembly, the Congress could secure only 43, while the Communist Party of India
bagged as many as 40 seats out of the 60 it contested. In the Madras Legislative Assembly itself,
the Congress could secure only 152. The non-Congress members in the legislature, numbering
164 formed themselves into a United Democratic Front (U.D.F.) and elected T.Prakasam as their
leader. But the Governor nominated C.Rajagopala Chari to the Legislative Council and invited
him to form the ministry.

After Rajagopala Chari became the Chief Minister of the Madras State, he tried to divert the
Krishna waters by constructing Krishna-Pennar Project for the development of the Tamil area.
The Andhras agitated against this as they feared that the Project spelt ruin to Andhra. The
Government of India appointed an expert Committee under the Chairmanship of A.N.Khosla,
who pronounced that the project in its present form should not be proceeded with and suggested
the construction of a project at Nandikonda (the site of the present Nagarjunasagar Project). The
report of the Khosla Committee vindicated the apprehensions of the Andhras regarding the
unfriendly attitude of Rajagopala Chari's Government towards the Andhras. The desire of the
Andhras to separate themselves from the composite Madras State and form their own State
gained further momentum.

At this juncture, Potti Sriramulu, a self-effacing Gandhian, began his fast unto death on the 19th
of October, 1952 at Madras. Though the fast created an unprecedented situation throughout
Andhra, the Congress leaders and the Government of India did not pay much attention to it. On
the 15th of December, 1952, Sriramulu attained martyrdom. The news of Sriramulu's death
rocked Andhra into a violent and devastating agitation. The Government of India was taken
aback at this popular upsurge. On the 19th December, 1952, Jawaharlal Nehru announced in the
Lok Sabha that the Andhra State would be formed with the eleven undisputed Telugu districts,
and the three Taluks of the Bellary district, but excluding Madras City.

On the 1st of October, 1953, Andhra State came into existence. It consisted of the districts of
Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam, East Godavari, West Godavari, Krishna, Guntur, Nellore, Chittoor,
Cuddapah, Anantapur and Kurnool, and the taluks of Rayadurg, Adoni and Alur of the Bellary
district. On the question of Bellary taluk, it was included in the Mysore State on the
recommendation of L.S.Mishra Commission.

Kurnool became the capital of the new State, under the terms of the Sri Bagh Pact of 1937
between the leaders of the Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema. T.Prakasam became the first Chief
Minister of the Andhra State and C.M.Trivedi was appointed Governor of this new State. With
the inauguration of the Andhra State by Nehru, the forty year old dream of the Telugu people to
have a separate State of their own was partly fulfilled. They looked forward to the formation of
Visalandhra with Hyderabad City as the Capital.

Police Action in Hyderabad State


Andhras were very much agitated over the developments in the State of Hyderabad during the
years 1946--48. The Nizam was very anxious to become independent and he insisted that
Hyderabad should be the third dominion. He tried to achieve his ambitious desire with the help
of Khasim Razvi of the Ittehadul Muslimeen and its storm-troopers, the Razakars.

Meanwhile, the Hindus of the Hyderabad State who accounted for 93 per cent of its population,
launched the `Join India' movement with the cooperation of a few patriotic Muslims for the
integration of the State with the rest of the country. The State Congress leaders, led by Swami
Ramanand Tirtha, invoked themselves whole-heartedly in the movement. As the State Congress
was banned by the Nizam, its leaders conducted their activities from places like Vijayawada and
Bombay. The Communists on their part organised village defence squads to protect the villagers
from the attacks of the Nizam Police and Razakars.

All negotiations between the Nizam's Dominions and the Indian Union proved abortive. The
Nizam Government did not agree to the accession of the Dominions to the Indian Union. The
activities of the Majlis Ittehadul Muslimeen and the Razakars within the Dominions were posing
a threat to peace and harmony. The growing violence of the Razakars seriously jeopardised law
and order. The Government of India, tried to make the Nizam see reason and sign the Instrument
of Assession with India. After tortuous negotiations, the Nizam finally entered into a `Stand Still
Agreement' on November 29, 1947, with India for one year to maintain status quo, which existed
between the British and the Nizam before August 15, 1947. This agreement of the Nizam was
only to gain time to procure military hardware from different parts of the world and smuggle
them into Hyderabad. In the meanwhile, the Nizam sent a delegation to the U.N.O. to refer the
Hyderabad case to the Security Council.

With the growing violence by the Razakars and the Nizam's attempts to get himself independent,
the Government of India decided to curb these tendencies by launching a `Police Action' against
the Nizam. On the 13th of September, 1948 `Police Action' on Hyderabad commenced. The
Indian Army, led by Major-General J.N.Chaudhuri entered the State from five directions and the
military action was a brilliant success. On 18th September, 1949, Nizam's forces surrendered and
Mir Laik Ali, the Prime Minister of the Nizam, and Khasim Razvi were arrested. On September,
23, the Nizam withdrew his complaint in the Security Council. The merger of Hyderabad
Dominions into the Indian Union was announced. Major-General J.N.Chaudhuri took over as
Military Governor of Hyderabad and stayed in that position till the end of 1949. In January 1950,
M.K.Vellodi, a Senior Civil Servant, was made the Chief Minister of the State and the Nizam
was designated `Raj Pramukh'. After the 1952 General Elections, the first popular ministry
headed by B.Rama Krishna Rao took charge of the State.

Emergence of Andhra Pradesh


The creation of Andhra State in October, 1953 strengthened the general demand for linguistic
States. Andhras had also long cherished demand for the formation of Visalandhra, since the
people of Hyderabad State were unanimous in their demand for the trifurcation of their State.
Andhras hoped that the outlying Telugu areas in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Mysore and Madras be
incorporated in the greater Andhra.

The States Reorganisation Commission, with Syed Fazl Ali as the Chairman, set up by the
Government of India in December 1953, who heard the views of different organisations and
individuals, was though convinced of the advantages of Visalandhra, however, favoured the
formation of separate State for Telangana. This report of the S.R.C. led to an intensive lobbying
both by the advocates of Telangana and Visalandhra. The Communists reacted sharply and
announced that they would resign their seats in the Hyderabad Legislative Assembly and contest
elections on the issue. In the Hyderabad Legislative Assembly, a majority of the Legislators
supported Visalandhra.

The Congress High Command favoured Visalandhra and prevailed upon the leaders of the
Andhra State and Telangana to sort out their differences, who, thereupon, entered into a
`Gentlemen's Agreement'. One of the main provisions of the Agreement was the creation of a
`Regional Council' for Telangana for its all round development. The enlarged State by merging
nine Telugu speaking districts of Adilabad, Nizamabad, Medak, Karimnagar, Warangal,
Khammam, Nalgonda, MahabubNagar and Hyderabad, into Andhra State with its eleven districts
of Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam, East Godavari, West Godavari, Krishna, Guntur, Nellore,
Chittoor, Cuddapah, Anantapur and Kurnool, totalling 20 districts* was named `Andhra Pradesh'
with its capital at Hyderabad. It was inaugurated on the 1st of November, 1956 by Jawaharlal
Nehru. Neelam Sanjiva Reddy became the first Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, who later rose
to the position of the President of India. Burgula Ramakrishna Rao, last of the Chief Ministers of
Hyderabad State was elevated to the Office of the Governor of Kerala. C.M.Trivedi continued to
be the Governor of Andhra Pradesh.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

*Three more districts were added later by the creation of Prakasam in 1970, Ranga Reddy in
1978 and Vizianagaram in 1979. Thus, the State presently has 23 districts.

As stated above, on the formation of Andhra Pradesh on the 1st of November 1956, Neelam
Sanjiva Reddy became the first Chief Minister of the new State. Consequent on his becoming the
President of the All India Congress Committee, he resigned the post of Chief Minister on 10th
June, 1960 and was succeeded by D.Sanjivaiah, a talented young man from the Scheduled
Castes. After 1962 General Elections, Sri N.Sanjiva Reddy again became the Chief Minister of
the State on 12th March, 1962. But, he relinquished the Chief Ministership in 1964 on moral
grounds consequent on the adverse verdict of the Supreme Court in Kurnool Transport
Nationalisation case. He was succeeded by Sri Kasu Brahmananda Reddy on 29th February,
1964. He was in the office till 30th September, 1971. His long innings witnessed development of
the city as well as the State in many ways. True the Telangana agitation erupted during his time
paved way for rectification of defects and implementation of measures to develop Telangana.

Political Crisis in 1969 and 1972


During the years 1969 and 1972, Andhra Pradesh was rocked by two political agitations
popularly known as the `Telangana' and the `Jai Andhra' Movements respectively. Telangana
agitation was started by the people of the region when they felt that the Andhra leaders had
flouted the Gentlemen's Agreement which facilitated the formation of Andhra Pradesh.

The influx of the people from the coastal region into the city of Hyderabad created many social
tensions. Slowly the discontent spread among the Telangana officials and the unemployed youth
who felt that they were exploited by the people of the Andhra region. The discontent manifested
itself when a student of Khammam went on a hunger-strike in January 1969 demanding the
implementation of the safeguards for Telangana provided in the Gentlemen's Agreement. Slowly
the agitation spread to Hyderabad and other parts of Telangana. In the beginning, the movement
demanded the implementation of the safeguards agreed upon earlier, but later it wanted the
separation of Telangana from Andhra Pradesh.

The agitation took a new turn when the Congress legislators from Telangana supported the
movement. Dr.Channa Reddy entered the fray and formed the Telangana Praja Samiti to lead the
movement. But by November 1969, there was a split in the Praja Samiti when dissident Congress
legislators realised that the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was not in favour of separate
Telangana. The movement slowly petered out. In September 1971, Brahmananda Reddy, the
then Chief Minister, resigned his position to make room for a leader from Telangana to become
the Chief Minister. On the 30th of September, 1971, P.V.Narsimha Rao* became the Chief
Minister. The Telangana Praja Samiti was dissolved and its members rejoined the Congress.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------*He raised to the position
of occupying the Chair of Prime Minister of India during 1991-96.

During 1972, another agitation known as the Jai Andhra Movement was launched in the Andhra
region. The agitation was a sequel to the Telangana agitation which demanded that only `Mulkis'
should be appointed to the posts in Telangana including the Hyderabad city. The `Mulki' issue
had a long history behind it. As early as in 1919, the Nizam of Hyderabad issued a firman laying
down that only `Mulkis' are eligible for public appointments in the State. `Mulki' was defined as
one who was born in the State of Hyderabad or resided there continuously for fifteen years and
had given an affidavit that he abandoned the idea of returning to his native place. Even after the
formation of Andhra Pradesh, the Mulki rules continued to be in force in the Telangana region.
As these rules stood in the way of the people of the Andhra region to compete for the posts, their
validity was challenged in the High Court. A full bench of the High Court by a four-one majority
held that the Mulki rules were not valid and operative after the formation of Andhra Pradesh.

But on an appeal by the State Government, the Supreme Court declared on the 3rd of October,
1972 that the Mulki rules were valid and were in force. The judgement created a great political
crisis in the State. The people of the Andhra region felt that they were reduced to the status of
second class citizens in their own State capital. They felt that the only way to uphold their
dignity was by severing their connection with Telangana and started a movement for the
separation of Andhra region from Andhra Pradesh.

As the agitation continued, President's rule was imposed in the State on the 10th of January,
1973. Finally, a political settlement was arrived at under the aegis of the Central Government. A
`Six-Point Formula' was agreed upon by the leaders of the two regions to prevent any recurrence
of such agitations in future. The `Six-Point Formula' included (1) the abolition of Mulki rules
and the Telangana Regional Committee and (2) the establishment of a Central University at
Hyderabad to augment educational facilities.

On December 10, 1973, President's rule in the State was revoked and a popular ministry with Sri
Jalagam Vengala Rao as the Chief Minister was inducted. With this, normalcy returned and the
State enjoyed political stability.

In the General Elections held in February 1978 for the A.P.Legislative Assembly, the Congress
Party swept the polls and Dr.M.Channa Reddy became the sixth Chief Minister of A.P. on the
6th of March 1978. He announced that separate Telangana was no longer an issue. Owing to
some factional squabbles in the party, Dr.Channa Reddy resigned in October 1980 and was
succeeded by T.Anjaiah, who remained in office only for one year and four months. In February
1982, he was replaced by Sri Bhavanam Venkataram, who in turn was replaced by Sri K.Vijaya
Bhaskara Reddy in September 1982. Thus Andhra Pradesh was administered by four Chief
Ministers in four years.

Frequent changes of the Chief Ministers by the Congress High Command created dissatisfaction
among the people. Taking advantage of this popular discontent, Sri N.T.Rama Rao, a leading
figure of the film world formed a regional party called `Telugu Desam' in January, 1983 and
contested the General Elections to the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly held in 1983. His
party became victorious and Sri Rama Rao was sworn in as the tenth Chief Minister of the State.
But, on the 16th of August 1984, Sri Nadendla Bhaskara Rao, a cabinet colleague of Sri Rama
Rao, succeeded in becoming the Chief Minister by engineering the dismissal of Sri Rama Rao by
the then Governor. However, Sri Rama Rao was reinstated on the 16th of September 1984
consequent on the severe criticism on the action of Governor. In the elections of March 1985, Sri
Rama Rao proved that he continued to enjoy the confidence of people by winning absolute
majority in the House.

The Telugu people who were not quite pleased with some of the policies of the Telugu Desam
Government, returned Congress in 1989 general elections to the State Legislature with good
majority. During the following five years, three Chief Ministers, Dr.M.Channa Reddy, Sri
N.Janardhana Reddy and Sri K.Vijaya Bhaskara Reddy held the reins of power. The
discontentment of the Telugu public was reflected in pushing the Congress out and handing over
the power again to the Telugu Desam Party in 1994. In 1995 N.T.Rama Rao, has been succeeded
by Sri N.Chandrababu Naidu, returned Congress in 2004 Dr.Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy, the present
Chief Minister of the State.

The changing fortunes of the political parties at the hustings is, besides other things, a sure
indication of the people's awareness of their rights and privileges and their mature judgement of
the relative performance of the ruling parties.

A list of Chief Ministers and Governors of the State with their period of stay in the office from
the formation of the State in 1956 till February, 1999 is given below:

Prehistoric Architecture (later half of third millennium B.C.)

In the later half of third millennium B.C., people in the central and lower Deccan (which
constitute most of modern Andhra Pradesh) lived on or around granite hills. They had round or
rectangular houses, 2.4 to 6 meters wide. Walls were generally made of a mixture of sticks, earth
and clay; erected around 7.5 cm thick wooden posts and a bamboo screen. The roof was either
conical or flat, made of bamboo strips and reeds and covered with dry leaves and clay. Of pre
historic architecture only stone burials survive in different parts of the state.

Ancient Andhra people were mentioned in the text of Aitreya Brahmana as early as in the 8th
century BC. After Emperor Asoka, Simuka founded the independent Satavahana dynasty. The
Satavahanas were followed by the Ikshwakus, kutus, Vrahatpalayanas and Vakatakas.

Buddhist Monuments and Sites


Outside Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the largest number of Buddhist sites in India are located in
Andhra Pradesh. Buddhism flourished in this region under the patronage of Mauryan,
Satavahana and Ikshvaku kings. In the second century AD, Acharya Nagarjuna founded the
Madhyamika School of Buddhist philosophy (the ‘Middle Path’) in the valley now mostly
submerged under the waters of Nagarjunasagar Dam situated about 150 Km south of Hyderabad.
Other Buddhist sites are concentrated in Visakhapatnam-Vijayawada belt.

Amaravati
Amaravati stupa (a mound forming a Buddhist sacred monument), 50 Km south of Vijayawada
town, was built in the 3rd – 2nd centuries B.C. Subsequent additions were made in the 1st-4th
centuries AD under both Satavahana and Ikshvaku kings. The site lies close to the ancient
Satavahana capital, Dhanyakataka. The stupa, was the largest in the eastern Deccan, (36.5 m
across and encircled by a 4.2 m path). This was a brick structure covered with marble casing
slabs. Most of the broken carved capping pieces, railings and posts are removed and displayed in
the Government museum in Chennai. Only a large earthen mound survives of the original stupa.
Some of the pieces can also be seen in the site museum at Amaravati, in addition to a miniature
outdoor model of the original stupa.

Guntupalle
Guntupalle is about 60 km east of Vijayawada. Situated amidst a picturesque hill and ravine,
Guntapalle has a rock cut cave, a circular Chaitya Hall (meeting hall), several standing images of
Buddha and more than 30 votive stupas and Viharas (monasteries). Both rock cut and structural,
architecture at Guntapalle dates from the Satavahana period of 2nd to 1st century B.C. The stupas
have limestone cladding over brick-work. The monuments are built on a terrace approached by a
long flight of steps.

The Chaitya Hall has an unusual circular plan and a dome shaped ceiling adorned with rock cut
beams resembling wooden rafters. A horseshoe–shaped arch stands at the entrance.

Sankaram
Sankaram is situated 41 kms west of Visakhapatnam and 3 km north of Anakapalle. The site has
numerous monolithic votive stupas, rock cut caves and other structures built around the 7th
Century. The main stupa was carved out of a rock and then encased in bricks.

The site has a brick built monastery. This consists of a rectangular court surrounded by small
cells; in the middle is an apsidal-ended shrine. The hillside rock cut sanctuaries contain reliefs of
Buddha. Another cave has images of Ganesha and Bhairava carved on the sides. Obviously the
place was used for Hindu worship in subsequent periods.
Nagarjunakonda and Anupu
During the 3rd –4th centuries AD, Nagarjunakonda, 150 km south of Hyderabad, was the capital
of the Ikshvaku rulers. The ancient site occupied an area of about 23 sq.km in a valley on the
banks of Krishna river. A large number of monasteries and shrines were erected to serve the
needs of different Buddhist sects. Most of the excavated remains were submerged under the
enormous reservoir created by the Dam built in the nineteen sixties on the Krishna river. A few
monuments were reconstructed on a hilltop, which became an island in the reservoir.

At Nagarjunakonda the reconstructed stupas have circular brick or rubble walls. The walls have
cladding of limestone slabs or plaster. The Simha Vihara has two Chaitya halls, one encircling a
Buddha image. The Chaitya Halls and monasteries had limestone columns set in to brick or stone
walls. However only the lower portions including the pavement slabs and access steps survive.
Nagarjunakonda also has remains of some Hindu shrines. The island has an archaeological
museum rich in sculptures mainly from the 3rd –4th century AD and also a few pieces from much
later periods.

Other reconstruction sites are at Anupu on the east bank of the river. These include a temple (3rd-
4th century), monasteries (4th century) and a Stadium ( 4th century). The monastery has also a
refectory, a store and a bath. The stadium has tiered galleries providing seating around a
rectangular court.

Hindu Temples

Rock Cut Temples:


Bhairavakonda, (near Nellore)
In the 7th –8th Centuries AD, Kondavidu chiefs ruled over a large part of eastern Deccan.
Bhairavakonda near Nellore has remains of several rock cut Hindu temples dedicated to God
Shiva and other Hindu deities. The shrines have Lingas and also small images of Shiva and other
gods. The column bases have seated lions and the entrances are guarded by huge figures with
clubs. Monuments in Bhairavakonda are similar to the Pallava style of architecture that
flourished further south in Tamilnadu.
Undavalli, (near Vijayawada)
Like Bhairavakonda, Undavalli is also a 7th – 8th century, Kondavidu site with rock cut Hindu
temples. The largest among the temples is four storeyed in height; each successive upper storey
being recessed from the lower one. Projected eaves separate the floors from each other. Parapets
at upper levels are lined with large lions and other figures. There are four shrines in four
interconnected mandapas. Columns and walls have images of Vishnu in Anantashayana and
Vishnu on Garuda sculpted on them.

Structural Temples: Early Chalukyan


Alampur (near Kurnool)
Hindu temples in Alampur reflect the style of Papanath at Pattadhakal, because of their Indo
Aryan Shikharas. They are not large temples; the largest temple occupies a rectangle 75 feet by
50 feet. They are structurally very complete as the walls and spires are in a finished state and
there is a finial in the form of a fluted melon like member (amalasila) in position on most of
them.

Nine Early Chalukyan temples dating from the 7th – 8th centuries are situated at Alampur on the
Tungabhadra river. Although they are known collectively as the Nava Brahma, all of the shrines
are dedicated to Shiva. A rectangle of walls encompasses a sanctuary surrounded by a pathway
and a mandapa on columns divided into three ailes. Rising over the sanctuary is a curved
shikhara (tower) derived from central and western India models. This is divided into tiers and
decorated with arch like motifs; a large amalasila is placed on top. The outer walls are regularly
divided into projecting niches.

Alampur retained its importance as a major religious centre all through the history. The
protective walls and gateways in the town and the 11th century Papanasi group of temples (which
have been dismantled and re-erected about four km to the southeast) stand testimony to that.

Kakatiya Temples:
The early chiefs of the Kakatiya dynasty were feudatories of the Chalukyas. As independent
kings, the Kakatiyas ruled the Deccan for nearly two hundred years in the 12th and 13th Century
with architectural works mainly concentrated around Warangal. The Kakatiya architecture has
roots in the Chalukyan style with improvisation to suit local conditions. Locally available granite
and sandstone were used for the main structure. The Shikhara was built with lime and brick.
Kakatiyas stepped their Shikharas instead of using curvilinear spires of Chalukyas and vertical
structures of the north. The domed ceiling of the central hall was polygonal, eight or sixteen
sided instead of circular. Volcanic, intricately carved and polished black basalt was used for
pillars, jambs, lintels and motifs.

Hanamkonda and Warangal


The Thousand Pillar Temple at Hanamkonda was erected in 1163 by Kakatiya king Rudradeva.
Three shrines in this temple are dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Surya. The doorways have cutout
lintels. To the south of the Mandapa rests an exquisitely polished Nandi (bull figure), the temple
has several columned mandapas. The large number of granite columns of this temple has given
it, its name.

Warangal, once the capital of Kakatiya kings, was an important urban centre of the Deccan since
the eleventh century. In 1300 AD the city is said to have had a population of nearly 100 000.

The Bahmanis finally captured Warangal in 1366 and later Warangal became part of the Qutb
Shahi kingdom.

The old city has an unique circular plan with two concentric circles of fortifications. Most of
Warangal’s standing buildings are located within the circular shaped fort. The famous entrance
portals on four sides are 30 meters (100 feet) high. Of the centrally located Shiva temple of
Kakatiya period, only the ruins remain. The only courtly building to survive is Kush Mahal
attributed to Sitab Khan, alias Sitapati a Hindu chief, and Governor of Warangal under the
Bahmanis in the early sixteenth century. This is the only royal palace in Warangal, though not
belonging to the Kakatiya kings.

The Kush Mahal does not resemble any of the Bahamani buildings of the Deccan. The palace is
smaller in scale but strikingly similar to the sixteenth century Hindola Mahal in Mandu, capital
of the Malwa kingdom near Indore in Madhya Pradesh.

Kush Mahal is the only royal palace in Warangal that survives: though it does not belong to the
Kakatiya kings. George Michell, UK based scholar of Indian architecture opined that being at the
geometric centre of the fort and near the Shiva Temple, Kush Mahal may have been built over
the site of an original Kakatiya palace, which like the Shiva temple was dismantled.

Palampet and Ghanpur


Ramappa Temple of Palampet, about 40 km north of Warangal and built in 1213, consists of the
main shrine dedicated to Shiva with the nandi mandapa in front. It has a reddish sandstone
exterior and projecting eave continuing around the building. The shikhara is multi storeyed and
made of brick. The most striking features of the temple are the figure brackets springing from the
shoulders of the outer pillars supporting the eaves slabs. Highly polished in black basalt, these
consist of mythic beasts or elongated female figures almost life size, cut with great precision.

Six kms from Palampet, Ghanpur has two 13th century partly ruined temples in Kakatiya style
similar to the Ramappa Temple.
 

Hybrid Styles: Simhachalam


Situated in the outskirts of Visakhapatnam, the Varaha Narasimha temple was built by the
Eastern Ganga rulers in the 13th century. The temple combines Deccan and Orissan architectural
features. Located on a hill, it is one of the most popular places of Hindu pilgrimage in the region.
The main shrine is dedicated to Vishnu.

Reddi Kings of Kondavid:


The Reddi dynasty ruled in the region around present day Vijayawada and Guntur towns for
nearly a hundred years (1328-1428). The kingdom was ravaged by the Bahmanis (1458), the
Vijaynagara Kings (1516), the Qutb Shahis, (1531,1537 & 1579), the Mughal Army of
Aurangzeb in 1687, the French (1752), the Asafjahi Kings, and finally the British (1766 &1788).
Two major hill forts, one at Kondapally 20 Km north west of Vijayawada and another at
Kondavid about 30 km west of Guntur bear testimony of the fort building skill of the Reddi
Kings. Surviving structures in these two massive granite forts therefore represent a mixture of
Qutb Shahi and Hindu styles.

At Kondapally, the old palace lies on an elevated platform situated between the two hills on
either side. A wide stone stairway leads to the hilltop. The peak is fortified with towers and loop
holed bastions. The upper fort is accessed through three successive gateways. This leads to
Tanisha Mahal named after Abul Hasan Tana Shah, the seventh and last Qutb Shahi King. The
palace has a cloistered lower floor with arched roofs. There is a large hall above. Several
bathrooms have stone pipes and cisterns. The Zenana quarters are approached along a terrace and
enclosed by a high wall. The buildings in Kondapally are in predominantly Qutb Shahi style with
ogee arches and extensive use of granite and stuccowork.

At Kondavid, ruins of three forts from successive periods can be seen. The main fort at a height
of nearly 320 meters consists of massive ramparts, magazines, godowns, granaries and wells.
There is a temple with carved stone pillars and a mosque within the fort.

Architecture of the Vijayanagara Kings:


Early Vijayanagara style had considerable influence of Chola style of Thanjavur, Tamilnadu. But
the scale was much bigger and the Vijayanagara architects developed a scheme of a large temple
complex with several concentric walls entered through gopuras leading to multiple shrines,
tanks, stores, kitchens and other ancillary structures. The gateways had tall brick towers. The
shrines had large mandapas standing on delicately carved granite columns.
Penuconda
The question whether the founders of Vijayanagara Empire were of Telugu or Karnataka origin
is much disputed . According to one version, Harihara and Bukka, the two brothers were first in
the service of Kakatiya King, Prataprudradeva. After Warangal fell in 1323, they moved away to
safer places but were eventually captured by the Tughlaqs and were taken to Delhi as prisoners
and were forced to become Muslims. They later gained favour of the Tughlaqs and received
ministerial appointments. When the brothers found the political conditions conducive, they
declared themselves free and founded the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagara. They got reconverted
to Hinduism. Andhra Pradesh can therefore rightfully stake a claim to a good part of the glory of
the great Vijayanagara Empire ( 1336-1664 ) which with its first capital at Hampi, extended from
the present day Karnataka to Orissa including Andhra Pradesh.

The golden period of the Vijayanagara dynasty was the rule of the legendary Krishnadeva Raya
(1509-1530). During the reign of Vira Sadashiva Raya (1543-1568), Vijayanagara forces were
defeated by a confederacy of four Sultans. Hampi was devastated and abandoned and the court
and army fled southwards to Penuconda. Penuconda is a small town with a hill fort located about
70 km south of Anantapur in Andhra Pradesh. The town is full of ancient Hindu and Jain
Temples, mosques, fortifications, towers and palaces. The four sides of the town are presumed to
be guarded from evil spirits and diseases by the idols of Lord Hanuman, the largest of them,
about eleven feet tall is placed at the Yerramanchi gate, the main entrance to the fort town.

Penuconda was the residence of the Vijayanagara Rajas from as early as 1354. Tirumal Raya
moved here after the disastrous battle of Talikota in 1565. Gagan Mahal, the royal palace was
built in 1575. Penuconda is an interesting architectural case. The town has Hindu buildings in
Islamic style and Muslim Dargahs built in Hindu or to be more precise, Lepakshi style. In the
same tradition, Gagan Mahal has a basement in Hindu style but a ground floor of intricate
Islamic details with later additions. Continuing the Vijayanagara traditions, the palace is similar
to several structures at Hampi, with Islamic style arches, vaults and plaster decoration combined
with temple like elements. The upper level is capped with an octagonal pyramidal tower. An
adjoining three storeyed square tower with projecting balconies overlooks the approaches from
the east. Nearby stands a small, square structure, also with a pyramidal roof. The skyline of
Penuconda fort is dominated by the Rama Burj, an observation tower standing in the
northwestern corner in Vijayanagara style.

Next to the Gagan Mahal, are two 15th century Hindu temples dedicated to Rama and Shiva. The
temples are built of granite in early Vijayanagara style with their towers topped by domical
roofs. The walls have stone carvings depicting scenes from Ramayana and other epics.

Penuconda also has a Jain temple; the Parshvanath Temple built in the 15th Century dedicated to
the 9th century B.C, 23rd Great Teacher (Tirthankaras) of Jainism. Inside the temple stands a 11th
century sculpture depicting Parshvanath in standing posture and facing a serpent. Built in the late
Chalukyan style, the sculpture is of exceptional merit.Penuconda has an early 17th century
mosque built in grey and black granite attributed to one Sher Ali.
Lepakshi
A significant artistic achievement of the Vijayanagara rulers, the Virabhadra Temple at
Lepakshi, 10 Km west of Hindupur town was built 1600 AD. The temple complex is renowned
for its ceiling-paintings and the intricately carved sculpture-columns. Dedicated to Shiva, consort
Uma and also Vishnu, the temple complex is surrounded by two rectangular enclosure walls.
Besides the Mandapas, Gopuras and subsidiary shrines it contains monolithic large figures of
Nandi Bull and Nagalinga. Though the basements and the superstructure are of carved stone, the
brick towers over the sanctuaries are pyramidal in shape with domed roofs.

Tadpatri
Situated 54 Km north east of Anantapur town, Tadpatri has two sixteenth century Vijayanagara
Temples. Located on the banks of Pennar river, the Ramalingeswara Temple dedicated to Rama
and Sita, has multistoreyed and pyramidal towers with hemispherical roofs. The Venkataramana
Temple located inside the town has Vishnu as the principal deity and is similar to
Ramalingeswara Temple in architectural style. Both the temples are extremely rich in sculpture
and carvings.

Srisailam
The 14th –16th century Mallikarjuna temple and the 16th century Uma Mahaeswara temple at
Srisailam dedicated to Shiva have Vijayanagara style Gopuras on four sides and pyramidal
towers rising over the sanctuary and walls with exquisitely carved panels depicting mythological
subjects. Srisailam is one of the most important Hindu places of pilgrimage.

Kalahasti
Kalahasti has a very large sixteenth century Shiva Temple with granite basement and walls rich
in intricately carved pilasters and a tall pyramidal tower nearly 120 feet (36.5m) high. Situated
on the banks of Swarnamukhi river, Kalahasti is a very important centre for Hindu pilgrimage
and also famous for a popular and traditional technique of painting on cloth known as Kalamkari.
Achyutdevaraya, one of the Vijayanagara Kings was crowned at Kalahasthi temple.

Palaces of Chandragiri
The second Vijayanagara capital Penuconda was also under constant threat from Qutb Shahi and
Adil Shahi rulers. Therefore the capital was again shifted to Chandragiri (Chittoor) by 1585.
Penuconda was thereafter ruled by Vijayanagara Governors. Chandragiri remained capital of the
declining Vijayanagara Empire till 1646. Located 11 km north east of Tirumala Hills,
Chandragiri has natural defences with a ring of hills surrounding it. It has an upper fort, reputed
to date from 1000 AD situated on a 183m (600 ft) rocky hill. At the base of the hill there are
defensive walls and gateways, two well preserved palaces, a tank and other civic structures. The
palace of the Vijayanagara kings is an early seventeenth century specimen of south Indian
architecture combining Hindu and Muslim styles . The palace is 45.7m (150 feet) long with a
three storeyed façade of pointed arches and pyramidal towers. It consists of a centrally located
Durbar Hall. The hall is surrounded by a two storeyed colonnade, which acts as a clerestorey,
allowing light to penetrate the space. The Main palace and the ancillary structures have stucco
facades and variations of Vijayanagara style.

It is from the Chandragiri Palace that in 1639 the ‘Vijayanagara Empire’ granted land to Francis
Day for the East India Company at Madras.

Ahobilam
Situated about 80-km south east of Nandyal town, Ahobilam is one of the most sacred Hindu
sites of Andhra Pradesh . The temples here are all dedicated to Narasimha, the mythological lion-
god who destroyed demon Hiranyakashipu. The temples owe their origin to the 14th century
Reddi Kings but the present architectural form is a result of additions and improvements by the
Vijayanagara kings in the 16th and 17th centuries. Both the main temples located in Lower
Ahobilam and Upper Ahobilam are therefore in typical early Vijayanagara style.

Tirumala
Tirumala is famous for the temple dedicated to Venkateswara, an aspect of Vishnu and is among
the most important Hindu places of pilgrimage in India. The site is situated among a range of
seven wooded hills at a height of about 700 meters. Origins of the temple complex can be traced
to the 10th century. Due to the proximity of Chandragiri, the late 16th century capital of
Vijayanagara kings, the temples at Tirumala received patronage from the powerful dynasty and
prospered. Though the carvings and several architectural elements reflect Vijayanagara style, the
temple complex has been extensively rebuilt

Tirupati
Tirupati is a large town at the foot of the Tirumala hills and the gateway to Tirumala. The 14th –
17th century Govindaraja temple is in parts built in the Vijayanagara style. The temple is
dedicated to Vishnu.

Qutb Shahi Style (mainly in and around Hyderabad city)

__________________________________________________________________________
The first Qutb Shahi mosque of Hyderabad is the Masjid Safa at Golconda. Built in 1518 AD,
this is 75 years older than the Charminar. The mosque is a well-preserved structure and is very
much in use. But little known to outsiders. The benedictory verse fixed in the prayer niche of the
mosque expressed a hope of the founder of the kingdom Sultan Quli Qutbul Mulk, that his
descendants would be honourable. In this mosque, 25 years after its erection Sultan Quli was
assassinated by Mir Mahmud Hamadani, Qiladar of Golconda at the instigation of the heir
apparent Yar Quli Jamshid.

Jamshid, the second king built for himself a very beautifully proportioned tomb, one of the most
beautiful structures in the whole Qutb Shahi tombs complex.

Qutb Shahi rule at Golconda began with the assumption of virtual independence in 1518 AD by
the Bahmani Governor Sultan Quli Qutb Shah. Till then, Golconda was under the Bahmanis
(1347-1518).

The Bahmanis had Gulbarga as their capital till 1424 and thereafter shifted the capital to Bidar.
After 1518 the Bahmani kingdom disintegrated in to five independent kingdoms: the Adil Shahi
at Bijapur, Baridi at Bidar, Nizam Shahi at Ahmed nagar, Berar at Ellchipur and Qutb Shahi at
Golconda.

There is a fundamental difference between Islamic Architecture in northern India and in the
Deccan which includes the Qutb Shahi style. Unlike other parts of India, a unique building style
developed here based more on the development of overseas ideas than the evolution and
adaptation of local architectural tradition to Islamic needs. The links of Deccani kingdoms with
Persia, Turkey and Arabia were very close and the great fortress cities of Deccan; Bidar, Bijapur,
Golconda and Gulbarga were not built around existing centres of Hindu culture. Philip Davies, in
the Penguin Guide to Monuments of India commented ‘As such they tended not to use salvaged
temple masonry buildings, with all the structural and artistic compromises which this entailed. A
vigorous architectural style and an alien new culture were injected in to the conservative
heartland of Hindu India.’

The Qutb Shahis ruled from 1518 to 1687. This approximately coincided with the reign of the
great Mughals (1526-1707) that built Humayun’s Tomb (1565), Fatehpur Sikri (1571-1580) and
finally the Taj Mahal (1631). During the same period the Bijapur Sultans built Gol Gumbad
(1656) and the Barid Shahis built several exquisite tombs (1543-1591) at Bidar. The architectural
ancestors of the Qutb Shahis were naturally the Bahmanis. Evolution of Deccani architecture
amalgamated the early Tughlaq influence, the intermediate appearance of Persian forms and
motifs and the lasting mark of meticulous workmanship of local craftsmen.

The earliest Bahmani mosque; the Shah Bazaar Mosque at Gulbarga built around 1367 and the
late Bahmani Jami Mosque at Bidar (early 16th century) provided the model for almost all
mosque construction in the Deccan. Sultan Quli’s Masjid Safa, mentioned earlier and situated
just north of Habshi Kamans at Golconda, is strikingly similar to the Jami Mosque at Bidar.

The early Bahmani Tombs are simple square domed chambers characterised by low flattish
domes, corner finials (a formal ornament at the top of a canopy, gable, pinnacle, etc) and sloping
walls similar to the Tughlaq tombs. Later Bahmani architecture can be found in Bidar in the form
of Tomb of Mahmud (died 1518) which has triple tiers of arched recesses and plain merlons
(alternating raised portions in a battlement, also called crenellations) without any decorations.
The first Qutb Shahi Tomb at Golconda, that of Sultan Quli (died 1543) is also an austere
structure similar to Mahmud’s tomb in Bidar.

Qutb Shahis therefore began with Bahmani moorings and proceeded to evolve an individual style
that culminated in architectural marvels like the Charminar and other landmarks. Muhammad
Quli Qutb Shah, the 5th Qutb Shahi King built Charminar and shifted his palaces from Golconda
fort to the new quarter North West of the Charminar. Therefore he is known as the founder of
Hyderabad though he is not the founder of the dynasty.

Qutb Shahis built with massive granite walls. Granite and lime mortar are the chief ingredients of
Golconda Fort, the Royal Tombs, the Charminar and the innumerable Qutb Shahi mosques. The
Mortuary Bath in the Qutb Shahi Tombs complex has rugged arches in Bahmani Style. The
tombs are typically square buildings with arched lower storeys supported on massive plinths,
some of which have arcades. The lower storeys are surmounted by crenellated parapets with
small bulbous minarets, protruding at each corner. The domes are supported over tall drums,
which may be arcaded and balustraded. They are slightly bulbous in contours rising from a base
of petals or trefoil merlon motifs. The granite is usually covered with stucco and with coloured
tile work. Projecting cornices are encased in plaster designs as well as miniature and arcaded
galleries encircling the corner minarets. The construction of the massive domes speaks for the
structural expertise of the Qutb Shahi master builders and craftsmen.

Locally available granite, sand and lime were used in the construction of Qutb Shahi monuments
including Charminar. Lime used for the plaster seems to have been specifically ground and
treated to give durable stucco. Generally shell, lime, jaggery, white of egg etc are known to
enhance the binding property of lime. The Sio2 /CaO ratio in Charminar’s mortar and plaster
(1.61-2.25) indicates that the engineers at that time were probably aware of the necessity of
having a higher Sio2 content but were not sure of the optimum value (presently the common
practice is to have 3.0) at which the maximum strength of lime cement could be obtained.

Built during 1591-92, to a height of 56.7meters ( 186 feet), on a square base of 31.5meters (100
feet), Charminar is said to be a prototype of Tazia, representation of the tomb of Imam Husain. It
is said that during the Mughal Governorship between Qutb Shahi and Asaf Jahi rule, lightning
destroyed the South Western minaret which ‘fell to pieces’, but ‘it was forthwith repaired at a
cost of Rs 60000’! Charminar was plastered in 1824 at a cost of Rs 100000.

During early Asaf Jahi rule, Deccan was the scene of intense rivalry between the British East
India Company and the French. Other active players in the region were the great Marathas. In
1756, French forces entered Hyderabad in order to install an Asaf Jahi Ruler of their choice. In
the end, it was the choice of the British that prevailed. Meanwhile in 1756, French General
Monsieur Bussy had occupied the Charminar for a few days.

In their construction technology, selection of building materials and in artistic excellence Qutb
Shahi architects and engineers reached a high degree of proficiency. Eminent historian H.K.
Sherwani opined that in the later Qutb Shahi period, dressed stone began to be used for facing
the frontage of larger structures instead of stucco. Mecca Masjid is an example of this. The Qutb
Shahis also used the facade of Mughal cusped arches in conjunction with the typical Qutb Shahi
pointed ogee arch as seen at Jama Masjid, north east of Charminar and also on the facade of the
mosque on the uppermost storey of Charminar. This could either be due to Mughal influence as
held by Sherwani or a later imposition when most of the important Qutb Shahi mosques were
restored or renovated.

A detailed discussion on Qutb Shahi town planning principles is not within the scope of this
article. It may however be interesting to note that Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, the fifth king and
Hyderabad’s founder planned Hyderabad as an ‘open city’. It was to have no walls. The Walled
City of the eighteenth century was a creation of the Mughal rulers. The Qutb Shahis already had
their well-fortified Golconda Fort to fall back upon at times of need. The last Qutb Shahi king,
Abul Hasan Tana Shah in fact was forced to spend the period from 1656 to 1687 in Golconda
Fort and was taken prisoner from there after the Mughal conquest.

After the fall of Hyderabad before the Mughals, the city walls were started by Mubariz Khan, the
Mughal Governor (1724) and completed by Asaf Jah. I in 1740 to keep the Marathas away.

The city was planned around two focal points: one, the Charminar and the other, a vast central
garden around a fountain with the main thoroughfares following a regular geometric pattern. Jan
Pieper a well-known German Town Planner and others have opined that this was an attempt to
create a replica of Paradise.

The grid of the two principal intersecting roads meeting at Charminar, the Pathar Ghatti- Shahali
Banda road and the Laad Bazaar road, is tilted at a distinct 10 degrees angle with the north -south
axes. This is perhaps due to the compulsion of placing the Charminar with its roof- top mosque
in such a way that the mosque could face the exact direction of Mecca as geographically aligned
with reference to Hyderabad. Most mosques of Hyderabad are oriented in this manner.
Originally the intersecting roads passed under the Charminar. There old width, say of the Laad
Bazar road, even today corresponds to the 11meters ( 36 feet) span of the four arches of
Charminar. If Charminar is tilted in relation to the cardinal directions, then the intersecting roads
passing underneath have little choice to do otherwise.

Rest of the streets of Qutb Shahi Hyderabad also followed a regular grid. During the Asaf Jahi
period, the quarters within the regular blocks developed with an organic and irregular system of
lanes and bylanes.

The road pattern inside the Golconda Fort that pre-dates Hyderabad is irregular and in parts
governed by the terrain with the main streets encircling the walls of the inner fort situated on a
hillock. Ruins of Golconda contain fragments of earthen pipes used for water supply. Golconda
Fort is perhaps one of the least explored heritage sites of India. There are strange figures and
animals worked out of stone and stucco on the walls of the outer fort facing the Naya Quila,
waiting to be studied by art historians and archaeologists.

Neo Qutb Shahi (Hyderabad city)


Qutb Shahi style came to an abrupt halt following the Mughal conquest of 1687. The Mughal
Governor ruled from Aurangabad. As earlier mentioned, the Mughals started building the city
walls and that was similar to Qutb Shahi fortification in massive granite. Early Asaf Jahi rulers
preferred European style as seen in Chow Mahalla (older parts 1750 AD). This was followed by
buildings in late Mughal style and still later in Indo European style and the composite style in
vogue during the days of City Improvement Board. Interestingly, during the later half of the 19th
century, there was a revival of the Qutb Shahi style.

Mosques and tombs were built with domes and arches similar to the Qutb Shahi ones.

A typical example is the Afzalgunj Mosque near Nayapul. This was built in 1868 and is said to
have been modelled after a Qutb Shahi Mosque. Afzalgunj Mosque has two tall minarets, a
facade of three pointed ogee arches, high arcaded parapets with smaller minarets and stucco
decorations: all in the Qutb Shahi design.

In some other examples of this style, there are tombs where the entire upper portion, dome etc.
are Qutb Shahi but the arcade at the ground floor is of cusped arches in mughal style. A very
conspicuous specimen of Neo Qutb Shahi style is the Abdul Haq Diler Jung’s mother’s tomb
(1883) and his own tomb (1896), near Secunderabad Boats Club. However one of the tombs has
pilasters in European style in the first floor arcade and the proportions are relatively slender
compared to typical Qutb Shahi tombs.

This period was one of experimentation. A special feature of this style is that in none of the
examples, exposed granite was used. Qutb Shahi revival apparently lasted for only half a
century.

Palaces of the Nizam: Asaf Jahi Style (mainly in and around Hyderabad city)

The Asaf Jahis who succeeded the Qutb Shahis were prolific builders. Several palace complexes
of HEH the Nizam, landmarks like the Andhra Pradesh High Court, the Osmania Arts College
and the Osmania Medical College building are among their well-known contributions. Asaf Jahi
rulers also experimented with European styles and attempted a synthesis of European traditions
with Hindu and Islamic forms and motifs.

Chow Mahalla Palace


Among two intervening rulers, Salabat Jung spent a greater part of his time in Hyderabad
(Salabat Jung, the officially un-crowned Nizam ruled for a short period during the power
struggle between the British and the French, compounded by the interference of the Marathas).
By some accounts, he is credited with the building of the first Asaf Jahi Palace in Hyderabad i.e.
the Chow Mahalla palace. The Asaf Jahis deserted the former Qutb Shahi palace quarter lying
north west of Charminar and decided to construct a new palace complex for themselves to the
south west of Charminar. In ‘The Unpublished Diary of a French Officer of Bussy’s Army’, the
Officer describes Salabat Jung’s palace with its approach from Chowk (later known as Mahboob
Chowk) as follows:

" the other or second building is the mansion of the Nawab, which is made up of three blocks of
residences....... We here see a reservoir, the garden and the reservoir lead up to a large
courtyard.... in the midst of this court is the first apartment, which is a large carpeted hall, one
storeyed; its ceiling is supported by a number of small wooden pillars .....the second block of
houses is also a great hall of which the ceiling is supported by a number of wooden pillars, each
of a single piece, it is carpeted and one-storeyed. In the centre of the hall is the Nawab’s throne
between four pillars, where he receives the ambassadors.....as for the third block of houses, it lies
to the left as you enter the preceding hall. Here are two houses facing each other, between which
is a fruit garden with a square medium sized reservoir and a small fountain. In the house on the
right is a large screen, and it is here that the Nawab dines and sleeps with his concubines. ....such
is the apartment of Nawab Salabat Jung ."

The above account is vague and does not clearly correspond to the buildings in Chow Mahalla as
they stand now. This however confirms that Salabat Jung selected the site and created the
nucleus of perhaps modest structures laid along a series of inter-linked courtyards, the old
structures being later replaced by grander ones. The Chow Mahalla Palace complex in fact
extends from the Lad Bazaar on the north to the Aspan Chowk road on the south. During
different phases of Asaf Jahi rule, portions of Chow Mahalla were built. The durbar was held in
the hall or pavilion called the Khilwat. This was built around 1780 during the reign of Nawab
Nizam Ali Khan, Asaf Jah II but later extensively renovated in 1911. Khilwat has a composite
architectural style with Mughal as well as Qutb Shahi arches, topped by twin octagonal pavilions
on the parapet. It is an over decorated building with huge proportions with a curious Asaf Jahi
Baroque.

Jilu Khana facing the Lad Bazaar and Daulat Khana e Ali was built during the reign of Asaf Jah I
(1724-1748). South of Khilwat one enters the next courtyard around which the main four palaces
are located lending the Chow Mahalla name. It is believed that this complex was built during the
reign of Nawab Afzal -ud Doula Bahadur, the Nizam or Asaf Jah V (1857-1869). The palaces are
named Afzal Mahal, Mahtab Mahal, Tahniyat Mahal and Aftab Mahal. Of these, Afzal Mahal is
the most imposing and a two storeyed building with a European facade of Corinthian columns
and a parapet without pediment. Other three buildings are single storeyed structures with
relatively modest scale and facades of Corinthian columns. All the four buildings are laid around
a large courtyard garden with a marble cistern at the centre.

There are later additions to the complex in late Mughal style with facades of cusped arches,
made between 1912 and 1926 when the older buildings were also renovated.
Chow Mahalla was used even by subsequent Nizams and state banquets were held here. Well
known among those is the banquet held in honour of T.R.H the Prince and the Princes of Wales
on 10th February 1906. For several decades, the sprawling Chow Mahalla Complex has been
lying vacant.

Purani Haveli Palace


Asaf Jah II apparently lived in the Chow Mahalla complex buildings built by his predecessors,
since the main palaces were built by Asaf Jah V nearly hundred years later. In 1777, between
Chatta Bazaar and Dabirpura Main road, towards north east of Charminar, he started
construction of the first buildings of Purani Haveli for his son, Sikandar Jah. But Sikandar Jah,
on becoming the third Nizam (1803-1829) went to live in the Khilwat palace in Chow Mahalla.
The buildings built by Asaf Jah II therefore came to be known as Purani Haveli. Purani Haveli
regained its glory only when the sixth Nizam, Nawab Mir Mahboob Ali Khan made it his official
residence.

Purina Haveli Complex is U shaped with a single storeyed central building in European style
flanked by two double storeyed oblong wings (nearly 1000 feet) of which the western one has
the famous wooden wardrobe. Both the wings are wider towards the southern end where these
are only single storeyed and have two extremely well proportioned courtyards surrounded by
rooms and deep verandahs with semicircular European arches. Purani Haveli is one of the most
important architectural landmarks of Hyderabad combining European facades with traditional
Indian courtyards. The complex also includes two annexes attached to the northern ends of the
parallel wings. Purani Haveli on the whole is under- used. A training institute runs in parts of the
building beside the offices of the Muffakham Jah Trust. Nearby there is another beautiful
courtyard house now used as the Princes Esin Women’s Education Centre.

King Kothi Palace


Of the three principal buildings of the King Kothi Complex, the main King Kothi building now
housing a hospital and the Mubarak Mansion (Nazri Bagh) accommodating the offices of the
Nizam’s Private Estates (Sarf E Khas) only survive. The third building, Usman Mansion was
demolished in the early eighties and in its place a new hospital building is constructed by the
State Government. Originally built by one Kamal Khan, the complex was acquired by the Nizam
VII. Both the surviving buildings in King Kothi are in European style. Nizam VII, the last ruling
Nizam (1911-1948) lived here and passed away in this building on February 24th 1967.

The northern and the main road-facing gateway of Mubarak Mansion is called the Purdah Gate
where always a big purdah or curtain hung. When Nizam went out of the Palace, the purdah was
lifted up which showed that he was not present. The gate was guarded by Maisaram Regiment,
police and Sarf E Khas Army with lances in their hands. To the east of Mubarak Mansion, stands
the Ghadial Gate: the gate with a clock. King Kothi complex has various European styles
incorporated in it. The canopies over windows, the intricate woodwork, the sloping tiled roofs in
octagonal pyramid shapes of the Ghadial Gate complex, and the classical semicircular arches are
among the characteristic features of King Kothi. As mentioned earlier, the King Kochi Complex
has remained in use for offices and Hospital.

Falaknuma Palace
Falaknuma palace mainly served as a royal guesthouse for the Nizams. The palace was built by
Nawab Vikarul Umra Bahadur, a noble from the Paigah family, who later became Prime
Minister of Hyderabad (1894-1901). The main buildings were completed in 1884. Nizam VI,
Nawab Mir Mahboob Ali Khan Bahadur purchased it in 1897 and later added other structures
like the Coronation building. The sixth Nizam occasionally lived here and died in this building in
1911.

Falaknuma palace complex is dramatically located on top of a hill about four km south of the
Charminar. The main palace was designed by English architects in 1872. The central building is
placed over a large terrace accessed through two levels of basements. The building is in classical
style with a two storeyed deep and colonnaded verandah carrying a pediment. Though basically
Palladian, the columns are thicker in proportion. The facade has Ionic columns at the ground
floor and Corinthian columns at the first floor. A wide staircase leads to the ground floor. On
both sides of the main central palace are two identical crescent shaped blocks with classical
facade and pediments.

At the rear, there is a long and imposing courtyard, nearly 600 feet long, surrounded on all sides
by rooms and corridors. At the southern end, there is a round shaped hall with deep verandas
faced by colonnade in Ionic style called Gol Bungla and an interesting glass roofed large
verandah overlooking the vast expanse down below. Parts of the side wings are older structures
incorporating Islamic features. The Coronation building and a few ancillary structures are in late
Mughal or Rajasthani style.

The interior of the main building has a marble entrance hall and fountain, and an Italian marble
staircase supporting marble figures, lined with portraits of British Governors General. The
reception room is in Louis XIV style. Elsewhere there are French tapestries, beautiful inlaid
furniture from Kashmir, and Victorian artefacts.

Dignitaries who stayed at Falaknuma as guests include the future King George V and Queen
Mary, Prince of Wales, and Viceroy Lord Wavell. Falaknuma is one of the largest and most
important palaces of India

After years of neglect and non-use Falaknuma Palace is now being given a major face-lift by the
Taj Group for a Heritage Hotel.

Mahboob Mansion
This palace, presently in disuse and poor condition, is named after Nawab Mir Mahboob Ali
Khan, the VIth Nizam who used to occasionally live here though his permanent residence was
the Purani Haveli described earlier. Built in the late nineteenth century, this is a very interesting
and large palace in a combination of classical European and Mughal style. It has roofs somewhat
similar to the eastern blocks of Mubarak Mansion (Nazri Bagh) in King Kothi.

The Paigah Palaces (Hyderabad city)

In the hierarchy of nobles of Hyderabad, the Paigah family ranked immediately next to the ruling
family of Nizams. Abul Fateh Khan Tegh Jung Bahadur, progenitor of Paigah family migrated to
Hyderabad in the late 1740’s. Nizam Salabat Jung (not considered an Asaf Jah) conferred on him
the order of nobility in 1756. Tegh Jung was also entrusted with the defence of the kingdom.
Eventually this became the hereditary function of the Paigah nobles.

The Paigahs were also the foremost palace builders of Hyderabad. As described earlier, the
Falaknuma Palace was built by Nawab Vikarul - Umra, Iqbaluddoula. This was later acquired by
the Nizam VI. Vikarul Umra also built the Paigah Palace in Begumpet, presently the office of
Hyderabad Urban Development Authority. Dating back to the 1880’s, this is a large two storeyed
neo-classical building with a portico, semicircular arches, unfluted Corinthian columns,
projected and pedimented windows and deep arcaded verandahs on all four sides.

Near Paigah Palace lies the Deorhi of Nazir Nawaz Jung, who was the grand son of Vikarul
Umra. The building however was built in the 1880’s. This is a beautiful and large two storeyed
palace in European style. It has wide verandas facing outwards as well as inwards overlooking a
courtyard. The complex is partly converted into a club. The rest of the area is used as a
residence.

Palaces of other nobles of the Paigah family; Asman Jah (Bashiruddoula) and Khursid Jah are in
poor state of preservation in the old city. The most important palace of Bashiruddoula, the
Bashirbagh Palace situated north of the old city has been demolished. Asman Garh, a smaller but
interesting European-style palace on a hilltop in Dilsukhnagar still survives.

Palaces of Other Nobles in Hyderabad

Malwala palace
Interestingly, the palaces described so far were purely European in character while some had
only the ancillary buildings in late Mughal style or a combination of European and Mughal
features. Malawala Palace is one of the few surviving wooden palaces of Hyderabad built in late
Mughal and Rajasthani style. The ancestor of this family, Sagar Mall had accompanied the first
Nizam to Hyderabad in 1724. Sagar Mall became custodian of the revenue (Mall) records of the
state. This function was passed down to his descendants hereditarily. Thus the family acquired
the name Malwala.
Malwala Palace is located along the road leading towards east from Charminar. The complex had
three components: the double storeyed large residential quarters arranged around several smaller
courtyards and vernacular overhanging wooden balconies at first floor level facing the street; the
road side block with a double height semicircular gateway flanked by a pedimented side wing
with Corinthian columns in European style enclosing a smaller and outer courtyard, and finally
the grand inner court with a fountain in the centre surrounded by wooden pavilions on two sides
and overhanging wooden balconies with intricate carvings and supported by ornate wooden
brackets on the other two sides.

This inner court is accessed by another arched gateway on which at first floor a Naubat Khana is
located. The southern pavilion facing the entrance has a grand facade of seven cusped Mughal
arches in carved and lacquered wood approached by wide flight of stairs. This leads to a double
height hall that has rooms overlooking it from the first floor. A flight of wooden steps links this
first floor with the ground. These two pavilions and the courtyard were used for family
gatherings and for entertaining guests during special occasions. Malwala Palace is unique in its
extensive use of woodwork and as specimen of a typical Hyderabad courtyard house. This is also
one of the important palaces belonging to Hyderabad’s erstwhile nobles.

Other palaces of Hyderabad

Other important surviving palaces of Hyderabad are the Dhanraj Gir Palace (Gyan Bagh) and the
Erra Manjil. Raja Dhanraj Gir belonged to a family of highly reputed nineteenth century
merchants and philanthropists. Their sprawling palace complex in Pan mandi area is one of the
best buildings of Hyderabad in European style and also the best preserved.

The Erra Manjil in Somajiguda was built by Nawab Fakhrul Mulk, a high-ranking noble and
Vice President of the Nizam’s Executive Council. Erra Manjil is a vast complex basically in
European style with ornate baroque facade, located on a hill, hence occupying a commanding
position. This is presently used as a Government office.

European Architecture in Andhra Pradesh

Hyderabad City
Designed by Lt. Samuel Russel, the British Residency of Hyderabad was built in 1806 and is one
of the best examples of European architecture in India. Presently used as a Government college,
it has a Georgian facade and a vast campus comprising of several ancillary buildings of
considerable architectural and historical significance.

Some Asaf Jahi palaces of the early period, like the Chow Mahalla were built in European style.
The city also has several beautiful churches built during the nineteenth century.
Secunderabad, which is part of Hyderabad originally developed around a British Cantonment, set
up in 1798. During the nineteenth century Secunderabad, the Residency area around Sultanbazar-
Koti, and the Gunfoundry-Abids area had a strong presence of European population. Many large
bungalows and houses of the period still survive. One can also find a few Art Nouveau or
Jugendstil buildings built in the early nineteenth century.

European Architecture in other places of Andhra Pradesh


Bimlipatnam (Bheemunipatanam), 24 Km north of Visakhapatnam on the eastern coast was a Dutch
Settlement set up in the seventeenth century. This small town has ruins of Dutch palaces, an ancient
cemetery and an old church and a town hall. Public buildings and churches in European style can be
found in many other towns such as Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Vizianagaram, Machilipatnam and even
Tirupati.

Architecture of Hyderabad during the CIB period

Set up in 1912 after the devastating floods of 1908, the City Improvement Board (CIB)
functioned for nearly half a decade and built new roads, cleared slums, constructed housing
colonies and several public buildings particularly during the nineteen thirties. Redevelopment of
localities, roads and the Musi riverfront by the CIB triggered the construction of several city
landmarks like the Osmania General Hospital, the High Court and the Moazam Jahi Market.
Several European architects such as Vincent J. Esch designed these buildings and attempted a
synthesis of European, Islamic and Hindu architectural traditions and motifs as can be seen in the
Osmania Arts College building designed by Monsieur Jasper.

Modern Architecture in Andhra Pradesh

Unlike Chandigarh, Delhi and Ahmedabad, Andhra Pradesh does not have many specimens of
modern architecture built by internationally known architects. However in Hyderabad,
B.V.Doshi of Ahmedabad designed a residential colony for the ECIL, Mr Charles Correa
designed the IDBI complex at Gacchibouli and Satish Gujral designed the CMC campus and
buildings at Gacchibouli which are among the notable modern buildings of
Hyderabad.Elsewhere in Andhra Pradesh some good modern buildings can be seen in
Visakhapatnam.

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